Police Photography Instructional Material
Police Photography Instructional Material
Police Photography Instructional Material
Second Semester
School Year 2019-2010
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
VMGO
prevention, crime detection and investigation, law
enforcement, and custody and rehabilitation of offenders,
among others.
UNIVERSITY VISION The program is also envisioned as significant
educational institutions actively and continually involved
The Isabela State University as a leading, vibrant, in producing graduates who have the knowledge and
comprehensive and Research University in the country skills in addressing the problem of criminality in the
and the ASEAN region. country and the competence to meet the challenge of
globalization in the field of criminology.
UNIVERSITY MISSION
Specific Objectives
The Isabela State University is committed to develop The BS Criminology program aims to:
highly trained and globally competent professionals; 1. Foster the values of leadership, integrity,
generate innovative and cutting-edge knowledge and accountability and responsibility while
technologies for people empowerment and sustainable serving their fellowmen, community and
development; engage in viable resource generation country.
programs; and maintain and enhance stronger partnerships 2. Prepare the students for careers in crime
under good governance to advance the interests of prevention, law enforcement, scientific
national and international communities. crime detection and correctional
administration;
GOALS OF THE COLLEGE OF ARTS & 3. Encouraged research and inquiry on the
SCIENCES nature, causes, treatment or punishment of
criminal justice agencies respond to crime,
criminals and victims.
1. Provide general education in the arts and
sciences for the development of students mentally,
socially, spiritually, and emotionally transforming
them into well-rounded individuals.
2. Develop students into productive citizens both
economically and socially with the end in view of
improving the quality of their lives and that of their
fellowmen.
3. Produce graduates, majority of whom are
locally and globally competitive in their chosen
fields of their careers.
4. Cultivate and sharpen students’ potentials and
hasten their relationship capabilities to answer the
needs of their community and society to which they
INTRODUCTION
belong.
In our modern Criminal Justice System, the
investigation is required of an objectivity that can only
be achieved by means of scientific means. Photography
is one that plays a very important role in both criminal
and civil cases. The usefulness of forensic photography
in criminal investigation is very extensive.
Small objects but of great importance in a crime
committed may escape in the first place of examination
by the investigators but may be seen and recovered
OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAM only after close examination of the photographs of the
General Objective crime scene. Investigators are sometimes compelled to
The program provides the community with reconstruct or describe in court some of the details of
professionally competent and orally upright graduates the crime scene they have investigated several months
who can deliver efficient and effective services in crime
2 Police Photography Instructional Material
“This is for criminological purposes and therefore not for sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
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Effective: September 1 2013
Revised: 0
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
ago. With the bulk of cases they have handled, perhaps 9. Artificial light- light that comes into existence with
he would be confused or may not exactly recall some the intervention of man.
of these details or exact location of objects. However, 10. Astigmatism- the inability of a lens to project a
with the aid of photographs, investigator will not find sharply focused image of both vertical and
hard time to refresh their minds and will be able to horizontal lines upon the same plane.
describe or explain exactly the details in court. 11. Bellows- the part of some camera which is capable
A good photograph is a permanent record which is of being expanded.
always available especially in court presentation. 12. Blocking Out – Selected areas of a negative are
Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain painted with an opaque liquid on the non-emulsion
a normal, sharp and free of distortion photographs. side.
Photography can be used for identification, record, 13. Bracketing – The technique of shooting a number
presentation and substitution of evidence of the crime. of pictures of the same subject and viewpoint at
It can discover things that could not be seen by the different levels of exposure.
naked eye as photography extends man’s visual 14. Burning-in – Method of increasing printing
limitation. Always remember that the opinion of the exposure in specific areas of an image. Alternative
expert witness is always susceptible to ocular term for Printing-in.
inspection otherwise his testimony would have a lesser 15. Cable Release- the device use in pressing the
weight. shutter release button of the camera that avoid
incidental movement of the camera during the
Terms to ponder exposure period.
16. Camera- a light tight box equipped with a lens,
1. Aberration- the way in which the behavior of the shutter, diaphragm and a mechanism which
light affects image formation by a lens sometimes controls the film.
termed also as optical defects. 17. Candle Power- a standard for measuring the
2. Abrasions- these are streaks or fine black lines brilliants of illumination. The higher the candle
resembling pencil scratches on the film emulsion power the brighter the illumination.
caused by improper handling or when a sharp or 18. Changing Bag – Opaque, light tight fabric bag.
rough object rubs against the emulsion surface, Light excluding sleeves allow the safe handling of
also cause by grits or rough spots in the camera. light-sensitized photo materials inside.
3. Actinic light- the radiant energy of wavelengths 19. Chromatic aberration- the inability of a simple lens
that is capable of producing latent image on to bring the different wavelengths (color) of white
photographically sensitized film or emulsion. light to focus on the same plane.
4. Acutance- the degree to which an emulsion can 20. Circle of confusion- a disc from image of a point in
record sharp division between images area details the object. The allowable circle of confusion is
of different contrast. usually 1/1,000 of the focal length of the lens of the
5. Agitation – Method used to keep fresh processing inches.
solution in contact with the emulsion surface 21. Color/Spectral Sensitivity- the response of a
during photographic processing. photographic emulsion to light.
6. Air Bells- are small air bubbles that adhere to the 22. Color temperature- the temperature to which a
film surface and prevent the processing solution black object must be heated to produce light
from acting on the film during the developing having integral color as the source under
process, living small clear spots. consideration.
7. Anti-halation backing- a thin layer of an opaque 23. Contrast- the difference between the bright and
dye on the back of the film which reduces, or dark areas in photograph or the difference in the
prevents lights from reflecting from the film base densities of various areas in the negative.
into the emulsion layer. 24. Contrast – Subjective judgment on the difference
8. Aperture- the opening in the lens diaphragm that between densities or luminosities and their degree
regulates the amount of lights entering and which of separation in the subject, negative or print
forms the image upon the focal planes. Opening in 25. Coma- a pear-shaped image or comet-shaped blur
front of or within a lens which controls the amount image of a small circle or point near the edges of
of light that passes through the lens to the the image plane.
photographic materials. 26. Cropping – Framing an image so that unwanted
part of the scene are not included on the final print
27. Curvilinear distortion- a lens inability to produced either the color or the intensity of the light used to
the same enlargements in the image formed by the expose the film.
edges of lens as in that part formed by the center 45. Flare- stray or unwanted light from several sources
of the lens. which causes bright spots on exposed film.
28. Definition – Subjective term for the clarity of a 46. Flash Unit- an artificial light that synchronized with
photographic image. the opening and closing of the shutter. It could
29. Density- the degree of blackening or amount of both be flash bulb, electronic flash and cube flash.
metallic silver deposited in the negative emulsion. 47. Focal length- the distance from the optical center
30. Depth-of-field- the range of distance between the of the lens to its focal plane, when the lens is
nearest and farthest point of acceptable sharp focused at infinity.
focus. 48. Focal Plane- the point and plane were the lens
31. Depth of focus- the maximum permissible distance projected image is clear and sharp. This plane is
within which the film maybe placed without sometimes called the film plane as the film is
exceeding the circle of confusion in order to located at the point to capture the image.
produce clear image. 49. Halftones- the subject brightness between the
32. Diaphragm- an adjustable mechanical device in the lightest and darkest areas recorded on the
lens assembly which controls the amount of light negative in the corresponding densities.
passing through the lens to the film. 50. Highlights- the dense portion of a negative caused
33. Diffused light- incident light that is reflected in by bright are in the subjects which reflect a great
more than one direction when its rays hits an amount of light.
irregular and rough surface. 51. Hyper focal distance- the distance from the optical
34. Dispersion- the breaking up of light rays into its center of the lens to the nearest point in
component colors. acceptable sharp focus when the camera is
35. Dodging – Local control of density in photographic focused on infinity at any given f/number.
printing achieved by shading to reduce the 52. Incident light- is light rays striking the surface of an
exposure to specific areas of the printing paper object. The point where the light rays and object
36. Easel – Alternative name for masking frame. Flat come in contact is termed the point of incident.
board on which printing papers are held during 53. Infinity- a distance setting on a camera focusing
enlargement. scale, beyond which all objects are in focus.
37. Etching – Scraping or dissolving away unwanted 54. Latent image- the invisible image formed in an
areas from an image or image printing surface. emulsion by exposure to light.
38. Emulsion- a light sensitive of layer of finely divided 55. Latitude-the inherent ability of an emulsion to
silver salts, suspended in gelatin, which is spread record varying range of subjects’ brightness
on a permanent support such as glass, acetate, or differences and difference in densities.
paper. 56. Lens- (camera optics) a spherical and symmetrical
39. Enlarger/Projector-a machine which is essentially a piece of polished glass that refracts light rays so
camera in reverse that is, it projects rather than that a clear, sharp image is projected on the rear
receives the image. wall of camera.
40. Exposure- the time given amount of lights requires 57. Lens speed- the largest opening or stop which a
creating an image of the desired density of an lens can be used to transmit light to its focal plane.
emulsion. 58. Lights- an electromagnetic energy, that excite the
41. Exposure latitude- the extent to which the retina of the eye in passing thru it to form an
exposure of the negative can deviate from normal image.
and still produce an acceptable image. 59. Lumens- a unit for measuring the amount of light
42. Film- a type of light sensitized materials that produced by an artificial flash.
produces negative after development. 60. Masking – System of controlling negative density,
43. Film speed-(ISO-formerly known as ASA/DIN). The range or color saturation through the use of light
term used to express the degree of inherent let king mask (usually sharp).
sensitivity of an emulsion to light, or expresses the 61. Mechanical Flare- is the result of reflection from
amount of light required to produce a satisfactory worn shiny part of the lens such as stops, shutter,
negative with a given emulsion. or lens amount.
44. Filter- in photographic discussion, filter refers to a
transparent colored medium employed to regulate
62. Mill micron or MU- a unit of length equals to one 78. Positive/Convergent lens- lenses which focuses
million of millimeter often use to measure the (brings to a point of convergence) all lights rays
wave length of light. passing through it.
63. Natural light- light that naturally comes to 79. Printing- the process whereby the negative is used
existence (gift of nature) without the intervention to make the positive or exposing an image to a
of man. sensitized material by permitting light to pass
64. Negative Density- the degree of blackening of through a negative or through a positive
silver halides deposit in a film emulsion in relation transparency.
to the light incident upon it. 80. Reflected light- refers to those light waves, or light
65. Negative Lens- lens which does not focus light rays rays, that are neither transmitted nor absorbed,
passing through it, but refracts light rays in such but are thrown back from the surface the of the
manner that the rays are spread out or diverge. media encounter.
66. Newton Rings- irregular lights and dark bands 81. Refraction- the bending or change of direction
which appear between the surface of positive and which occurs when a light ray passes from one
negative lenses when they are pressed together. transparent substance into another different
67. Opaque- substances which does not transmit light density.
but absorbed them. 82. Resolving Power- the capability of an emulsion to
68. Optical Flare- is the result of double reflections produce or record line subjects’ details.
from inner lens surfaces. 83. Reticulation- network of lines having a grainy,
69. Overexposure- too much light, producing a dense leather like or wrinkle appearance of the emulsion
negative with poor tone separation in the lighter due to sudden temperature changes in transferal
parts of the picture. from one solution to another.
