JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

FACULTY OF LAW

__________________________________________________
INTERNATIONAL TRADE ORGANIZATIONS

(INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND FINANCE LAW ASSIGNMENT)

SUBMITTED TO:

PROF. GAURAV GUPTA

FACULTY OF LAW, JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA
NEW DELHI

SUBMITTED BY:

RACHIT GUPTA
CLASS: B.A. LL.B (HONS.) – S.F., 5TH SEMESTER
ROLL NO. : 41
 ACKNOWLEGMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher, Prof. Gaurav Gupta who
gave me this opportunity to work upon the topic “International Tade Organizations”, and
also helped me with his exemplary guidance.

Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in completing
this assignment within the limited time frame.

:Rachit Gupta

2
 INTRODUCTION

International Trade Organizations (ITOs) are those entities that set the rules of trade among
countries. For example, ITOs may want to increase trade by lowering trade barriers. ITOs are
often formed geographically and politically. Areas that have unique products and services are
often stimulated or stifled by the political environment. When these products and services are
traded globally, they can impact the world economy. Each region wants to get the most out of
a trade agreement. For example, Asia, Africa, and North America have trade organizations that
look out for their own specific interests, which the WTO doesn't necessarily do. Rules for the
trading of these goods and services are determined by representatives from the entire region.

It was recognized by Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 for a international institution for
trade (the later proposed International Trade Organization, ITO) to complement
International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The agreement was not negotiated probably
because Bretton Woods was attended only by representatives of finance ministries and not
trade ministries.

The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, commonly known as the Bretton
Woods conference, was a gathering of 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations at the Mount
Washington Hotel, situated in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to regulate the international
monetary and financial order after the conclusion of World War II.

In early December 1945, the United States invited its war-time allies to enter into negotiations
to conclude a multilateral agreement for the reciprocal reduction of tariffs on trade in goods.
In July 1945 the United States Congress had granted President Harry S. Truman the authority
to negotiate and conclude such an agreement. At the proposal of the United States, the United
Nations Economic and Social Committee adopted a resolution, in February 1946, to draft a
charter for an International Trade Organization (ITO).

A Preparatory Committee was established in February 1946, and met for the first time in
London in October 1946 to work on the charter of an international organization for trade; At
the same time, the negotiations on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in
Geneva advanced well and by October 1947 an agreement was reached: on October 30, 1947
eight of the twenty-three countries that had negotiated the GATT signed the "Protocol of
Provisional Application of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade".

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In March 1948, the negotiations on the ITO Charter were successfully completed in Havana.
The Charter provided for the establishment of the ITO, and set out the basic rules for
international trade and other international economic matters. The ITO Charter, however, never
entered into force; while repeatedly submitted to the US Congress, it was never approved. The
most usual argument against the new organization was that it would be involved into internal
economic issues. On December 6, 1950 President Truman announced that he would no longer
seek Congressional approval of the ITO Charter.

In the absence of an international organization for trade, countries turned, from the early fifties,
to the only existing multilateral international institution for trade, the "GATT 1947" to handle
problems concerning their trade relations. Therefore, the GATT would over the years
"transform itself" into a de facto international organization. It was contemplated that the GATT
would be applied for several years until the ITO came into force. However, since the ITO was
never brought into being, the GATT gradually became the focus for international governmental
cooperation on trade matters.

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT before the eighth round—the Uruguay
Round—concluded in 1994 with the establishment of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) as
the GATT's replacement. The GATT principles and agreements were adopted by the WTO,
which was charged with administering and extending them.1

INTERNATIONAL TRADE ORGANIZATIONS

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that is

concerned with the regulation of international trade between nations. The WTO officially
commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15
April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced
in 1948. It is the largest international economic organization in the world.

The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property between
participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a
dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements,

1
https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com › view › oxfordhb-9780199586103-e-5

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which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.
The WTO prohibits discrimination between trading partners, but provides exceptions for
environmental protection, national security, and other important goals. Trade-related disputes
are resolved by independent judges at the WTO through a dispute resolution process. 2

The WTO's current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo, who leads a staff of over 600 people
in Geneva, Switzerland. A trade facilitation agreement, part of the Bali Package of decisions,
was agreed by all members on 7 December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement in the
organization's history. On 23 January 2017, the amendment to the WTO Trade Related Aspects
of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement marks the first time since the organization
opened in 1995 that WTO accords have been amended, and this change should secure for
developing countries a legal pathway to access affordable remedies under WTO rules.

