Chapter One: Proposal On Soap Research Project
Chapter One: Proposal On Soap Research Project
Chapter One: Proposal On Soap Research Project
CHAPTER ONE
1.0: INTRODUCTION
Soap may be defined as a chemical compound or mixture of chemical compounds resulting from the
interaction of fatty acids or fatty glycerides with a metal radical (or organic base). Soap may also be
described as any water-soluble salt of those fatty acids which contain eight or more carbon atoms. The
metals commonly used in soap making are sodium and potassium, which produce water-soluble soaps
that are used for laundry and cleaning purposes (Kuntom et al. 1994). The qualities of soap are
determined by the amount and composition of the component fatty acids in the starting oil. Blends of oils
can be used in both the hot and cold soap production methods. Vegetable oil blends could be obtained by
mixing different vegetable oils such as the mixture of coconut oil, palm kernel oil, groundnut oil and shea
butter in different proportions. Kuntom et al. (1996), produced soaps of desirable quality by blending
various fatty acids of palm oil (PO) and palm kernel oil (PKO) and the quality of the soap produced is
comparable to the quality of commercially available soaps.
This research work involves using various blends of Neem Oil, Castor Oil and palm kernel oil (PKO) to
prepare soap and analyzing the soaps so produced.
To produce soap at a cheaper rate from blends of cheap vegetable oils.
1.3: JUSTIFICATION
Blends of vegetable oils is essentially good in the production of quality and cheap multipurpose soaps that
are firm to touch, with high cleaning action and formation of excellent lather in both hard and soft waters.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0: LITERATURE SURVEY
Soaps are anionic surfactants used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning.Soaps are mainly
used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning, but they are also used in textile spinning and are
important components of lubricants. Soaps for cleansing are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils
and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of
fatty acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. It consist of sodium or potassium salts of fatty
acids and is obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a strong alkaline solution in a process known
as saponification. Soap belongs to the family of detergents which is a substance which improves the
cleaning properties of water. In saponification, the fats are first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, which
then combine with the alkali to form crude soap. Glycerol (glycerine) is liberated and is either left in or
washed out and recovered as a useful byproduct, depending on the process employed (Cavitch and Miller,
1994).
2.1: FATS AND OILS
Panduranga et al. reported that soap making oils and fats are contained in animal and vegetable fats and
oil (such as beef tallow, grease, coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil linseed oil, rubber seed oil, soybean
oil, and corn oil), among others. These fats and oils contain various properties of the fatty acid usually
having 6-22 carbon atoms in the paraffin chain. These include caprylic acid (C 8H16O3), lauric acid
(C14H32O2), stearicacid (C18H36O2), and linoleic acid (C18H32O2) among others. Depending on different
grades of soap for final consumption, various methods have been employed to produce soaps.
Chevreul showed that the manufacture of soap involved a definite chemical decomposition of the oil or
fat into fatty acid and glycerol. He continued that fatty acid combining with soda, potash, or other base,
forms the soap, with the glycerol remaining free. The reaction with stearin is as follows:
CH2OOC18H35 CH2OH
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CH2OOC18H35 CH2OH
2.2: SAPONIFICATION
Saponification is the chemical process of making soap that involves an exothermic reaction between lye
(sodium hydroxide) and a fat (usually oils). The saponification value (Table 2.1) of fat is essential in soap
production in the determination of the amount of lye needed. Equation 1 shows the relevance of
saponification value in soap production.
The formula to calculate the amount lye needed with the known amount of fat/oil is given thus:
………………………….(1)
For multiple/ blends of oils, calculate separately and add lye totals together.
For example, using PKO, Castor Oil and Neem oil,
…………… (2)
…………… (3)
…………. (4)
Therefore, the weight of lye required to make the oil soap from the oil blend is given by
+ …………………………………. ( 5)
2.3.1.2: Palm oil
Palm Oil is known for moisturizing with a creamy rich lather. It is so important to use sustainable palm
oil as it safes the environment.
2.3.1.3: Coconut oil
Coconut Oil is considered a gift. Its discovery has contributed to higher grade soaps in addition to its rich,
moisturizing lather. If used in too high of portions it can be drying. Many of these natural oils have
replaced lard in high quality soaps.
2.3.1.4: Jojoba
Jojoba is a perennial woody shrub grown primarily in the desert regions of the southwestern United States
and northwestern Mexico. Native Americans have long used jojoba to help heal sores and wounds.
Today, jojoba oil is still most commonly used for cosmetic purposes,
particularly for the maintenance of healthy skin.