70. Panning – Technique for photographing moving 84. Retouching – The purpose is to remove blemishes
subjects while the shutter is open the camera is on the negative or one that treat particular subject
swing in the same directions, as the subject is areas to improve the final effect.
moving. This creates a blurred background but 85. Safelights- are enclosed lights sources equipped
sharp subject with a filter for transmitting maximum amount of
71. Parallax – The difference between the image seen light that can be used safely without damage to
by having back and that record on the film. It is the the sensitized material being processed.
differences in the angle of view between what the 86. Shading – method of concealing the final quality of
camera lens transmits to the film and what the a print as varying the exposure given to different
photographer sees through the lens view finder. areas of the print through selective masking tape
72. Photography- the science of producing images on enlarging.
a sensitized surface (as a film) by the action of 87. Spherical Aberration- parallel marginal and axial
radiant energy (esp. light), and light sensitive rays passing through a simple lens focuses at
substances (silver halides). different planes along the optical center.
73. Point of principal focus- it is the nearest possible 88. Spotting – method of retouching blemishes or
distance that a given lens will refract light rays to a unwanted details are removed from negatives or
sharp focus. prints by brush and dye or pencil.
74. Police/forensic photography- it is the study of the 89. Shutter- an adjustable mechanism that regulates
fundamentals of criminology, its application to the amount of light reaching the film by varying
police work and the preparation of photographic the length of time light is allowed to pass through
evidence. the lens.
75. Photomicrography- photographing enlarged 90. Shutter Speed- refers to the period of time during
images through a microscope, generally a which the shutter is opened, allowing light rays to
magnification of more than fifty times. reach the film.
76. Photomicrograph- a picture taken through a 91. Silver Halide- a metallic silver compound that
microscope, while a microphotograph is a very darkens on exposure to light.
small picture as encountered in microfilming. 92. Translucent- substances which allow the passage
77. Photomacrograph- a photograph with of part of the light but appear clouded and impair
magnification of from two to fifty times. A vision substantially.
macrograph would thus be a very large 93. Transparent- substances which permit the
photograph. penetration of clear vision through them, and
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
For a number of reasons, including the Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson, who worked
imperfections of Talbot’s process, the daguerreotype together in Edinburgh producing atmospheric portraits
was the method of photography that first took the that were admired for their similarity to paintings.
world by storm. The low-cost daguerreotype became
so popular that, by the end of 1839, Paris newspapers
were referring to a new disease called Interest in daguerreotypes dwindled in Europe
Daguerreotypomania. With improvements in its after 1851, when English photographer Frederick Scott
sensitivity to light, the daguerreotype quickly proved Archer invented the COLLODION, or wet-plate process.
ideal for portraiture. By 1840 daguerreotype studios Like Talbot’s calotype, this was a negative-to-positive
throughout Europe and in the United States were process, but because the negatives were made of
producing unique, detailed likenesses that were set smooth glass rather than paper, the collodion process
inside hinged leather cases. An emerging middle class produced much sharper images. Glass was also more
gazed in amazement at its own image in these 'mirrors durable than paper, so it was easier to produce many
with a memory.' paper prints from one glass negative.
white light to pass though a prism thus and-white film that yields a positive paint by
refracting and diffracting the light into its the diffusion transfer reversal method.
component parts – the ROYGBIV colors. 11. Rudolf Russ – Father of Forensic Photography
4. Joseph Nicephore Niepce – In 1816 near
Chalon Su-Saone, he experimented by NOTA BENE:
combining photosensitive materials with
LITHOGRAPHY to facilitate this and favors in 1839 – The Birth Year of Photography; the year
print making. By 1822, he could drain some when the science of photography became a public
success, achieving what he called “point de knowledge. Photography as born when Joseph
vas” (smart images made by the camera Nicephore Niepce preserved an image on a
obscura with more that eight hours of powder plate in a primitive camera, and when
exposure). He produced HELIOGRAPHIC William Henry Fox Talbot made a public
DRAWING (contact-print image of engraving demonstration on a photographic process that he
of other line copy on glass, paper or metal invented in the Royal Society of London. The term
coated with a bitumen varnish that hardens “Photography” was coined by John F.W. Herschel.
when exposed. TIMELINE (HISTORICAL
5. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre – as Parisian DEVELOPMENT)
painter and theater designer, who contained The basic principles of optics and
the efforts of niepce to perfect a photographic
process in 1839, he was successful enough to
cameras were first mention by Chinese and
have his invention purchased by the French Greek philosophers. The first surviving mention
government and made public (The first of the principles behind the pinhole camera or
practical photographic process is given to the camera obscura belongs to the Chinese
world) philosopher Mozi (Mo-Ti) around 5th to 4th
centuries BC, who referred to this device as a
Daguerreotypes – an image formed on a “collecting plate” or “locked treasure room”.
copper plate that has been silver-plated,
On the other hand, the Greek philosopher
polished to a mirror-like surface, and then
exposed to iodine vapor ally create a understood the principles of pinhole camera
photosensitive layer of silver iodide, the when he noted that the light passing through the
description of the first photographs that were leaves of a tree and sieves produce elliptical
scientifically produced after the birth of rays.
Photography. Later, Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham), a
6. William Henry Fox Talbot – the English great authority on optics in the Middle Ages
scientist who in 1839, pointed out the basis of who lived around 1000AD, invented the first
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY
pinhole camera, (also called the camera
7. John F. W. Herschel – he coined the word
PHOTOGRAPHY (then suggested NEGATIVE obscura) and was able to explain why the
and POSITIVE in the following year), and images were upside down. There were more
pointed out that images can made permanent who contributed to the development of the
by dissolving away unexposed silver modern day photography. The following is the
compounds with a solution of hyposulphite of historical development of photography:
soda (“hypo” or sodium diselsulfate), which
he had discovered in 1819.
1604 - Johannes Kepler was the first person to
8. Nadar – (Gaspar Felix Tournachon) he took
the first AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS of Paris from
coin the phrase Camera Obscura in
free balloon in 1858. 1604, and in 1609, Kepler further
9. Sir William Abney – he discovered the use of suggested the use of a lens to improve
HYDROQUINONE as a developing agent in the image projected by a Camera
1880, England Obscura.
10. Edwin Herbert Land – in 1947, USA he 1664-1666 – Isaac Newton discovers that white
introduced the POLAROID’s (1 – STEP light is composed of different
PHOTOGRAPHY) with a self-processing black-
colors.
11 Police Photography Instructional Material
“This is for criminological purposes and therefore not for sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
ISU-CCJ-InM-065
Effective: September 1 2013
Revised: 0
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
1727 – Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered title for a land grant was, in fact, a
that silver nitrate darkened upon forgery (Miller, Larry S., 2006).
exposure to light. 1861 – Oliver Wendell Holmes invents
1816 – Joseph Nicephore Niepce achieves first stereoscope viewer.
photographic image with camera obscura – Scottish physicist James Clerk-
– however, the image required eight Maxwell demonstrates a color
hours of light exposure and later faded. photography system involving three
1834 – Hercules Florence coined the term black and white photographs, each taken
“photograpie”. through a red, green, or blue filter. The
1837 – Louis- Jacques- Daguerre’s first photos were turned into lantern slides
daguerreotype, the first image that was and projected in registration with the
fixed and did not fade and needed under same color filters. This is the "color
thirty minutes of light exposure. separation" method.
1839 – John F. W. Herschel – coined the word 1871 – Richard Leach Maddox invented the
PHOTOGRAPHY (then suggested gelatin dry plate silver bromide process
NEGATIVE and POSITIVE In the – negatives no longer had to be
following year), and pointed out that developed immediately.
images can be made permanent by 1875 – First recorder use of accident
dissolving away unexposed silver photography in Blair v. Inhabitants of
compounds with a solution of Pelham where a photograph was
hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium admitted in evidence to assist the jury in
thiosulfate). understanding the case.
1939 – Birth year of photography when William 1877 - Eadweard Muybridge paved the way
Henry Fox Talbot, an English scientist, for motion picture photography.
1839, pointed out the basis of MODERN – Photographs were admitted as
PHOTOGRAPHY. Later in 1849, Talbot evidence in a civil suit involving a train
patents the Caloptype process – the first wreck in Lock v. The Sioux City &
negative-positive process making P.R.R. (Miller, Ibid.)
possible the first multiple copies. 1879 – Redden v. Gates was the first case to
1840 – First American patent issued in hold that a relevant photographs of an
photography to Alexander Wolcott for injured person was admissible in
his camera. evidence (Miller, Ibid.)
1843-44 – The earliest evidence of photographic 1880 – Eastman Dry Plate Company founded and
documentation of prison inmates in in 1884, George Eastman invent
Belgium and 1851 in Denmark. flexible, paper – based photographic
1850s – The earliest evidence of these galleries film. Later in 1888, Eastman patents
was found in Birmingham, England. Kodak roll-film camera.
1851 – Frederick Scott Archer invited the – In England, Sir William Abney
Collodion process – image required discovered the use of
only two or three seconds of light HYDROQUINONE as a developing
exposure. agent.
1858 – Nadar or Gaspard-Felix Tournachon 1884 – George Eastman is particularly
in real life, made the first aerial remembered for introducing flexible,
photograph of Paris from a hot-air paper-based photographic film. Four
ballon. years later he introduced the box camera,
1859 – A photograph was used in the case Luco and photography could now reach a
v. US to prove that a document of the much greater number of people.
12 Police Photography Instructional Material
“This is for criminological purposes and therefore not for sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
ISU-CCJ-InM-065
Effective: September 1 2013
Revised: 0
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
1890 – Alphones Bertillon published La 1967 – Beginning of the use of video tapes as a
Photographie Judiciaire (1890), which legal evidence.
contains rules for a scientifically exact 1973 – Polaroid introduces one-step instant
form of identification photography. photography with the SX-70 camera.
1898 – Reverend Hannibal Goodwin patents 1978 – Konica introduces first point-and-shoot,
celluloid photographic film. autofocus camera.
1900 – First mass-marketed camera – the 1980 – Sony demonstrates first consumer
Brownie. camcorder. This decade also the
1910 – The State of Massachusetts approved introduction of quality 35mm “point-
the use of photographic speed recorders and-shoot” cameras which are fully
to detect speeding motorists. (Miller, automatic 35mm SLRs.
Ibid.) 1984 – Canon demonstrates first digital
1911 – People v. Jennings, the use of electronic still camera.
fingerprints photographs for 1985 – Pixar introduces digital imaging
identification purposes was approved. processor.
(Miller, Ibid.) 1990 – Eastman Kodak announces Photo CD as
1913/1914 – First 35mm still camera developed. a digital image storage medium.
1927 – General Electric invents the modern flash
bulb.
