Color Psychology - Red
Color Psychology - Red
Color Psychology - Red
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CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
ABSTRACT?Color is a ubiquitous perceptual experience, we briefly describe a second hypothesis generated from our
yet little scientific information about the influence of color model, and close with thoughts on the need for rigorous scientific
on affect, cognition, and behavior is available. Accord work on color psychology.
ingly, we have developed a general model of color and
psychological functioning, which we present in this article.
EXTANT THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL WORK
We also describe a hypothesis derived from this model re
garding the influence of red in achievement contexts. In
Most existing work on color and psychological functioning is
addition, we report a series of experiments demonstrating
applied, as opposed to theoretically based. The questions that
that a brief glimpse of red evokes avoidance motivation
drive this type of research include: What colors influence retail
and undermines intellectual performance, and that it has
behavior? What colors influence food preference? What colors
these effects without conscious awareness or intention. We
influence worker mood and productivity? What colors influence
close with thoughts on the need for rigorous scientific work
physical health and aggressive behavior? What color prefer
on color psychology.
ences are associated with different personality types? Such re
KEYWORDS?color; red; avoidance; approach; motivation search simply seeks to establish relations between color stimuli
and affect, cognition, or behavior for pragmatic purposes; it
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Andrew J. Elliot and Markus A. Maier
with those emotions. Such models tend to focus on one or two hostile or hospitable (Elliot & Covington, 2001). Fourth, the
colors/associations and typically propose general links between evaluative processes evoked by color stimuli produce motivated
colors and functioning across situations. behavior. Color stimuli that carry a positive meaning produce
Existing research on these proposals tends to be sparse and approach responses, whereas those that carry a negative
spotty, occasionally supporting some hypotheses but not others. meaning produce avoidance responses. Fifth, color typically
Although the popular and even scientific literatures commonly exerts its influence on psychological functioning in an automatic
state as fact that long-wavelength colors are arousing and short fashion; the full process from evaluation of the color stimulus to
wavelength colors are calming, the actual data simply are not activation and operation of motivated behavior typically takes
supportive. Frank and Gilovich's (1988) proposal is supported place without conscious intention or awareness. Given that the
by some data, but that proffered by Soldat et al. (1997) is not. influence of color tends to be nonconscious in nature, color ef
Furthermore, the extant research on color and psychological fects tend to persist, even when they are deleterious. Sixth, color
functioning in general is plagued by several weaknesses. First, meanings and effects are contextual. A given color has different
perhaps due to the applied nature of the work, many studies have implications for feelings, thoughts, and behaviors in different
neglected to follow basic experimental procedures such as ex contexts (e.g., achievement contexts, relational contexts).
perimenter blindness to hypothesis and condition. Second, many Our research to date has focused primarily on the color red in
of the manipulations in these studies have been uncontrolled achievement contexts. Our hypothesis is that red carries the
(e.g., presenting color on an office wall for 4 days) or have altered meaning of danger in such contexts, specifically the psycholog
participants' typical perceptual experience (e.g., presenting ical danger of failure (Elliot, Mai er, Moller, et al., 2007). One
color via overhead lights). Third, and most important, almost no source of this red-danger link is presumed to be teachers' use of
extant research has examined the effect of hue while controlling red ink to mark students' mistakes and errors. This specific as
for lightness (similar to brightness) and chroma (similar to sat sociation is likely grounded in a more general societal association
uration), despite the fact that these other color attributes can between red and danger where negative possibilities are salient,
themselves influence psychological functioning. such as stop signs and warning signals. These learned associa
tions may be bolstered by or even derived from an evolutionarily
A MODEL OF COLOR AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ingrained predisposition across species to interpret red as a signal
FUNCTIONING AND A HYPOTHESIS DERIVED FROM of danger in competitive contexts. For example, in primates, red
THE MODEL on the chest or face (due to a testosterone surge) signals the high
status, and thus danger, of an opponent; Setchell & Wickings,
We (Elliot, Maier, M?ller, Friedman, & Meinhardt, 2007) have 2005). Thus, through both specific and general associative pro
developed a general model of color and psychological func cesses that may themselves emerge from biologically based pro
tioning, the core premises of which are stated in the following. clivities, red carries the meaning of failure in achievement
First, colors can carry specific meanings. Color is not just about contexts, warning that a dangerous possibility is at hand. This
aesthetics?it also communicates specific information. Second, warning signal is posited to produce avoidance-based motivation
color meanings are grounded in two basic sources: learned that primarily has negative implications for achievement out
associations that develop from repeated pairings of colors with comes. The influence of red in achievement contexts is presumed
particular messages, concepts, or experiences; and biologically to take place outside of individuals' conscious awareness.
based proclivities to respond to particular colors in particular
ways in particular situations. Some color associations may OUR EMPIRICAL WORK ON RED IN ACHIEVEMENT
emerge from learning alone, but color theorists suspect that CONTEXTS
many such associations emerge from evolutionarily ingrained
responses to color stimuli (Motion, 1989). Research indicates We began our empirical work with four experiments designed to
that colors often serve a signal function for nonhuman animals test the effect of red on intellectual performance (Elliot, Maier,
(e.g., the redness of fruit signals readiness for eating), thereby Moller, et al., 2007, Experiments 1?4). In the first experiment,
facilitating fitness-relevant behavior (Hutchings, 1997). If, as we participants completed an anagram test that contained a red,
suspect, humans are "prepared" to respond to color stimuli in a green, or black subject number in the upper right-hand corner.