Jojoba oil helps promote healing of the skin in many ways. It has antimicrobial properties, which means it
actually discourages the growth of some bacterial and fungal microbes that attack the skin. In addition,
the chemical composition of jojoba closely resembles that of the skin’s natural sebum, so it is easily
absorbed and rarely causes allergic reactions, even in the most sensitive individuals.
2.3.1.5: Shea butter
Shea Butter is from the nut of the Shea Tree, also known as “The Tree of Life”. The Shea tree (locally
known as ori) only grows in the savannah region of Africa. It grows up to 60 feet and can live up to 200
years. The Shea Tree produces its fruits once a year. The nut in the center of the fruit when crushed and
traditionally processed by boiling and extracting the oil, is what yields the vegetable fat known as Shea
Butter. She butter contains vitamins A, E, and F, and fatty acids, which provide healing abilities superior
to cocoa butter. This natural butter has proven cell regenerative, moisturizing, and anti-aging properties,
which restore shine and beauty to skin and hair. Effective in preventing stretch marks, wrinkles,
inflammation, eczema, and dryness from razor irritation. Easily absorbs into the skin without clogging
pores.
Shea butter has been used for centuries in Africa for cooking, and also as skin treatment for its amazing
ability to renew, repair, and protect the skin against harsh climates. African healers and beauties like
Cleopatra have known about Shea butter for thousands of years. Shea butter is also called "Women's
Gold," because extracting the butter from the nuts gives income to hundreds of thousands of rural African
women.
2.3.1.6: Mango butter
Mango butter is extracted from the shelled fruit kernel of the mango tree, which is a tropical evergreen.
This butter is highly emollient, softening and soothing to the skin. Mango butter has protective effects
against UV radiation and also helps treat skin rash, eczema, insect bites, and poison ivy. Mango butter can
help protect and heal skin from the damage caused by sunburn and frostbite. While mango butter is
excellent for skin, it is often mixed with other ingredients because it is much harder than Shea butter.
2.3.1.7: Aloe vera butter
Aloe Vera Butter is a combination of coconut oil and aloe vera. It is a soft, white butter with a low
melting point. Aloe Vera Butter has similar qualities to Aloe Vera Gel in that it soothes and helps heal
dehydrated skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, sunburn and windburn. It can be added to
moisturizing soaps, creams, lotions, lip balms and body butters, and can be used on its own as a body
balm or after-sun treatment.
2.3.1.8: Cocoa butter
Cocoa butter is obtained from the same bean as chocolate and cocoa. Cocoa butter lays down protective
layer that holds moisture to the skin, making it a good skin softener.
2.3.1.10: Castor oil
Castor oil is derived from the bean produced from the castor plant. Like olive oil and jojoba oil, castor oil
acts as a humectants by attracting and retaining moisture to the skin.
soap is poured into molds. The quantity of perfume used depends on the size of the batch of soap being
produced, the intensity of the perfuming agent, and the strength of the desired final
scent. The amount used can vary from a few drops to 15 grams or more.
Coloring matter can also be added. For example, vegetable or aniline dyes can be used to make soap.
They are stirred evenly into the soap mixture before pouring it into molds. The color obtained from
aniline dyes has a tendency to fade slightly when soap is exposed to bright light
Spoons, paddles, or smooth sticks for stirring. (These should be made from wood or enamel),
Containers for molding soap, these can be wooden, cardboard, or waxed cartons.
Cotton cloth, waxed paper, or other material for lining molds. Cut the cloth or paper into two strips, one
a little wider than the mold and the other a little longer than the mold. This lining will ease the removal of
the soap from the molds,
Hot plate,
Thermometer with the range of 0 to 100°C. If a thermometer is available, the following information may
be useful for judging the correct temperature at which to mix the fat and the lye together.
When a combination of equal amounts of different fats and oils is used, the temperature used for mixing
is the mean of those used by each alone (Francioni and Callings, 2002) .
For a long time, Nigerians have been using imported soap from foreign countries. These traders have difficulties
especially in terms of clearance through customs; looting and so on. This has consequently made the price of the
products to be more expensive. Moreover, much soap made by indigenous producers has been found out to lack
Hard and soft soaps are included. Often, hardness is achieved through the addition of hardening agents,
so many natural soaps tend to be softer. Hard soap can be produced by repeat regrinding and re-forming,
Keeping the moisture content low helps the hardness of the soap, but this is often achieved by
Glycerine is a normally produced during the soap making process. Glycerine is a humectants, which
means it attracts water. Therefore soaps with glycerine in them tend to make your skin feel moister. At the
same time glycerine soaps tend to have more water in them and attract water from the atmosphere,
therefore 'sweating' in humid conditions. Much commercial soap has had the glycerine component
also conducted at higher temperatures. All these facts change the process and hence the resulting product. Not all
liquid state.