1932 – First light meter with photoelectric cell
introduced. Moti – a Chinese philosopher noted that a pinhole
can form an inverted focused image when light
1934 – In State v. Thorp, UV photography was
passes through the hole and into dark area. He is the
approved concerning a picture of first person recorded to have exploited this
footprint in blood on a linoleum floor. phenomenon to trace the inverted image to create a
1935 – Eastman Kodak markets Kodachrome picture.
film and in 1941, Eastman Kodak
introduces Kodacolor negative film. Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) – an Egyptian scientist
Later in 1954, Eastman Kodak who wrote about observing a solar eclipse through a
introduces high speed Tri-X film. pinhole and described how a sharper image could
1942 – Chester Carlson receives patent for be produced by making the opening of the pinhole
electric photography (xerography). smaller.
1943 – First appellate court case passing upon
Lumiere Brothers – introduced the autochrome, the
the admissibility of color photographs in
first commercially successful color process.
Green v. Country of Denver. (Miller,
Ibid.) Kodachrome – the first modern tribal color film,
1948 – Edwin Herbert Land markets the was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the
Polaroid camera. basic color components in a multi-layer emulsion.
1963 – Polaroid introduces instant color film as
the Polacolor film capable to take
finished pictures in B&W or color in less
than one minute. (Miller, Ibid.)
1965 – Introduction of a fully automatic
electronic flash unit which made
possible to take strobe flash photographs
at distance from 2 to 20 feet without CHAPTER 2
changing lens opening or shutter speed. NATURE OF PHOTOGRAPHY
longer visible to the naked eye will reveal in UV for archival, portability or, as shown above,
photograph. clandestine purposes.
It is also helpful on the flammable chemicals at Micro-photography is the production of
the fire scene. photographs in which the image of an object is
reproduced much smaller than it actually is. It
Uses in Law Enforcement is just the opposite of photomacrography.
a. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light 8. X-Ray – the process of photographing or recording
techniques and infrared light techniques fail internal organ. Are made with illumination from
(questioned documents, etc.). one or more photoflash.
b. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust Is widely use in medicine, industry, and
with fluorescent powder or ninhydrin). science. It is quite different from ordinary
c. Body secretions such as urine, semen and photography. X rays are invisible
perspiration often glow when illuminated by electromagnetic waves. They behave much
ultraviolet light. like visible light. But they can pass through
d. Money and other valuables can be dusted or things such as wood, cardboard, and flesh,
marked to identify thieves. which light cannot penetrate
e. Photographing “invisible ink”.
Other Types of Photography (Modern):
6. Fluorescence Photography. FP is similar to ultra 1. Flash Photography – exposure are made with
violet photography the set up physically the same. illumination from one or more photoflash.
The difference however lies in the radiation that is
excited. FP makes use of fluorescence lamps to 2. STREAK Photography – traces movement by
illuminate the subject with an excite filter placed in either the camera of the subject being moved
front of the light source. The excited filter during exposure.
transmits the radiation necessary to excite
fluorescence. The exciter filter transmits ultra 3. Night-Time Photography – without a flash is
violet and absorbs the visible light. A barrier filter is now possible with many modern cameras, but
also placed in from of the camera lens which the long exposure time required means that it
absorbs ultraviolet light but transmits visible light. is advisable to use fast film (ISO 400-1600).
This filter acts as a barrier to the exciting radiation
and prevents the residual exciting radiation from Elements of Photography
causing exposure.
Important documents such as land titles, 1. Light – is the portion of electromagnetic radiation
checks, lottery tickets and even stumps that is visible to the human eye, responsible for the
contain cellulose fibers. These fibers brightly sense of sight.
fluoresce when the paper is lighted with ultra 2. Subject – A good subject is whatever appears to
violet is dark room. you. Good pictures are often initiated by minds
that see the common in an uncommon way keep
7. Microphotography – a very small photograph is your imagination by constant practice.
one entered in microfilming. 3. Camera –Is a light tight box with a means of
This is photography made on a vastly reduced forming an image (lens), with a means of holding
scale, to be observed using a microscope or sensitized materials (film holder), and with means
projected using a "magic lantern." Though of controlling the amount of light that will reach
George Shadbolt is credited with being the the film. It is a devise used in photographing
inventor of micro-photography, the first objects.
known example of micro-photography was by 4. Film - Is a light sensitized material that records an
John Benjamin Dancer, in 1839, when he image. Just there are different types of camera
produced photographs 15mm in diameter. there are different types of films.
The term should not be (but often is!) 5. Chemical Processing – is the process of converting
confused with photo-micrography; the micro- the latent image into a visible and permanent
photographic process is taken to mean a image. By the time the processing is about to begin
substantial reduction of the "real thing" either the film has been exposed and carries what is
known is a Latent Image: those silver halide crystal make something look like it is falling off the page,
that have been struck by light have undergone a etc.
very small reaction that needs the help of a
developing solution before can be seen.
The distance between two peaks in a light second. The speed of the wave equals the
wave; used in measuring the intensity of frequency times the wavelength. Longer
light; common unit of measurement of light wavelengths have less energy. The higher
intensity is in terms of millimicrons (mu) the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
and the lower the frequency the longer the
wavelength.
Invisible radiation with wavelength shorter than
400 mu:
1. Ultraviolet rays
2. X-rays
3. Gamma rays
A wavelength is the distance between two 4. Cosmic rays
troughs or two crests.
Crests - are the high points where the electrical field Invisible radiation with wavelength longer than
is the highest 700 mu:
Trough - the low points where the lowest electrical 1. Infrared rays
fields. 2. Radio waves
Amplitude - is a measure of how much energy the 3. Hertzian waves
wave has. 4. Long electrical oscillations
Frequency
The number of complete waves per unit of Invisible radiation conveniently used in police
time; used in measuring the speed of light; photography:
unit of measuring the speed of light maybe 1. Ultraviolet rays
mu per second (mu/sec). 2. Infrared rays
Frequency is the number of wavelengths 3. X rays
that pass through a given point in one 4. Gamma rays
R+B=M
Gamma Rays - used in recording or photograph of M+Y=W
internal organs. Photographing objects hidden by R+G=Y
opaque medium. M+C=W
Colors of light found in the visible spectrum: B+G=C
Y+C=W
Approximate Wavelength
1. Primary Colors of Light 2. Color Subtraction
(in mu.) W–R=C Y–R=G
a. Red (longest wavelength) 700 W – C= R W–Y=B
b. Blue 450 M–R=B M–B=R
c. Green 550 C – G= B Y–G=R
2. Complementary Colors of Light W–B=Y W–
a. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400 G=
b. Cyan 500 M
c. Yellow 590 W–
3. Neutral Colors of Light M=
a. Gray G
b. White C–B=G
c. Black The principles of color mixing can be easily
understood and memorized using the COLOR
COLOR MIXING PRINCIPLES WHEEL.
1. Color Addition:
R+B+G=W
LEGEND:
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R- Red
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Bluefor sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
ISU-CCJ-InM-065 G- Green
Effective: September 1 2013 M- Magenta
C- Cyan
Revised: 0
W- White
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
Sources of Light
located in dimly lighted or dark areas for hundred (400) millimicrons wavelength.
recording charred (burnt) patters, overwriting, Thus ray is invisible like the infrared. The
internal injuries. position of the ultra-violet region falls
4. X-Rays – 10 -30 Millimicrons. Invisible radiation between X-ray and visible wavelength.
that can be used to photograph internal Since ultra-violet radiation can kill
organs. bacteria, it is sometimes used to sterilize
foods and water. Police scientists may
use ultraviolet light ot detect
Photographic Rays/Types of radiation bloodstains, forged document, and faked
1. Radio Waves oil paintings.
Radio waves have the longest 5. 5. X-rays (Discovered by a German physicist.
wavelengths in the electromagnetic Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895)
spectrum. Radio waves were discovered After UV come X-rays. It is an
by the German physicists Heinrich Hertz in Electromagnetic radiation similar to light
1888 and were at first called Hertzian but of shorter wavelength and capable of
waves. penetrating solids. X-rays can fog
Radio waves generally are utilized by photographic film. Hard X-rays have
antennas of appropriate size (according to shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-
the principle of resonance), with rays are used for seeing through some
wavelengths ranging from hundreds of things and not others, as well as for high-
meters to about one millimeter. They are energy physics and astronomy. Neutron
used for transmission of data, via stars and accretion disks around black
modulation. Television, mobile phones, holes emit X-rays, which enable us to
MRI, wireless networking and amateur study them.
radio all use radio waves.
2. Infrared radiation/light 6.Gamma rays
Infrared light are light having After hard X-rays come gamma rays.
wavelengths greater than 700 These are the most energetic photons,
millimicrons. It s wavelength ranges from having no defined lower limit to their
700 to 800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a wavelength. It's uncertain what the
color or any kind of red. It is an invisible physical lower limit of their wavelengths
ray detected by the skin as heat. It is so- would be. They are useful to astronomers
called infrared because they sojourn the in the study of high-energy objects or
red spectrum. Infrared means below the regions and find a use with physicists
red. This ray of light although invisible is thanks to their penetrative ability and
important in law enforcement their production from radioisotopes. The
photography because it permits result to wavelength of gamma rays can be
be obtained which are not possible with measured with high accuracy by means
only visible light present. of Compton scattering.
3. Visible light Gamma rays have frequencies of about
The range of the visible light produces one hundred million trillion cycles per
different sensation when they strike the second and can easily pierce through
human eye. Colors of different objects are materials like concrete and steel. Nuclear
usually mixtures of light of various explosions release gamma rays that can
wavelengths and not a special color. The destroy living cells and cause radiation
wavelength of the visible light is from 400 sickness. However, they are also used by
to 700 millimicrons which produce white physicians to kill cancerous or diseased
light. cells in the body.
4. Ultra-violet light BEHAVIOR OF THE LIGHT
The ultra-violet light is divided into the
near and far ultra-violet and ranges from 1. REFLECTION
about two hundred (200) to four The bouncing of light
from matter.
When light strikes a surface and rebounds it is
said to be reflected and it is called incident
light. The angle at which it strikes is called the
incident angle. If an object does not emit its
own light, it must reflect light in order to be
seen.
Reflection involves two rays - an incoming or
incident ray and an outgoing or reflected ray. If The Law of Reflection
we draw a line perpendicular to a flat surface, Light is known to behave in a very predictable
this line is said to be the normal. A ray of light manner. If a ray of light could be observed
that hits this surface is called the incident ray. approaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror,
This ray of light hits the surface and bounces then the behavior of the light as it reflects
off (reflected ray). would follow a predictable law known as the
The angle between the incident ray and the law of reflection. The diagram below
normal will be identical in measurement as the illustrates the law of reflection.
angle between the reflected ray and the Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence
normal. All reflected light obeys this formed by incoming ray of light is equal to the
relationship, called Snell's Law, that the angle angle of reflection formed by the outgoing ray.
of incidence equals the angle of reflection. This
is the Law of Reflection. Reflection from a
smooth, mirror-like surface is called specular.
If the surface is rough, the rays of light are
reflected in many directions. The angles of
incidence and reflection are still equal but the
rays appear to be scattered. This is diffuse
reflection. This diffuse reflection is how we can
see illuminated objects.
If the object is opaque, then the vibrations of medians of different density, the ray is not
the electrons are not passed from atom to atom bent
through the bulk of the material. Rather the electrons b. If light hit an object (glass) at an angle the
of atoms on the material's surface vibrate for short light is not bent
periods of time and then reemit the energy as a c. A light ray in passing from a medium
reflected light wave. Such frequencies of light are said of lesser density (air) to one of greater
to be reflected.
density, the light is bent away from
3. ABSORPTION
normal.