According to international economic law 3, the WTO boosted trade, and that barriers to trade
would be higher in the absence of the WTO. The WTO has highly influenced the text of trade
agreements, as "nearly all recent [preferential trade agreements (PTAs)] reference the WTO
explicitly, often dozens of times across multiple chapters... in many of these same PTAs we
find that substantial portions of treaty language—sometime the majority of a chapter—is
copied verbatim from a WTO agreement.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

In 1944, representatives of 44 nations met in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to draw up a

plan for the post-World War II economic order. Their goal was to avoid a repetition of the
destructive policies that could spark another conflict. So they created the IMF to promote
international monetary cooperation. Ever since, the IMF has played a vital role in maintaining
global economic stability and ensuring broadly shared prosperity.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an organization of 189 countries, working to foster
global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote
high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.

Created in 1945, the IMF is governed by and accountable to the 189 countries that make up its
near-global membership.

2
www.wto.org.
3"The Ties between the World Trade Organization and Preferential Trade Agreements: A Textual Analysis". Journal of
International Economic Law. 20 (2): 333–363

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The IMF's primary purpose is to ensure the stability of the international monetary system—the
system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries (and their citizens)
to transact with each other. The Fund's mandate was updated in 2012 to include all
macroeconomic and financial sector issues that bear on global stability.

The SDR is an international reserve asset, created by the IMF in 1969 to supplement its member
countries’ official reserves.

Gold remains an important asset in the reserve holdings of several countries, and the IMF is
still one of the world’s largest official holders of gold. 4

INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD)

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is an international

financial institution that offers loans to middle-income developing countries. The IBRD is the
first of five member institutions that compose the World Bank Group, and is headquartered in
Washington, D.C. in the United States. It was established in 1944 with the mission of financing
the reconstruction of European nations devastated by World War II. The IBRD and its
concessional lending arm, the International Development Association, are collectively known
as the World Bank as they share the same leadership and staff.[1][2][3] Following the
reconstruction of Europe, the Bank's mandate expanded to advancing worldwide economic
development and eradicating poverty. The IBRD provides commercial-grade or concessional
financing to sovereign states to fund projects that seek to improve transportation and
infrastructure, education, domestic policy, environmental consciousness, energy investments,
healthcare, access to food and potable water, and access to improved sanitation.

The IBRD is owned and governed by its member states, but has its own executive leadership
and staff which conduct its normal business operations. The Bank's member governments are
shareholders which contribute paid-in capital and have the right to vote on its matters. In
addition to contributions from its member nations, the IBRD acquires most of its capital by
borrowing on international capital markets through bond issues. In 2011, it raised US$29
billion in capital from bond issues made in 26 different currencies. The Bank offers a number
of financial services and products, including flexible loans, grants, risk guarantees, financial

4
https://www.imf.org/en/About

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derivatives, and catastrophic risk financing. It reported lending commitments of $26.7 billion
made to 132 projects in 2011.5

INTERNATIONAL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE (ICC)

The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC; French: Chambre de commerce

internationale) is the largest, most representative business organization in the world. Its 6
million members in over 100 countries have interests spanning every sector of private
enterprise.

ICC has three main activities: rule setting, dispute resolution, and policy advocacy. Because its
member companies and associations are themselves engaged in international business, ICC has
unrivalled authority in making rules that govern the conduct of business across borders.
Although these rules are voluntary, they are observed in countless thousands of transactions
every day and have become part of international trade.

A world network of national committees in over 100 countries advocates business priorities at
national and regional level. More than 3,000 experts drawn from ICC's member companies
feed their knowledge and experience into crafting the ICC stance on specific business issues.

ICC supports the work of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and many other
intergovernmental bodies, both international and regional, such as G20 on behalf of
international business. ICC was the first organization granted general consultative status with
the United Nations Economic and Social Council and UN Observer Status.6

MERCOSUR

Mercosur was created in 1991 when Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay signed
the Treaty of Asuncion , an accord calling for the “free movement of goods, services, and
factors of production between countries.” The four countries agreed to eliminate customs
duties, implement a common external tariff of 35 percent on certain imports from outside
the bloc, and adopt a common trade policy toward outside countries and blocs. The charter
members hoped to form a common market similar to that of the European Union, and
even considered introducing a common currency.