similar fashion, then at least some color associations may rep Green provided a chromatic contrast to red, its opposite in several
resent a cognitive reinforcing or shaping of biologically based color models, and green has some general associations with ap
response tendencies. Third, the mere perception of color evokes proach motivation. Black, an achromatic color, served as a neutral
evaluative processes. Color computations occur at an early level control. At the end of this and all experiments in this research
within the visual system, and evaluative processes are so fun program, participants received a careful debriefing that probed
damental that they are present, at least in rudimentary form, in their awareness of the purpose of the experiment. Results indi
all animate life (Schneirla, 1959). By "evaluative processes" we cated that participants shown red solved fewer anagrams than
mean basic mechanisms that discern whether a stimulus is those shown green or black; those shown green or black did not
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Color Psychology
Analogies
shown green or gray; participants shown green or gray did not
differ. In the other experiment, after the color manipulation and
prior to (ostensibly) taking a test, participants' prefrontal cortical
activity was assessed using electroencephalography (EEG);
right (relative to left) prefrontal cortical activity indicates that
avoidance motivation has been activated in the brain. Results
indicated that participants shown red evidenced more right
prefrontal cortical activity than those shown green or gray;
participants shown green and gray did not differ.
Fig. 1. An example test cover used in our experiments. In a separate set of experiments, we examined the effect of red
on physically enacted avoidance behavior (Elliot, Maier, Binser,
Friedman, & Pekrun, 2007). In a first experiment, participants
differ. Participants were unaware of the purpose of the experi
were shown red or green on the cover of an analogies test that
ment. Additional experiments replicated this finding using
they would (ostensibly) take in an adjacent lab. Participants
different achromatic controls (white, gray), a different method
shown red, relative to those shown green, knocked fewer times on
of presenting color (on a test cover; see Figs. 1 & 2), and
the door of the adjacent lab as they anticipated taking the test. In
color stimuli equated on all color parameters except hue (this was
a second experiment, participants were shown red, green, or gray
true in all experiments reported below). In some of these
on the cover of an IQ test that they would (ostensibly) take. A
subsequent experiments, participants' motivation and perceived
sensor was placed on participants to assess their body movement
competence were assessed with self-report measures; null results
upon presentation of the test cover. Participants shown red
were obtained on these measures, indicating that participants
were unaware of the effect color had on their motivation and moved their bodies away from the test cover to a greater degree
than did those shown green or gray; those shown green or gray did
performance.
not differ (see Fig. 3). Debriefing indicated that the effect of red
Given that our initial experiments showed no effect of red on
in these experiments occurred without participants' awareness.
conscious reports of avoidance motivation, we conducted two
additional experiments to examine the effect of red on noncon
scious avoidance motivation (Elliot, Maier, Moller, et al., 2007, -2690 -i
Experiments 5-6). Both of these experiments manipulated color
using the test-cover procedure described above. In one experi
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Andrew J. Elliot and Markus A. Maier
Finally, we conducted four experiments designed to test other countries lacking a history of prejudice against African
whether nonconscious avoidance motivation mediates the dele Americans). As such, "context" must be considered not only in
terious effect of red on intellectual performance (Maier, Elliot, & terms of domain but also in terms of culture.
OTHER CONTEXTS AND COLORS color priming?). The scientific study of color and psychological
functioning is not an easy enterprise, as it requires careful as
All of the research that we have overviewed has been conducted in sessment and calibration of lightness and chroma, as well as
hue. However, we believe such efforts pale in comparison to the
achievement contexts, but we are currently examining a second
benefits of documenting the influence of a ubiquitous feature of
hypothesis that focuses on the color red in relational contexts
the perceived social environment on important affective, cog
(Elliot & Niesta, 2007). We posit that in relational situations,
nitive, and behavioral processes outside of conscious awareness.
specifically those involving sexual attraction, red carries the
Social-cognitive research on priming focuses extensively on the
meaning of love, passion, and sexual readiness. These associa
effects of lexical, contextual, and relational stimuli on psycho
tions are likely grounded in the use of red hearts to symbolize
logical functioning; we think the time has come to broaden this
romance on Valentine's Day; the use of red lipstick, rouge, and
focus to include color stimuli.
lingerie to heighten attractiveness; and the use of red light to
signal sexual availability in brothels. These learned associations
may be bolstered by or even derived from the biologically in
Recommended Reading
grained use of red to attract mating partners during estrus in many Elliot, A.J., Maier, M.A., M?ller, A.C., Friedman, R., & Meinhardt,
nonhuman female mammals (Mollon, 1989). Thus, through asso J. (2007). (See References)
ciative processes that may themselves emerge from evolutionarily Fehrman, K.R., & Fehrman, C. (2004). Color: The secret influence (2nd
based proclivities, red signals love, passion, and sexual readiness, ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
and the perception of red is presumed to produce approach Whitfield, T.W., & Wiltshire, T.J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical
motivated behavior outside of individuals' conscious awareness. review. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 116,
387-412.
Color effects on psychological functioning are not thought to
be constrained to red. Other colors undoubtedly impact affect,
cognition, and behavior as well, and research to examine such
possibilities is needed. A core premise of our model is that color
effects are context specific, and it will be important to attend
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Unpublished raw data.
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Color Psychology
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