When light falls upon an object and it neither
transmits nor reflected it is absorbed.
4. REFRACTION
A ray of light which passes obliquely (at an
angle) from a medium such as air through a
substance of different density is refracted or
bent.
Refraction occurs when the light ray changes
mediums. Light traveling through air and then
going through water is an example of a light
ray changing medium. The speed of the light
ray changes when it enters a different
medium. In most cases the direction of the
light also changes. We say the light bends.
Depending on the new medium the light will
travel faster or slower. It is the different MIRAGES – It is called refracted image. It happens
densities that causes the ray to slow down or when air near the ground is much hotter than air higher
speed up which then causes it to bend. Light up. As light from the sun passes from cool to warmer
rays slow down about 25% when passing air, it speed up and is refracted upward.
through water and 35% when passing through
glass. If the light travels slower then this Refraction
medium is called the denser medium. If the Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due
light ray travels faster then the medium is to a change in its speed or it is the change of the
called the rarer medium. When light enters a direction of light when it crosses a boundary from one
denser medium the ray bends toward the transparent material, such as air, to another such as
normal - when light enters a rarer medium it is glass, unless it is travelling exactly perpendicular to the
bent away from the normal. boundary.
This is most commonly seen when a wave passes
from one medium to another.
Refraction of light is the most commonly seen
example, but any type of wave can refract when it
interacts with a medium, for example when sound
waves pass from one medium into another or when
water waves move into water of a different depth.
Refraction is described by Snell's law, which states that
LAW OF REFRACTION the angle of incidence is related to the angle of
a. If the light ray refraction by
hit
perpendicular 5. DIFFRACTION
to the surface Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes the
between two edge of an object.
Scientists had noticed that objects with sharp
edges cast shadows that are not as sharp. Light seems
to bend a little bit around the edge of the object, creates long shadows and emphasizes the
producing a fuzzy boundary between light and texture and shape of the subjects.
darkness. This may be very good or very bad,
depending on the situation. Side
lighting puts shadows on the unlit side
of the subject. These shadows are
often essential to bring out the fine
texture that is found in a cloth
sample, a footprint or a tool mark. Try
to use side lighting in all such
situations.
On the other hand, when you shoot
into a subject, the shadows obscure
The intensity pattern formed Colors seen in a spider web are important interior details. When
on a screen by diffraction from partially due to diffraction, subjects such as automobiles,
a square aperture according to some analyses handbags and closets are side lit, even
large objects inside them may not
appear on the negative. You usually
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING DIRECTIONS, COLORS
want to avoid side lighting in these
AND DAY LIGHT ILLUMINATIONS
situations.
LIGHTING (outdoor lighting) Side lighting is perfect when you want to
Lighting is critical in photography. The emphasize texture, dimension, shapes, or
patterns. Side lighting sculpts a subject,
direction from which the light comes revealing contours and textures. Use side
lighting to exaggerate dimension and depth. At
determines where shadows fall. Sometimes a 45-degree angle to the side, it's one of the
these shadows completely obscure details in most flattering types of portrait lighting.
2. Weak or Hazy Sun – the light from the sun is subject are people in light – colored
weakened by a heavy haze and the sun’s disk clothing on a white and sandy beach, a
is visible but diffused. Shadows are weak and white sailboat against a blue sky and white
soft but readily apparent. Since there are no building of a desert village.
harsh shadows, these conditions are
wonderful for photographic people. COLORS
3. Cloudy Bright – the sun is hidden by light Light is made up of different colors known as
clouds. The sky may be completely overcast or the primary colors which are Red, Green and Blue.
there may be scattered clouds. You can’t see As light passes through these things each color
the sun disk, but you can tell where it is by a is hear or a slightly different amount. Emerging at the
bright area in the sky. There are no shadows. other side of a band of rainbow colors. This is called
spectrum. The colors always appear in the same sides.
4. Heavy Overcast/Open Shade – the sky is filled
with heavy clouds and there’s no bright area Production of Color
to show the location of the sun, there are no
extremely dark areas to indicate an 1. Absorption – The color of most ordinary
approaching storm and there are no shadows. objects are due to the fact that they do
- This is kind of lightning you have when not absorb the same amount of light at
your subject is in the shadow of a nearby large each wavelength.
objects such as a house or a building. But you can 2. Scattering – The color of the sky is due to
still see a large area of open sky overhead, in front the scattering of light by the atmosphere.
of the subject. Open shade usually requires an Thus sky is bluest when it is clearest and
exposure increase of 3 stops over that for bright white when it is less clear.
sunlight. 3. Interference – color can also be produced
by inference of light waves in thin film like
5. Bright Sun on Light Sand or Snow – the sun in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating in
and sky conditions is the same as for the first water. this phenomenon is also
lightning condition given above, but the responsible for the color pattern known as
subject are on very light send or snow. Since “Newton ‘s ring” which sometimes cause
these bright surfaces reflect a lot of light, the trouble in color printing works.
recommended exposure is 1 stop less than the 4. Florescence – this happens when
basic exposure for average subjects. molecules of the florescent material
absorb energy at one wavelength and
TYPES OF SUBJECT BRIGHTNESS radiate it at another wavelength.
5. Dispersion – Color may arise from
1. Dark Subject – reflects about 9% of the differences in the refractive or bending
light striking it and absorbs the remainder. power of a transparent medium of light of
Included in this category are vehicles and different wavelength. The rainbow is a
weapon, people in dark-tone clothing, etc. good example of this phenomenon.
2. Average Subjects – is one that reflects
approximately 18% of the light striking it FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE
and absorbs the remainder. Examples are
people in medium colored clothing, most 1. UV Lamp – comes in a variety of shape,
building, street scenes, etc. size and power. Some units are portable
3. Bright Subject – reflects twice as much as battery operated and are easily carried
an average subjects (36 %). Typical and can meet the rugged and rigorous
subjects in this category are fair – skinned demand for field works.
and light haired person, people in light 2. LASER – Light Amplification through
clothing and light colored building Simulated Emission Radiation – provide a
4. Brilliant Subject – reflects about four way for the criminalist to finally see,
times as much light as an average subjects locate, and visually records evidence that
and absorbs very little light. Some or these they know that they had missing. The only
CHAPTER 4
CAMERA PARTS AND FUNCTRIONS
CAMERA OBSCURA
A device used by early artists (centuries before
Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an
otherwise-darkened room so that it could be
more-easily copied. In a manner similar to the
pinhole camera, a small hole placed in an
opposite wall permitted light to enter the
room (the “camera”), and the scene outside
became transmitted inside, and was shown
inverted on the rear wall or sometimes on a
screen. The camera obscura is the origin of the
modern camera.
CAMERA LUCIDA
DAGUERREOTYPE
Description
The name "camera lucida" (Latin for "light The daguerreotype /dəˈɡɛrətaɪp/ (French: da
chamber") is obviously intended to recall the much guerréotype) was the first commercially
older drawing aid, the camera obscura (Latin for "dark successful photographic process. The image is a direct
chamber"). There is no optical similarity between the positive made in the camera on a silvered copper
devices. The camera lucida is a light, portable device plate. The raw material for plates was called Sheffield
that does not require special lighting conditions. No plate, plating by fusion or cold-rolled cladding and was a
image is projected by the camera lucida. standard hardware item produced by heating and
In the simplest form of camera lucida, the rolling silver foil in contact with a copper support. The
artist looks down at the drawing surface through a surface of a daguerreotype is like a mirror, with the
half-silvered mirror tilted at 45 degrees. This image made directly on the silvered surface; it is very
superimposes a direct view of the drawing surface fragile and can be rubbed off with a finger, and the
beneath, and a reflected view of a scene horizontally in finished plate has to be angled so as to reflect some
front of the artist. The instrument often includes a dark surface in order to view the image properly.
weak negative lens, creating a virtual image of the Depending on the angle viewed, and the color of the
scene at about the same distance as the drawing surface reflected into it, the image can change from a
surface, so that both can be viewed in positive to a negative.
good focus simultaneously.
If white paper is used with the camera lucida, The very first daguerreotypes used Chevalier
the superimposition of the paper with the scene tends lenses that were "slow", and the light sensitive
to wash out the scene, making it difficult to view. When material was silver iodide made by fuming the plate
working with a camera lucida it is often beneficial to with iodine vapour. This meant that the exposure in
use black paper and to draw with a white pencil. the camera was too long to conveniently take portraits,
30 Police Photography Instructional Material
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Effective: September 1 2013
Revised: 0
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
and the first subjects taken were street scenes and light reaching the image plane and consequently
architectural studies. When Petzval lenses were reduced exposures, and a small metal camera that
introduced, with lenses of a larger diameter and the produces small circular images was made by
plate was sensitized with iodine and bromine forming Voigtländer.
light sensitive crystals of silver iodide and silver
bromide, the exposures were reduced so that portraits The image is formed on the surface of the
could be taken. Usually, it was arranged so that the silver plate (resembling the surface of a mirror) and is
sitters leant their elbows on a support, or else head unstable; it can easily be rubbed off and will oxidize in
rests that did not show in the picture were used to help the air, so from the outset daguerreotypes were
the sitters sit motionless, and this led to most mounted in sealed cases or frames with a glass cover.
daguerreotype portraits having stiff, lifeless poses.
There were exceptions with lively expressions full of When viewing the daguerreotype, a dark
character by photographers who saw the potential of surface is reflected into the mirrored silver surface, and
the new medium, and these are represented in the reproduction of detail in sharp photographs is very
museum collections and are the most sought after by good.
private collectors today.
Although daguerreotypes are unique images,
Daguerreotypes were mounted in cases under they could be copied by redaguerreotyping the
glass with a cover, or else in a frame that could be hung original.
on a wall. Photographic processes that were invented
soon after: ambrotypes and tintypes were mounted in
similar cases, but were made by the later wet
plate process using collodion on glass or on a bitumen
coated iron plate. These can be distinguished from
daguerreotypes by the image quality. The polished
silver surface of a daguerreotype gives a feeling of
presence where the image appears to be floating in Daguerreotype camera
space. built by La Maison Susse
Frères in 1839, with a
The process was developed by Louis lens by Charles Chevalier
Daguerre together with Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.
Niepce had produced the first photographic image in
the camera obscura using asphaltum on a copper plate
sensitised with lavender oil that required exposures as Advertisement for a
long as eight hours. traveling Daguerreotype
photographer, with
The image in a daguerreotype is often location left blank
described as being formed by the amalgam, or alloy,
of mercury and silver because mercury vapor from a
1840-1841 Camerae
pool of heated mercury is used to develop the plate;
obscurae and plates for
but using the Becquerel process (using a red filter and
Daguerreotype called
two-and-a-half stops extra exposure) daguerreotypes
"Grand Photographe"
can be produced without mercury, and chemical
produced by Charles
analysis shows that there is no mercury in the final
Chevalier (Musée des
image with the Bequerel process. This leads to
Arts et Métiers)
questioning the theory that the image is formed of
amalgam with mercury development.