5
https://www.worldbank.org › who-we-are › ibrd
6
https://iccwbo.org

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It’s a South American regional economic organization. Mercosur grew out of earlier
efforts to integrate the economies of Latin America through the Latin American Free Trade
Association (1960) and its successor, the Latin American Integration Association (1980. The
1988 Treaty for Integration, Cooperation, and Development committed Argentina and Brazil
to work toward the establishment of a common market within 10 years, and it invited other
Latin American countries to join. Mercosur was created in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción,
which was signed by the heads of state of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Several
other countries were later admitted as associate members, and in 2006 the presidents of the
four member countries approved full membership for Venezuela, though its final ascent was
blocked for years by the Paraguayan congress. Mercosur is headquartered in Montevideo,
Uruguay.
Mercosur’s goals include the harmonization of the economic policies of its members and the
promotion of economic development. The Ouro Prêto Protocol (1994) established Mercosur’s
present organizational structure and gave it a legal personality under international law,
allowing it to negotiate agreements with countries and other international organizations. On
Jan. 1, 1995, following several years of efforts to reduce internal tariffs (tariffs imposed by
members on other members), a free-trade zone and a customs union were formally
established. Nevertheless, full harmonization eluded Mercosur: some internal goods were still
subject to customs duties, and, though members agreed to apply a common tariff on imports
from non-members, disparities on such duties continued to exist. In 1996 the Joint
Parliamentary Commission, which consists of parliamentarians from member countries,
declared that all participating members must have functioning democratic institutions. In
2003 Mercosur signed a free-trade agreement with the Andean Community, which went into
effect on July 1, 2004. In 2007 a new parliament of the member states was inaugurated in
Montevideo. In 2012, following the controversial impeachment of Paraguayan Pres.
Fernando Lugo, Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay voted to suspend Paraguay’s membership
until 2013. Later at the same summit where that action was taken, leaders from the three
active member countries announced the ascent of Venezuela to full membership, effective
July 31, 2012.7

7
https://www.mercosur.int › about-mercosur › mercosur-countries

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COMESA
The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) comprises 21 African
Member States that came together with the aim of promoting regional integration through
trade and the development of natural and human resources for the mutual benefit of all people
in the region.
COMESA was initially established in 1981 as the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and
Southern Africa (PTA), within the framework of the Organization of African Unity’s (OAU)
Lagos Plan of Action and the Final Act of Lagos. The PTA transformed into COMESA in
1994. The PTA was established to take advantage of a larger market size, to share the region’s
common heritage and destiny and to allow for greater social and economic co-operation.
COMESA is one of the eight Regional Economic Communities (RECs) recognized by the
African Union.8

The COMESA Competition Commission commenced its operations on the 14th of January
2013 and is a regional body corporate established under Article 6 of the COMESA Competition
Regulations. In order to ensure fair competition and transparency among economic operators
in the region, COMESA enacted the regional competition law and policy to harmonize existing
national competition policies to avoid contradictions and provide a consistent regional
economic environment. The Regulations were promulgated in 2004 pursuant to Article 55 of
the Treaty establishing the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (“the Treaty”).
The Commission is responsible, among other things, for promoting competition and enhancing
the welfare of consumers in the Common Market. The main functions of the Commission are
to prohibit, monitor and investigate anticompetitive business practices, control mergers and
other forms of acquisitions in the Common Market and mediate disputes between the Member
The COMESA Competition Commission is the first regional competition authority in Africa
and the second in the world, after the European Competition Authority.

INDIAN OCEAN RIM ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION (IOR-ARC)

The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), formerly known as the Indian Ocean Rim
Initiative and Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC), is an
international organisation consisting of 22 coastal states bordering the Indian Ocean. The
IORA is a regional forum, tripartite in nature, bringing together representatives of Government,

8
https://www.comesa.int/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/COMESA-in-brief-FINAL-_web.pdf

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Business and Academia, for promoting co-operation and closer interaction among them. It is
based on the principles of Open Regionalism for strengthening Economic Cooperation
particularly on Trade Facilitation and Investment, Promotion as well as Social Development of
the region. The Coordinating Secretariat of IORA is located at Ebene, Mauritius.

IORA members undertake projects for economic co-operation relating to trade facilitation and
liberalisation, promotion of foreign investment, scientific and technological exchanges,
tourism, movement of natural persons and service providers on a non-discriminatory basis; and
the development of infrastructure and human resources, poverty alleviation, promotion of
maritime transport and related matters, cooperation in the fields of fisheries trade, research and
management, aquaculture, education and training, energy, IT, health, protection of the
environment, agriculture, disaster management. 9

EUROPEAN UNION (EU)

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are
located primarily in Europe. The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of
28 member states that are located primarily in Europe.