Either based on the ingredients used by the manufacturer or producer can be used for different purposes, which
cover cleaning, washing to bathing. The types of soap based on usage are
Antiseptic soap, sometimes called antibacterial soap or anti-fungal soap, is regular soap in liquid or solid form that
contains some kind of ingredient that reduces the chance of infection when applied to the skin. These products also
have antimicrobial properties, meaning they kill or inhibit the growth of microbes like bacteria, virus, or fungi.
Alcohol,triclosan, and tetrasodium EDTA are three antiseptics commonly used in soap, and they are all examples of
antibacterial antiseptics, meaning they are proven to be effective against bacteria. Other antiseptics have anti-viral
properties, and some are anti-fungal and can be used to treat or prevent fungal infections like athlete's
Someessential oils, such as tea tree oil, contain naturally occurring antiseptics called terpenes that have antibacterial,
anti-fungal, and antiviral properties. These various kinds of antiseptic ingredients are also used in soap (WiseGEEK,
2013).
Some scientists and medical professionals are critical of the increasing use of antiseptic soap and the addition of
antibacterial ingredients to so many cleaning products. They believe that this practice might lead to more strains of
effective. This could make it more difficult to treat serious medical conditions caused by bacteria, likestaph infections
and pneumonia. For example, many microorganisms are already resistant to triclosan, meaning that even though it is
a proven antibacterial agent, it may not be as effective as stated by some soap manufacturers because many strains
There are several different soap making processes that will allow easy production of soap products.
Bowls, buckets, pots, (Aluminum material should never be used as lye destroys aluminum),
Spoons, paddles, or smooth sticks for stirring. (These should be made from wood or enamel),
Cotton cloth, waxed paper, or other material for lining molds. Cut the cloth or paper into two strips, one
a little wider than the mold and the other a little longer than the mold. This lining will ease the removal of
the soap from the molds,
Hot plate,
Thermometer with the range of 0 to 100°C. If a thermometer is available, the following information may
be useful for judging the correct temperature at which to mix the fat and the lye together.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0: METHODOLOGY
4.1: PREPARATION OF OILS BLEND
The blends of oils comprise of Palm Kernel Oil (PKO), Neem Oil (NO) and Castor Oil (CO). The first
oils blend contains 60% PKO, 20%Neem Oil, and 20% Castor Oil. The oils will be melted by heating and
will be thoroughly mixed with an electric mixer so as to obtain a perfect blend of the oils. The oils blends
will be re-weighed to ascertain an accurate weight (100%) which will be required for complete
saponification. The same procedure will be followed to obtain the various blends with different oil
proportions. The different vegetable oils blends A, B, C, D and E are as shown in Table 4.1 below.
TABLE 4.1: Preparation of Oil Blends
Table 4.2: Numerical data showing the weight of Caustic Soda and volume of Water required for
preparing the Caustic Soda solution of every soap sample.
Samples Caustic Soda Required (gram) Distilled Water Required (mL) Concentration (g/mL)
A 14.64 51.00 0.29
B 14.88 52.08 0.29
C 13.86 48. 51 0.29
D 10.40 36.00 0.29
E 15.60 54.60 0.29
F 13.60 47.60 0.29
G 12.80 44.80 0.29
For Sample A, 51.00mL of distilled water will be weighed and kept in a flask. 14.64g of NaOH will also
be Weighed and dissolved in the measured distilled water. The solution should be stirred well to ensure
complete dissolution of NaOH in water.
This procedure will be repeated for sample B, C, D, F and G with the corresponding quantities of NaOH
and water (shown in Table 4.2).
4.3: PRODUCION OF SOAP
100g of Oils blend A (in Table 4.1) should be heated on a hot plate in a pot and should be poured into a
plastic container at about 80oC, then the caustic soda solution sample A (in Table 4.2) should be added
gradually to the hot oil blend and should be stirred thoroughly until a trace level is observed when the
soap has started to be solidifying. At this point, the additives (glycerine and perfume) should be added
while stirring, until the thick viscous soap is quickly transferred into the Mould which should be covered
with blanket to prevent the soap from absorbing moisture and becoming rancid after solidifying. The
blanket should be removed and the soap should be left opened to dry well, after which the soap can be
analyzed.
The same procedure as demonstrated above should be repeated for Samples B, C, D, E, F and G. They
should be analyzed. The process flow chart for the production of the soaps is as shown in the flow chart
(Figure 4.1) below.
Figure 4.1: The process flow chart for the production of the soap.
A production cost analysis was done using the amount of each reagent and each oils/fats to determine the
approximate cost of each soap compared to the cost of the commercial soaps.
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