Exposure times were later REDUCED by
sensitizing the plate with other silver halides: silver Daguerreotype Process
bromide and silver chloride, and by replacing the The daguerreotype, along with the Tintype, is
Chevalier lenses with much larger, faster lenses a photographic image allowing no direct transfer of the
designed by Joseph Petzval. A reduction in camera size image onto another light-sensitive medium, as
and the size of the image will always result in more opposed to glass plate or paper negatives. Preparation
of the copper[9] plate prior to image exposure resulted 1800-1877), the first process to employ a NEGATIVE to
in the formation of a layer of photo-sensitive silver produce a positive image on paper. The
halide, and exposure to a scene or image through a earlier daguerreotype process employed no negative.
lens formed a latent image. The latent image was made
visible, or "developed", by placing the exposed plate Calotype or talbotype is a photographic
over a slightly heated (about 30°C / 90°F) cup process using paper coated with silver iodide. The term
of mercury.[9] Daguerre was first to discover and calotype comes from the Greek καλός for 'beautiful',
publish (in the publication of the process and the and τύπος for 'impression'.
English patent of 1839) the principle of latent image
development. How does it work?
The mercury vapour condensed on those The sensitive element of a calotype is silver
places on the plate where the exposure light was most iodide. With exposure to light, silver iodide
intense (highlights), and less so in darker areas of the decomposes to silver leaving iodine as a free element.
image (shadows). This produced a picture in Excess silver iodide is washed away after oxidizing the
an amalgam, the mercury washing the silver out of the pure silver with an application of gallo-nitrate (a
halides, solubilizing and amalgamating it into free silver solution of silver nitrate, acetic, and gallic acids).
particles which adhered to the exposed areas of the As silver oxide is black, the resulting image is
plate, leaving the unexposed silver halide ready to be visible. Potassium bromide then is used to stabilize the
removed by the fixing process. This resulted in the final silver oxide.
unfixed image, which consisted of light and dark areas In the case of salted paper, the sensitive
of grey amalgam on the plate. The developing box was element is silver chloride formed when the salt (sodium
constructed to allow inspection of the image through a chloride) reacts with silver nitrate.[3] Silver chloride
yellow glass window to allow the photographer to decomposes when in contact with light forming silver
determine when to stop development. and chlorine evaporates. Excess silver chloride is
washed out of the paper and the silver oxidizes in
The next operation was to "fix" the contact with gallo-nitrate. The silver oxide is stabilized
photographic image permanently on the plate by on the paper with hyposulphite of soda.
dipping in a solution of hyposulphite of soda,[9] often Silver chloride is sometimes favored over
called "fixer" or "hypo", to dissolve the unexposed silver iodide because it is less sensitive to temperature.
halides. Initially, Daguerre's process was to use a During long exposures in direct sunlight the
saturated salt solution for this step, but later adopted temperature on the paper can be quite high.
Herschel's suggestion of sodium thiosulphate, as did The calotype created a negative image on the silver
W. H. F. Talbot. iodide from which positives could be printed (onto
silver chloride paper). This made the calotype
The image produced by this method is SUPERIOR in one aspect to the daguerreotype which
extremely fragile and susceptible to damage when only made one positive image (whereby it was difficult
handled. Practically all daguerreotypes are protected to get multiple copies)
from accidental damage by a glass-fronted enclosure. It
was discovered by experiment that treating the plate
with heated gold chloride both tones and strengthens What is Camera?
the image, although it remains quite delicate and
requires a well-sealed enclosure to protect against A light- tight box equipped with a lens, written
touch as well asoxidation of the fine silver deposits diaphragm and a mechanism which controls
forming the blacks in the image. The best-preserved the film.
daguerreotypes dating from the 19th century are A device that records/stores images. These
sealed in robust glass cases evacuated of air and filled images may be still photographs or moving
with a chemically inert gas, typically nitrogen images such as videos or movies. The term
camera comes from the camera obscura (Latin
CALOTYPE for "dark chamber"), an early mechanism for
projecting images.
Calotype - An early photographic process, it The camera refers to a light tight (proof) box
was patented in 1840 by William H.F. Talbot (English, with a means of forming the image (lens or
The box camera is, with the exception of the pin hole
camera, a camera in its simplest form. The classic box
camera is shaped more or less like a box, hence the
name. A box camera has a simple optical system, often
only in the form of a simple meniscus lens. It usually
lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of
aperture and shutter speeds. This makes it suitable for
daylight photography only. In the 1950s, box cameras
with photographic flash were introduced, allowing
indoor photos.
the subject from two different levels Land, who unveiled the first commercial
resulting in parallax error. What you instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1947, 10
see in these cameras is not always years after founding the Polaroid Corporation.
exactly what you wanted.
The parallax error is not the Instant Cameras An instant camera
greatest disadvantage to using will produce a finished print in from 20
seconds to about 4 minutes. The film,
this type of camera. Most of
after exposure, is passed between
these cameras do not support two stainless steel rollers inside the
special lens. These cameras are camera. These rupture a chemical pod
using quite inexpensive and on the film and spread developing
today they even make disposable agent evenly over the film's surface.
versions. In the original Polaroid system it was
necessary for the user to peel the
finished print from the base material.
An electronic circuit in the camera
measures the time required for the
sound to be reflected back from the
object photographed. This time
measurement is converted into a
measurement of distance, and an
electrical mechanism coupled to the
focusing circuit sets the lens for the
proper exposure.
In the SLR
camera the light
passes through
the lens and is
reflected off a
mirror cover the
film shutter. The
light then passes
through a
Pentaprism
where it is
reverted. The
mirror remains in
the same
position until the
shutter release
button is
pressed.
When the
shutter release
button is
pressed the
viewing mirror
rises allowing for
the light to pass
through to the
film plate.
CHAPTER 5
LENS DIFINITION AND FUNCTION
height, between F and 2F real, inverted, and magnified, Flare is particularly caused by a very bright
at F there is no image, and in front of F, the image is light source either in the image – which produces
virtual, erect, and magnified. visible artifacts – or shining into the lens but not in the
image – which produces a haze. Most commonly, this
B. Negative/Divergent Lens – Concave - A concave occurs when shooting into the sun (when the sun is in
lens is a diverging lens which works similar to the frame or the lens is pointed in the direction of the sun),
convex mirror. This lens is thicker towards the edges and is reduced by using a lens hood or other shade.
and thin in the middle and are used in helping
correction of nearsightedness. All images produced by LENS HOOD
concave lenses are virtual, erect, and reduced. There is
an error in lenses, most notably in concave lenses An attachment to the lens which shades the
called chromatic aberration, referring to the fact that lens front from non-image forming light which can
the focal length of a lens can vary with the wavelength cause flare.
of light that is passed through it. This can be corrected
by cementing two lenses together (one convex, one In photography, a lens hood or lens shade is a
concave) into a single lens. device used on the end of a lens to block the sun or
other light source in order to prevent glare and lens
This lens used to bend the light rays which will flare.
change the focal point - point of focus. They are used in
eyeglasses, contacts, microscopes, telescopes and The geometry of the lens hood can vary from a
cameras etc. plain cylindrical or conical section (much like a lamp
shade) to a more complex cut sometimes called a
CAMERA LENS petal, tulip or flower hood (as shown in some of the
A camera lens (also known as photographic pictures), which produce a reasonable good shade
lens or photographic objective) is an optical lens or without blocking the field of view of the lens and thus
assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera producing vignetting. Properly petal shaped lens hoods
body and mechanism to make images of objects either produce more shade than normal lens hoods with the
on photographic film or on other media capable of same end diameter. Square lens hoods may be even
storing an image chemically or electronically. better.
1. FAST LENS – Is a lens that transmit a light, angle) of 45 degrees which corresponds to the
it has a large maximum aperture; used viewing angle of the human eye.
during nighttime or when there is dim
light available. Lens with a focal length
approximately equal to the diagonal of the
2. SLOW LENS – is used during daytime or film format. A scene viewed through a normal
when the lighting condition is very bright, lens appears to have the same perspective as
or in taking pictures of fast moving if it was being viewed “normally” without a
objects. lens, just the way your eye sees it. Most 35 mm
cameras' normal lenses have a focal length of
In terms of focus, there are 2 types of lenses sold approximately 50 mm.
today.
In 35mm photography, lenses with a
1. AUTOFOCUS (AF) LENSES focal length of 50mm are called "normal"
2. MANUAL FOCUS LENSES because they work without reduction or
magnification and create images the way we
FOCAL LENGTH – The distance between the see the scene with our naked eyes (same
rear nodal point of the lens and the focal plane, when picture angle of 46°).
the focus is set at infinity.
2. WIDE ANGLE LENS – for wide angle (but
The determining factor of how wide is the area smaller images. the wide angle lens has a
of coverage of a lens as well as the size of the image shorter focal length than the normal lens. As a
that it will produce. result, it covers a picture angle of 60 to 90
degrees. It enables photographing a widely
extended scene from a close proximity or
within a confined area. The rage for wide
angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm,
21 mm, 24 mm, 28mm, and 35mm. The 28mm
and 35 mm are the most important for general
wide angle for police work.
feature a flat field as well, which means that center; Inability of all rays to focus at the same
the subject plane is exactly parallel with the point. Marginal rays (at the edge) through the
film plane. lens come to focus closer to the lens than do
paraxial rays (rays parallel to the axis or
7. QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS - The Quasi-fish-eye lens center). This causes the focus to drift as you
produces an image on the film that covers the stop down the lens. This may be part of the
entire frame, whereas a True fish-eye lens has XL1 focusing problems. However, it's just my
its circular image wholly within the film frame. opinion.
8. VARIABLE FOCUS LENS - A zoom lens - one in 2. Chromatic aberration – the failure of different
which focal length is variable. Elements inside colored light rays to focus after passing
a variable focus lens shift their positions, through a lens; focusing of light of different
enabling the lens to change its focal length - in colors at different points resulting in a blurred
effect, providing one lens that has many focal image. In chromatic aberration the image is
lengths. surrounded by colored fringes because light of
different colors is brought to different focal
Typical focal lengths and their 35mm format points by a lens.
designations:
Two Types:
1. < 20mm - Super Wide Angle 1. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - also
2. 24mm - 35mm - Wide Angle known as Transverse chromatic
3. 50mm - Normal Lens aberration - variation in the
4. 80mm - 300mm – Tele magnification at the sides of a lens
5. > 300mm - Super Tele (this aberration type used to be
termed “lateral color”) or lateral
ABERRATION displacement of color images at the
focal plane (CCD). Caused by different
LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION sizes of images by produced by
1. Something that prevents light from being different colors even though the
brought into sharp focus, disenabling the image is all on the same plane (CCD).
formation of a clear image. Produces color fringing of red or blue.