The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that
apply in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where members have agreed
to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and
capital within the internal market,[12] enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain
common policies on trade,[13] agriculture,[14] fisheries and regional development

The EU and European citizenship were established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force
in 1993.[17] The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and
the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of
Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome.

The European Union is one of the most outward-oriented economies in the world. It is also the
world’s largest single market area. Free trade among its members was one of the EU's founding
principles, and it is committed to opening up world trade as well.

9
www.iora.int/en

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From 1999 to 2010, EU foreign trade doubled and now accounts for over 30% of the EU’s
gross domestic product (GDP). The EU is responsible for the trade policy of the member
countries and negotiates agreements for them. Speaking as one voice, the EU carries more
weight in international trade negotiations than each individual member would.

The European Union is one of the most outward-oriented economies in the world. It is also the
world’s largest single market area. Free trade among its members was one of the EU's founding
principles, and it is committed to opening up world trade as well.

From 1999 to 2010, EU foreign trade doubled and now accounts for over 30% of the EU’s
gross domestic product (GDP). The EU is responsible for the trade policy of the member
countries and negotiates agreements for them. Speaking as one voice, the EU carries more
weight in international trade negotiations than each individual member would.

The EU actively engages with countries or regional groupings to negotiate trade agreements.
These agreements grant mutually-beneficial access to the markets of both the EU and the
countries concerned. EU companies can grow their business, and can also more easily import
the raw materials they use to make their products.

Each agreement is unique and can include tariff reductions, rules on matters such as intellectual
property or sustainable development, or clauses on human rights. The EU also gets input from
the public, businesses, and non-government bodies when negotiating trade agreements or rules.

The EU supports and defends EU industry and business by working to remove trade barriers
so that European exporters gain fair conditions and access to other markets. At the same time,
the EU supports foreign companies with practical information on how to access the EU market.

The EU also works with the World Trade Organization (WTO) to help set global trade rules
and remove obstacles to trade between WTO members.10

ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN)

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)is a regional intergovernmental

organization comprising ten countries in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental
cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and
sociocultural integration among its members and other countries in Asia.

10
https://europa.eu/european-union/topics/trade_en

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The ASEAN Secretariat is located at Jakarta, Indonesia. By the end of 2015, ASEAN plans to
establish a single market based upon the four freedoms. It will ensure free flow of goods,
services, skilled labour, and capital. In 2009, realised foreign direct investment (FDI) was
US$37.9 billion and increased two-fold in 2010 to US$75.8 billion.

The ASEAN Framework Agreement on Trade in Services (AFAS) was adopted at the ASEAN
Summit in Bangkok in December 1995. Under the agreement, member states enter into
successive rounds of negotiations to liberalise trade in services with the aim of submitting
increasingly higher levels of commitment. At present, ASEAN has concluded seven packages
of commitments under AFAS. Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) have been agreed
upon by ASEAN for eight professions: physicians, dentists, nurses, architects, engineers,
accountants, surveyors, and tourism professionals. Individuals in these professions will be free
to work in any ASEAN states after the AEC goes into effect on 31 December 2015. In addition,
six member states (Malaysia, Vietnam , Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore) has
collaborated on integrating their stock exchanges, which includes 70% of its transaction values
with the goal to compete with international exchanges.

Single market will also include the ASEAN Single Aviation Market (ASEAN-SAM), the
region's aviation policy geared towards the development of a unified and single aviation market
in Southeast Asia.

Free trade initiatives in ASEAN are spearheaded by the implementation of the ASEAN Trade
in Goods Agreement (ATIGA) and the Agreement on Customs. These agreements are
supported by several sector bodies to plan and to execute free trade measures, guided by the
provisions and the requirements of ATIGA and the Agreement on Customs. They form a
backbone for achieving targets of the AEC Blueprint and establishing the ASEAN Economic
Community by the end of 2015. On 26 August 2007, ASEAN stated its aims of completing
free trade agreements (FTA) with China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, and New
Zealand by 2013, which is in line with the start of the ASEAN Economic Community by 2015.
In November 2007, ASEAN states signed the ASEAN Charter, a constitution governing
relations among member states and establishing the group itself as an international legal entity.
During the same year, the Cebu Declaration on East Asian Energy Security was signed by
ASEAN and the other members of the EAS (Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand,

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South Korea), which pursues energy security by finding energy alternatives to conventional
fuels.11

The agreement with China created the ASEAN–China Free Trade Area (ACFTA), which went
into full effect on 1 January 2010. In addition, ASEAN is currently negotiating an FTA with
the European Union.