2. Lens flaw - the inability of a lens to Not improved by stopping down.
reproduce an accurate, focused, sharp
image. 2. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration -
The inability of a lens to focus all
ABERRATION in optics is the failure of light colors (wavelengths) at the same
rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or plane on the lens axis (shorter
reflect from a mirror it is an optical imperfection wavelengths come to focus in front of
responsible for image distortion. the CCD, longer behind). This defect is
There are 6 main forms of optical aberration: not improved by stopping down the
lens. This is normally only noticeable
1. Spherical aberration – the focusing at in long telephoto lenses. It is reduced
different points of rays passing through by the use of special glass elements,
different parts of spherical lens. This referred to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.
aberration occurs because light hitting the
outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply 3. Astigmatism – the inability of the lens to bring
and comes to a focus sooner than that passing horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to
through the middle. In spherical aberration, the same plane of focus in the image.
the image is blurred. Astigmatism occurs at the edge of the image;
then image appears elliptical or cross-shaped
Variation in focal length of a lens from because of an irregularity I the curvature of
center to edge due to its spherical shape - the lens.
generally all parts of the image, including its
The inability of the lens to bring to from the CCD). This defect is not improved by
focus both vertical and horizontal lines on the stopping down the lens.
same plane. Lines in some directions are
focused less sharply than lines in other 6. Distortion – curvilinear, which is the inability to
directions. produce the same enlargement in the image
formed by the edges of the lens as in that part
Astigmatism is caused by axial rays formed by the center of the lens.
(not parallel to the lens axis). It will appear
that lines of equal density (darkness) are less Distortion causes the image of a straight
dense horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is line, at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in or
improved by stopping down the lens (smaller out. Bowed in, pincushion, bowed out barrel
lens opening, larger F number). distortions. Produced by variations of
magnifications over the field of the lens,
4. Coma – Coma occurs when light falling particularly at the ends of its range (max wide
obliquely on the lens and passing through angle, max telephoto). It does not effect
different circular zones is brought to a focus at sharpness, only shape of the image. It is not
different distances from the film plane. A spot improved by stopping down. Very common in
of light appears to have a tail, rather like a extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adapters.
comet.
DISTORTION - Misrepresentation of
The image of a point source of light proportions of objects or of their arrangement in a
cannot be brought into focus, but has instead scene. The two main types of lens distortion are:
a comet shape. Coma causes parallel oblique (1) Barrel distortion, in which the straight lines near
rays passing through a lens to be imaged the edges of the viewframe appear bowed
(focused) not as a point, but as a comet outward from the center, like a barrel-shape; and
shaped (oval) image. Coma can be improved (2) Pincushion distortion in which the same lines
by stopping down the lens. bend in towards the center.
a reflection from the interior of the camera or which is red in color due to its blood vessels –– and the
from the lens. Flare often results in an overall camera capturing that redness on film.
reduction of image contrast. Red-eye is the phenomenon where people
have glowing red eyes in photographs. This is caused
2. Mechanical Flare – are bright spots on the film by the close proximity of the flash (especially built-in
caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of flash) to the camera lens, which causes light from the
the lens such as the stops, shutter, lens mount subject to be reflected directly back at the camera.
or from inside the camera itself. When the flash fires, the light reflects off the blood in
the capillaries in the back of the subject ’s eyes and
3. Light Loss – most corrected lenses is coated back into the camera lens. People with blue eyes are
with a substance which will reduce one type of particularly susceptible to the red-eye phenomenon
flare (optical) and which will also increase the because they have less pigment to absorb the light.
optic’s ability to transmit light, thus reducing RED EYE REDUCTION
light loss.
RED EYE REDUCTION - A feature of some cameras
4. Stray Light – can be reduced or eliminated by or flash units that is meant to reduce the effect of red
using the proper lens shade places on the eye by emitting multiple bursts of light immediately
front of the lens or shield. before the picture is taken. The intended result is a
forced reduction in the size of the subject's iris.
5. Ghost Images - Not a true defect but is seen
quit often and sometimes confused as one. There are a few ways to minimize or eliminate red-
Distinct images, usually in the shape of the eye in your pictures. Some cameras provide a red-eye
diaphragm or a very bright light source reduction feature that fires a preflash, forcing the irises
included in the scene. Caused by high intensity in your subject ’s eyes to close before you take the
light producing rays which bounce around in picture. The main problem with this methodis that it
the lens and form an image. Often multiple often forces subjects to involuntarily close their eyes
images appear in a row across the scene, before the image is taken, and it doesn’t always
starting at or near the source. Ghost images completely eliminate the red-eye effect.
can be reduced by the use of a suitable lens
hood. A more effective method is to use an external flash
via the camera ’s hot-shoe mount or, better yet, with
GHOST IMAGE - In time exposure an extension bracket. An external flash radically
photography, an object that is only partially changes the angle of the flash, preventing the lens
recorded on the film and therefore has a from capturing the reflection of the blood in the back
translucent, ghost-like appearance. Ghosting of your subject ’s eyes.
also occurs when using electronic flash at a
slow shutter speed, and a second image is While you can also fix the red-eye effect using
captured on the film by ambient light. Some Aperture, there is no way to accurately reproduce the
people also refer to “flare” as a ghost image. original color of your subject ’s eyes. Preventing the
problem before it occurs is the preferred solution.
6. Diffraction - Again, not a true defect, but a
property of light. Diffraction is the bending of Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction
light rays as they pass a small opening or past
a sharp edge. Common when a very small 1. Simple miniscus lens – this lens is usually found in
diaphragm (F16, F22, etc.) is used. Diffraction simple or box camera. It is uncorrected lens and
causes a point to be less sharp. therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
CHAPTER 6
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS
1. UV FILTER OR ULTRA VIOLET FILTER – This is 5. SKYLIGHT FILTER - removes excess bluishness
not a filter for ultraviolet photography rather; from distant view outdoors.
it is a filter which screens out the violet end of
the spectrum hence give fine details in 6. COLOR FILTERS – increases contrast in black-
photographing subjects under direct sunlight. and-white photographs. It lets light of its own
UV filter give fine details definition and is color pass through the lens to the film but
generally used in photomicrography where the holds back certain other colors. As a result,
study of minute details is important in objects that are the same color as the filter
establishing relationships. Reduces haze; appear light in the picture, and the blocked
useful for photographing distant subjects and colors are dark.
for taking pictures at high altitudes. Colored filters such as blue and green can give
better emphasis to the color of blood in black and
2. POLARIZER – Polarizing Filter – reduces white photography. In color photography, these
reflections from some surfaces and increases eliminate the color of the object the same as the color
color saturation by reducing glare and of the filter and the grass will loose detail and color
scattered light; used primarily to reduce with a green filter. A green filter also emphasizes a stop
reflection from the surface of shiny subjects. sign; red being complementary to green in the color
Polarizing filter is also used in color wheel.
photography to increase color saturation and
to reduce reflections in the photographs. A Yellow filters will make white colored objects
polarizing filter screens out glare from shiny stand out. To a certain extent, yellow filter can act as
surfaces, such as water and glass. It can help in haze filter in outdoor photography. A dark yellow filter
preventing the appearances of flares in the will also accentuate the marks. On the whole; yellow
photographs. The polarizing filter is very filters aid in giving details in vehicular accident
convenient filter for taking pictures of many photography.
different vehicles in vehicular accidents.
CHAPTER 7
the top and second layer to absorb any are not very sensitive to light, and so
penetrating blue light but allowing green require bright lighting conditions, long
and red lights to pass through. exposure times, or large opening.
3. MIDDLE LAYER/ GREEN FILTER – is an Slow films produce very sharp, very
orthochromatic layer, which is sensitive to fine-grained images of relatively light
blue (which cannot reach it) and green, but contrast and are ideal when very large
not to red. So the red light passes on to the blow-ups are desired. Not for action
bottom emulsion layer. subjects or in dim light and camera
4. BOTTOM LAYER/ RED FILTER – is a needs to be mounted on a tripod
panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue when using show films
(which cannot reach it) and red. It is also 2. MEDIUM SPEED FILMS – ISO 64-200 –
somewhat sensitive to green light but to film for general purposes. They
such a slight degree that it is not important. require less light that the slow speed
Exposure is made simultaneously in films and produce sharper, fine
the three layers, each layer responding to grained images than the fast speed
one and only one of the additive color films
primaries. After exposure, the yellow color 3. FAST-SPEED FILMS – ISO 400-1000 –
of the filter layer is destroyed during Are good for shooting in dim lighting,
processing of the film. or when you need to use a fast
5. GELATIN ADHESIVE shutter speed to “FREEZE” first
6. FILM BASE – Plastic film base moving subjects of small apertures for
7. ANTIHALATION COATING BACKING maximum depth of field, wide
exposure latitude for the film. Fast
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FILM film are not as sharp or fined grained
as slower films, so you can’t enlarge
1. FILM SPEED – A rating of the sensitivity of a their images as much, but they still
film to light, used to determine the required offer quality images.
exposure 4. SUPER FAST SPEED FILMS – ISO 1600-
3200 – Are only very few. They use for
It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, special purposes. They are designed
which is measured and expressed in a numerical for use on very poor lighting
rating called ISO formerly known as ASA/DIN. This conditions when you can’t or don’t
means that the higher the ISO number, the more want to add artificial light or they are
sensitive the film is to light, and that pictures can used for obvious grain effects.
be taken indoors under dim light conditions. 5. CHROMOGENIC FILMS – Are black
and white films that are processed in
One film may be rated ISO – 100 and another the same chemical used to develop
film ISO – 200. This means that the 200 film is twice color negative films. Rather than in
as fast (twice more sensitive to light) than the 100 standard black and white chemicals.
film. Hence, would only require half the amount of IT can be exposed at a variety of
light to produce a satisfactory negative. Each time speed ratings with good results.
the film speed is doubled, it is equal to one f/stop
in exposure. For instance, in the example given, if 2. FILM SENSITIVITY – Is the ability of an
ISO – 100 is exposed at f/8, then ISO – 200 would object of the film to react to energy and
be exposed at f/11 to produce the same negative stimulus
quality. Any film above ISO – 200 can be
considered high speed and anything less is usually TYPES OF FILMS ACCORDING TO FILM
slow speed and fine-grain. SENSITIVITY
obtained by adding dyes to the emulsion negative and print. The darkest tone
during manufacture. maybe pure white, depending on its
subject, lighting, exposure and
a. Monochrom development
atic – Sensitive to ultraviolet and blue HIGH CONTRAST FILM – Will record
violet colors only. This film may be mostly black and white without the in-
used when natural rendition is not between grays. They are especially
important. For example, it is used to useful in copying lines, drawings,
copy black and white originals and to documents and other printed
photograph colorless subjects when material.
extreme contrast is needed. LOW CONTRAST FILM – Record little
differentiation in negative densities
b. Orthochrom resulting in softer tones, they are
atic – Sensitive to blues and greens, used in portraits and general
but not to reds. Reds are recorded as snapshots.
dark tones, while greens are light
tones when printed. 4. FILM LATITUDE – Is the ability of a film to
compensate within somewhat narrow
c. Panchromat limits for mistakes of exposure and or
ic – Sensitive to all colors and are development.
further subdivided according to their EXPOSURE LATITUDE – The margin of
degree of sensitivity to each color. error within which over or underexposed
This film is most commonly used in negatives or print are still acceptable.
investigative photography because it 1. SLIDE FILM – can tolerate I stop
produces the most natural recording overexposures and 1 stop under
of colors. 2. COLOR NEGATIVE FILMS – can
tolerate 2 to 3 stops over and 1 to
d. Infrared – 2 stops under
Sensitive to blues and infrared 3. BLACK and WHITE FILMS – can
radiation. The human eye’s sensitivity. tolerate 3 to 4 stops over and 1 to
It is useful in penetrating haze 2 stops under
because of its longer wavelength. IN
investigative photography, it is useful 5. FILM GRAININESS – Is a fine,
in laboratory analysis of questionable granular texture that appears in a
documents; in the discovery of old or negative print resulting from the clumping
faded tattoos or areas where small of silver grains during development of the
object are hidden under the skin; and film. It is influenced by film speed,
in the construction of camera traps. negative density and degree of
enlargement. It is also influenced by film
e. Colored exposure and development
films DENSITY – The blackness or
Types darkness of an area in a negative, that
1. Color negatives – for prints, ends determines the amount of light that pass
in the word “color through it.
2. Color transparency – for slides, - The ability of a
ends in the word choice developed silver deposit to block
transmitted light in photographic emulsion
RESOLUTION – The ability of the film 110 – For cartridge loading pocket
to distinguished between closely objects, cameras
also known as Resolving Power 126 – For older and larger cartridge
DETAIL – means the degree of loading type.
sharpness of the image. Slow, fine grain 120 – Variation of the 2 ¼ inch –wide
films have higher resolving power than roll film that was first introduced for
fast ones. box cameras decade ago, and now
used into professional medium format
7. FILM SHARPNESS – Is the cameras like the Hasselbald or
impression of fine detail, texture Mamiya.
and definition in a photographic 135 – Commonly known as the 35mm,
image. It is affected by the so named because
chemical and physical properties
of the emulsion, especially the AIMING THE CAMERA
thickness of its coating on the
film backing 1. Hold the camera with your left hand as shown press
1. The camera must be on the left elbow against the side of you; chest, relax your
tripod right hand and press the Shutter Release gently down.
2. The lens must be sharp one
(good quality) 2. When shooting with the camera held vertically, try to
3. Focusing must be accurate keep it extra steady because it will be less stable in that
4. Exposure and development position.
must be exact
3. The film is advanced with the right thumb and the
Shutter Release is depressed with the right forefinger.
FILM SPEED RATING
LOADING THE FILM:
1. ASA rating (American Standards Association)
2. DIN (Dentene Industrie Normen) rating
Use cartridge-packed 35mm roll film.
3. ISO Rating
The suggested uses of the following film under 1. Open the Camera Back by pulling the Film Rewind
varying conditions are: Knob all the way out. (It will not open unless the knob
is fully pulled out.)
1. ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit
for best color and sharpness 2. Drop the film cartridge into the Film Chamber with
2. ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose the spool head (protruding portion of the cartridge)
3. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving pointing to the camera bottom, then push the Film
subject Rewind Knob down to its original position.
4. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light
conditions 3. Pull out the film tip and insert it deeply into the slot
of the Take-up Spool, but make sure it doesn't go
through the spool hub.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF FILM
4. Wind the film with a stroke or two of the Film
1. Black and White - negative ending with PAN Advance Lever and make sure the Sprocket Teeth catch
2. Color Print – Color negative ending with color the film perforations.
3. Color Slide- Color Transparency/positive
ending with chrome 5. Erect the Film Rewind Crank and turn it in the
direction of the arrow to take up any slack in the film,
FILM SIZE make sure the film is properly positioned between the
guide rails, then close the Camera back.
6. While watching the Exposure Counter, wind the film stop turning, release film catch (small silver button
with the Film Advance Lever and press down the next to film counter dial). Close camera back, making
Shutter Release. Repeat until the second white dot sure the back cover lock slides over the catch and
from the letter "S" (first white dot from the red "O") securely engages it.
appears in the center of the Exposure Counter. The film
has now been positioned for the first shot. Turn winding knob as far as it will go without forcing.
Hold down film catch, and turn winding knob about a
quarter turn. Release film catch and wind as far as knob
* The film is advancing properly if the Film Rewind will turn. Repeat this operation once more in order to
Knob turns while the Film Advance Lever is winding. take up enough film leader.
* The white dots between the numbers in the Exposure Set counter dial by turning it counter-clockwise (to the
Counter represent odd numbers. left) until '0' is opposite index line. The counter dial
counts upwards, indicating the number of pictures
taken. The camera is ready for the first picture.
* You can position the film faster by setting the Shutter
Speed Selector to 1000 because the shutter will trip
The 'B' and 'I' dial around the shutter release must be
faster.
set to 'I' at all times, unless you are taking a time
exposure.
7. Film identification The Film Confirmation Window in
the camera back will tell you at a glance whether there
EXPOSURE CONTROL AND CONTROLS OF A CAMERA
is film in the camera or not. If you have Fuji film in your
camera, it will also tell you the film type and the
EXPOSURE- The amount of light that reaches a film, the
number or exposures it will yield.
combined effect of how much light strikes the film,
controlled by the aperture or effect of how much light
The procedure is the same as that described in (j) to A). strikes the film, controlled by the aperture of the stop,
To wind the film, close the Camera Back, switch the and for how long, controlled by the shutter speed. The
auto winder switch to SINGLE or CONT. and press exposure required in any particular situation varies
down the Shutter Release. according to the speed sensitivity of the film used.
- The time that a given amount of light requires
* If the film does not advance, turn off the auto winder to create an image of the desire density on an
and switch it once again to SINGLE or CONT. emulsion.
PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE- is a balancing act in which
* For further information, read the Auto Winder you use an exposure meter, or light meter, to measure
instruction manual. the amount of available light, to relate it to the
sensitivity of the film, and to express the relationship
LOADING YOUR CAMERA as a combination of aperture in f-stops and shutter
speed in seconds.
1. Open the camera by depressing the catch at FOUR 4 BASIC EXPOSURE CONTROLS OF AN
the end of the camera. ADJUSTABLE CAMERA
2. Pull out rewind knob on the bottom of the 1. ISO Film Speed Dial
camera, and insert the 35mm cartridge. Then push the 2. Shutter Speed Dial/Ring
rewind knob in (it may be necessary to turn it slightly). 3. Lens Opening/Aperture Ring
4. Focusing Ring
3. Thread end of film completely through the 1. ISO FILM SPEED DIAL- combination of shutter
slot on the takeup spindle. Turn wind knob speed and f-number- This control is utilized by
approximately one-half turn until film folds under itself manipulating the ASA dial of the camera.
and is secure on shaft. Give winding knob a couple of Basically, the shutter and f-numbers are both
turns to make sure film is secure on takeup spindle. controlling system of the rays of light that
Make sure sprockets engage holes in film. If sprockets enters, reaches and affects the film inside the
59 Police Photography Instructional Material
“This is for criminological purposes and therefore not for sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
ISU-CCJ-InM-065
Effective: September 1 2013
Revised: 0
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
DIAPHRAGM- An assembly of overlapping, fan- Infinity- all distant object are in focus regardless of
like blades, that permits adjustment of the lens different in then the is termed infinity focus or
aperture. simply infinity. When the lens is set at infinity, the
lens to film distance is at the shortest distance
F/stops- are diaphragm opening represented bring the distant object into focus.
by f-numbers on the lens aperture ring.
Represent the capacity of the lens to transmit Focusing Scale- Indicates the distance at which the
light to the focal plane. lens is focused
F-numbers- are numbers marked on the Depth-of-Field Scale- It indicates the range of
aperture ring indicating the ratio of the focal depth of-field at a certain lens opening focused at
length to the diameter of the aperture. a certain distance using a lens at certain focal
length.
F-stop or f-number - the designation of lens
aperture settings; also, the camera control Infrared Focusing- A focusing mark to help the
that determines f-stop. The standard series is photographer using an infrared film to focus it
f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, accurately.
f/32. Some lenses do not cover the full range
of settings; other may extend to higher Selective Focus- The technique of focusing on one
number. The lower smaller the number stop to particular part of a photograph and using a large
the next lower f-number doubles the amount lens aperture to limit the depth of field in the
of light passing through the lens; changing to picture to that area. Selective focus is used to
the next higher f-number halves it. emphasize the most important subject by blurring
other objects partially or completely.
LENS APERTURE RING – it control the amount
of light that reaches the film by adjusting the Critical Focus- The technique of focusing on the
size of the opening in the lens. most important part of the subject when depth of
field is very limited, thus retaining visual meaning
4. FOCUSING CONTROL – The most important on in the photograph. Critical focus is most often used
a camera is the focusing control. FOCUS is the for the close-ups, where depth of field is
means by which the object distance is extremely limited and speed is not required.
estimated or calculated to form sharp or clear
images. TYPES OF FOCUSING AIDS/SYSTEM
Focus- the means by which the object6 distance is a. Non-Ranger Finder Type
estimated or calculated to form sharp image
- Is the point at which light rays 1. Fixed Focusing- Focused to 8 feet.
from the lens converge to a clear 2. Zone Focusing- A lens which is
sharp image of the subject. focused by means of symbols as
- Is the point at which the image of mountains, people, head, etc.
the subjects is made as sharp as 3. Distance Focusing Scale- Critical
possible by the lens. Guest estimation- A lens which is
Focusing- System of moving the lens in relation to focused by estimating the
the image plane so as obtain the required degree distance in feet or meter to the
of sharpness of the film. subject.
- Is adjusting the lens to form the
clearest image possible b. Rangefinder Type
4. Choose from among these speed-aperture front of the subject. Open shade
pairing usually requires an exposure increase
of 3 stops over that for bright
sunlight.
TYPES OF FLASH
CHAPTER 8
CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND PRINTING
(4th Element)
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
FILM DEVELOPMENT
are five (5) stages of chemical processing needed to 2. STOP BATH RINSE BATH- an intermediate
make the latent image become visible such that it can be bath between the developer and the fixer.
printed to produce a photograph. It is usually a combination of water plus
acetic acid or just plain water. It function is
STAGES OF FILM DEVELOPMENT to prevent the contamination of two
chemicals.