ASIA PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an inter-governmental forum for 21 Pacific

Rim member economies that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Inspired
from the success of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)’s series of post-
ministerial conferences launched in the mid-1980s, the APEC was established in 1989 in
response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional
trade blocs in other parts of the world; and to establish new markets for agricultural products
and raw materials beyond Europe. Headquartered in Singapore, the APEC is recognized as one
of the highest-level multilateral blocs and oldest forums in the Asia-Pacific region, and exerts
a significant global influence. APEC first formally started discussing the concept of a Free
Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP) at its summit in 2006 in Hanoi.12

India has requested membership in APEC, and received initial support from the United States,
Japan, Australia and Papua New Guinea. Officials have decided not to allow India to join for
various reasons, considering that India does not border the Pacific Ocean, which all current
members do. However, India was invited to be an observer for the first time in November 2011.

The APEC Business Travel Card, a travel document for visa-free business travel within the
region is one of the concrete measures to facilitate business.

NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA)

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)is an agreement signed by Canada,
Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement
came into force on January 1, 1994, and superseded the 1988 Canada–United States Free Trade
Agreement between the United States and Canada. The NAFTA trade bloc is one of the largest
trade blocs in the world by gross domestic product.

11 https://asean.org › asean › asean-member-states

12 https://www.apec.org › About-Us › About-APEC

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All three countries ratified NAFTA in 1993 after the addition of two side agreements, the North
American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC) and the North American Agreement on
Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC).

Economists hold that withdrawing from NAFTA or renegotiating NAFTA in a way that re-
establishes trade barriers would adversely affect the U.S. economy and cost jobs. However,
Mexico would be much more severely affected by job loss and reduction of economic growth
in both the short term and long term.

After U.S. President Donald Trump took office in January 2017, he sought to replace NAFTA
with a new agreement, beginning negotiations with Canada and Mexico. In September 2018,
the United States, Mexico, and Canada reached an agreement to replace NAFTA with the
United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA). NAFTA will remain in force, pending
the ratification of the USMCA.

EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC)

The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organization composed of six

countries in the African Great Lakes region in eastern Africa: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South
Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Paul Kagame, the president of Rwanda, is the EAC's chairman.
The organisation was founded in 1967, collapsed in 1977, and was revived on 7 July 2000. In
2008, after negotiations with the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the EAC agreed to an expanded
free trade area including the member states of all three organizations. The EAC is an integral
part of the African Economic Community

In 2010, the EAC launched its own common market for goods, labour, and capital within the
region, with the goal of creating a common currency and eventually a full political federation.

The free movement of people in the EAC is set to be improved with the introduction of "third
generation" ID cards. These cards will identify the holder as a dual citizen of their home
country and of "East Africa". Third generation cards are already in use in Rwanda with Kenya
set to introduce them in July 2010 and the other countries following afterwards. Mutual
recognition and accreditation of higher education institutions is also being worked towards as
is the harmonisation of social security benefits across the EAC.13

13
https://www.eac.int › trade

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CONCLUSION

Since in the 21st century all that matters is the economy of a particular country. If a country has
enough means or if a country is economy feasible then the particular economy can dominate
in the international market and it is not only related to trade but all other domains gets effected
. For instance US is a economic power, it not only dominate in the market but also interferes
in the economy of other nations, although it is a violation of international law, but no other
country seems to impinge upon the matter as it would ultimately harm their economy. So I
think economy leads to dominance specially in the current world. For instance, The WTO
prescribes free trade rules as a means to desirable ends, as is made clear in the preamble to the
Marrakesh Agreement. Free trade is not an end in itself. If WTO rules do not in fact lead to
those ends, any negative impact of WTO rules on human rights is unjustifiable from any point
of view.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books Refered:

• INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW, SR Myeni, Allahabad Law Agency, Third Edition

2018

WEBSITES:-

• www.wto.org.

• https://asean.org › asean – member states

• https://www.worldbank.org › who-we-are › ibrd

• https://ustr.gov › trade-agreements › north-american-free-trade-agreement-

• https://www.comesa.int

• https://www.imf.org › About

JOURNAL:-
• The Ties between the World Trade Organization and Preferential Trade Agreements: A
Textual Analysis". Journal of International Economic Law. 20 (2): 333–363

16
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