1. DEVELOPMENT (ACTUAL)- This is
performed by soaking the film in the When a negative is removed from the
DEVELOPER (developing solution). developer solution, small amount of
developer remains in the emulsion and on
- it is the process of reduction. the surface of the film which must be
Exposed silver halides are reduced removed or neutralized to stop its action
into metallic silver. There is a and prevent stains. To remove the
separate developer for film (D-76) developer from the negative, it should be
and another for paper (Dektol) immersed in a rinse bath. Rinse bath are of
three (3) general types, each has its
The chemical content of the developing specific purpose and should be used
solution are: accordingly.
a. REDUCER/DEVELOPER
(developing agent)- Elon; a. Water Rinse Bath- Helps retard
hydrquione- The basic and most the action of the developing
versatile and popular of all agent and remove the excess
developers. Although Amidol, developer from the film thus
Glycin, paraphenylene diamine preventing contamination of the
and uryo are also used. fixing bath.
b. ACCELERATOR- borax; sodium b. Acid Rinse Bath- more effective
carbonate; sodium hydroxide are than water rinse, as it instantly
some of the alkalis used to neutralized the action of the
increase the rate of oxidation of developer and prolongs the life of
the reducing agent and speeds up the fixing bath. To prepare an
solution penetration. acid bath mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic
c. RESTRAINER (fog preventer)- acid in 32 oz of water
potassium bromide- Without the
restrainer most developing 3. FIXING BATH- The fixing bath is employed
solution act too fast and develop to fix or to make the developed image
unexposed silver halides near the permanent by removing all the unaffected
surface of the emulsion which silver salt from the emulsion. These silver
causes fog, steaks and image salts are still sensitive and if they are
lacking in contrast. allowed to remain in the emulsion high
d. PRESERVATIVE- sodium sulfite, ultimately darkens them and observe the
sodium bisulfate- All organic image thus making the negative useless.
developing agents in an alkaline
state have a strong chemical FIXATION/ FIXING BATH – the process of
attraction to oxygen, so removing unexposed silver halide
preservative is added to prevent remaining in the emulsion after the first
excessive oxidation thus stage of development of the latent image
prolonging the useful life of the
developing solution and prevents - ingredients of the fixing solution are
the formation of colored
oxidation products which causes a. FIXER (Dissolving Agent)- (Hypo/
stains. Sodium Thiosulfate)- commonly
termed hypo which is taken from
its other chemical name hypo
Changing Bag – Opaque, light tight fabric bag. Light PAPER WEIGHT
excluding sleeves allow the safe handling of light-
sensitized photo materials inside. Lightweight, (LW) - Intended for the purpose
which involve folding
Single Weight (SW) - Used for all ordinary
photographic purposes.
THE POSITIVE OR PRINT Double Weight (DW) - Generally used for large
prints because they stand up better under rough
After the process of producing the negative treatment.
has been completed a positive image is produced from
the negative which is a true representation of the PRINTING PHOTOGRAPHS
relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now
called a print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is Contact Printing – it is a method of making a
coated with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is photographic paper print in which the sentisized material
much the same as the one which must be used to cover is exposed in contact with the negative
the film.
Projection Printing – an enlarger is needed.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING PAPER
PRINTING PAPER GRADES Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and most
Because of the fact that all negatives do not economical method of producing photographic prints.
print best on one kind paper and in order to permit For making proof prints and small volume printing, all
printing for special effects photographic paper is made you need for a “contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a
of several different grades of contrast and glossy (F) light source, and some sort of padding.
surface.
For making contact proof prints and the occasional The negative is placed between an enclosed light
contact print job, a glass and a supporting pad are all source and a lens.
that are necessary. “Contact printers,” consisting of a The lens receives the light that passed through
sheet of glass hinged to a metal frame and a pad the negative and projects the image onto the
assembly, are generally known as proof printers. If such paper.
a device is not available or is not large enough for the Changing the distance between the lens and the
negatives to be contact printed, a piece of 1/4-inch plate paper controls the size of the image.
glass and a soft padding (such as a rubber typewriter The image is focused on the paper by adjusting
pad) can be used. Quarter-inch plate glass is heavy the distance between the negative and the lens.
enough to keep the negatives and paper flat and in It is possible to enlarge or reduce the size of
contact during exposure. The glass must be free of the projected image by changing and adjusting
flaws, scratches, bubbles and dirt. these distances.
EASEL - A darkroom device used to hold paper flat 12. Transfer the developed print in the stop bath
while exposing it to light from an enlarger. An easel for about 30 seconds.
creates a white border surrounding a print because its 13. Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing
"arms" block light from striking the print paper's time is about 20 to 30 minutes.
edges. The sliding arms can be adjusted vertically and 14. Wash the print in running water for about 20
horizontally in order to create prints of specific to 30 minutes.
measurements - e.g. 4" X 6" or 5" X 7" and so on. 15. Drying.
Advantages of Projection Printing
The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing
is that large prints can be made, and there are several
other important advantages:
ENLARGING TECHNIQUE:
After processing an exposed film into a negative, the
next step would be to turn the negative into a positive
print or copy. This could be done by either contact
printing or projection printing.
1. Preparation of the darkroom, chemicals and
the enlarger. CROPPING removes portions of an image to improve
2. Put off white light, switch on red light. its composition
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with 2. DODGING
the dull side of the negative facing down. - the holding back of some lights to a
4. Insert the negative holder into the enlarger. specific area to make it lighter in
5. Switch on the enlarger’s light. density
6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the - Blocking a portion of the light when
photograph. printing a photograph so that an area
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger. Focusing is of the print will be made lighter.
done by first opening the lens diaphragm fully.
If after the image has been focused, and the BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in."
density of the negatives permits, the lens of - is the adding of exposure time on a
the enlarger must be stopped down a little bit. specific area to bring out details
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger. - In a darkroom, providing extra
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel exposure to an area of the print to
with the shinny side facing up. make it darker, while blocking light
10. Make the exposure. from the rest of the print.
11. Immersed the exposed photographic paper in
the developer. The usual developing time for a RELEVANT TERMS:
normally exposed paper is about 1 to 1 ½
minutes.
Agitation – Method used to keep fresh processing Vignetting – Printing technique where the edges are
solution in contact with the emulsion surface during faded out toward the border of the print.
photographic processing.
Air Bells- are small air bubbles that adhere to the film
surface and prevent the processing solution from CHAPTER 9
acting on the film during the developing process,
living small clear spots. TECHNIQUES IN
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
Changing Bag – Opaque, light tight fabric bag. Light
excluding sleeves allow the safe handling of light- Definition of Terms
sensitized photo materials inside. • CRIME SCENE – is a location where an
illegal act took place and the area from
Dodging – Local control of density in photographic
printing achieved by shading to reduce the exposure to which most of the physical evidence is
specific areas of the printing paper gathered or retrieved by trained law
enforcement personnel.
Easel – Alternative name for masking frame. Flat board
on which printing papers are held during enlargement. • POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY - the study of the
general practice methods and steps in
Etching – Scraping or dissolving away unwanted areas taking pictures of the crime scene,
from an image or image printing surface. physical things and other circumstances
that can be used as criminal evidences or
Enlarger/Projector-a machine which is essentially a
for law enforcement purpose.
camera in reverse that is, it projects rather than
receives the image.
• FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY - The process
Masking – System of controlling negative density, of photographing crime scene or any
range or color saturation through the use of light let other objects for court presentation.
king mask (usually sharp).
• CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPH – is a picture
Printing- the process whereby the negative is used to (still or motion) made of the subject at
make the positive or exposing an image to a sensitized such a distance that only head and
material by permitting light to pass through a negative
shoulders or other separate parts of the
or through a positive transparency.
body are shown
Retouching – The purpose is to remove blemishes on
the negative or one that treat particular subject areas • MUG SHOT – is a photographic shot of a
to improve the final effect. suspect/witness from head to elbow level
taken in various views – front whole body,
Safelights- are enclosed lights sources equipped with a and quarter view from head to elbow
filter for transmitting maximum amount of light that (front, right and left side view)
can be used safely without damage to the sensitized
material being processed. TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES
• The CARDINAL RULE in crime scene
Shading – method of concealing the final quality of a
print as varying the exposure given to different areas of investigation states that the ‘crime scene
the print through selective masking tape enlarging. should not be touched, altered, or remove
unless it is sketched, measured and
Spotting – method of retouching blemishes or photographed’.
unwanted details are removed from negatives or prints
by brush and dye or pencil. • Sketching, measuring and photographing,
all of these acts must be reflected on the
71 Police Photography Instructional Material
“This is for criminological purposes and therefore not for sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
ISU-CCJ-InM-065
Effective: September 1 2013
Revised: 0
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
MUG SHOT
• MUG SHOT – is a photographic shot of a
suspect/witness from head to elbow level
taken in various views – front whole body,
and quarter view from head to elbow
(front, right and left side view)
Overall Photographs
Overall photographs are exposed with a
wide angle lens or in a fashion that allows
the viewer to see a large area in the scene.
Their function is to document the
condition and layout of the scene
as found.
They help eliminate issues of
subsequent contamination (e.g.
tracked blood, movement of
items)
5) Avoid back lighting. It creates silhouettes use of flash fill, the brightness level in the
and may cause flare. If you must shoot shadow areas can be raised to the overall
toward a light, shade the lens as best you brightness of the scene.
can.
6) Use side lighting to bring out texture,
accident damage, tool marks and any other
irregularities on a surface. Avoid it when
shooting recesses, containers and closets.
7) Front lighting is normally the best in police
work. Use it unless three dimensional
details need to be recorded(then use side
lighting).
8) The flash provides portable and easily
controlled light. In sunlit scenes, it fills in
the shadows and brings out details that
they might otherwise hide.
9) Aiming your flash at a highly polished
surface may cause "glare". Point the
camera/flash at the surface from a 45
degree angle.
10) Cover the flash with a clean white
handkerchief for close subjects to prevent
the flash from "burning" the subject in with
overexposure or harsh light.
11) When some important objects are near you Without flash fill, detail in shadows is lost.
and others are far away, use your flash but
expect those objects closer to you to be
overexposed and those further away to be
underexposed. Try taking an extra shot
without a flash if there is some "available"
light but you will most likely have to use a
tripod or rest the camera on some solid
stationary object to prevent a blurred or
unclear image.
12) Keep all your equipment in good condition
and readily available. It will then give
maximum usefulness and minimum
trouble.
Photographs as Evidence
photograph is admitted by the stipulation of both must not be replaced (overwritten) with a
parties, the party attempting to admit the new file.
photograph into evidence must be prepared to
offer testimony that the photograph is an Cases were Digital Photography admitted as
accurate representation of the scene. This usually Evidence
means someone must testify that the photograph
accurately portrays the scene as viewed by that State of Washington vs. Eric Hayden, 1995:
witness. A homicide case was taken through a Kelly-Frye
hearing in which the defense specifically objected
Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs on the grounds that the digital images were
Are Admissible manipulated. The court authorized the use of
digital imaging and the defendant was found
Develop a Standard Operating Procedure guilty. In 1998 the Appellate Court upheld the case
(SOP), Department Policy, or General on appeal.
Order on the use of digital imaging. The
SOP should include when digital imaging is State of California vs. Phillip Lee Jackson,
used, chain of custody, image security, 1995: The San Diego (CA) Police Department used
image enhancement, and release and digital image processing on a fingerprint in a
availability of digital images. The SOP double homicide case. The defense asked for a
should not apply just to digital, but should Kelly-Frye hearing, but the court ruled this
also include film-based and video unnecessary on the argument that digital
applications as well. processing is a readily accepted practice in
forensics and that new information was not added
Most importantly, preserve the original to the image.
digital image. This can be done a variety of
ways including saving the image file to a
hard drive or recording the image file to a
CD. Some agencies elect to use image
security software.
Digital images should be preserved in their
original file formats. The saving of a file in
some file formats subject the image to
lossy compression. If lossy compression is
used critical image information may be
lost and artifacts introduced as a result of
the compression process.
If images are stored on a computer
workstation or server, and several
individuals would have access to the
image files, make the files read-only for all
but your evidence or photo lab staff. As an
example, detectives could view any image
files but they would not have rights to
delete or overwrite those files.
If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced
the new image files created should be
saved as new file names. The original file