A Conceptual Framework of the Evolution of

School Psychology
Transnational Considerations of Common Phases and
Future Perspectives

CHRYSE HATZICHRISTOU
University of Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT A conceptual framework is presented for exploring the

evolution of school psychology in different countries. The proposed
integrative framework provides a synthesis and expands transnational
considerations of the following basic domains: (1) role and specialty
definition – professional practice; (2) legal issues: (a) state and federal/
national laws and statutes impacting psychology, education and provision
of services and (b) certification/licensure; (3) education/preparation,
accreditation; (4) scientific and professional associations; (5) scientific
foundation for practice and (6) professional identity. The six inter-
related domains described in this conceptual framework are examined
in light of the evolution of school psychology in two countries that differ
considerably in their educational and cultural systems – the USA and
Greece. The framework attempts to provide guidelines leading to a
deeper understanding of the evolving common phases across inter-
related domains at a transnational level. Future perspectives are
discussed combining innovative perspectives and insightful cross-
cultural professional considerations.

As school psychologists attempt to describe the future of school psychol-

ogy, knowledge of the past and recent history of the profession can
dictate and influence our professional future and facilitate important
changes. When future trajectories concern international school psychol-
ogy, the task becomes more difficult and complicated due to the various
differences of the profession in many countries. This article provides a

Address correspondence to: Dr Chryse Hatzichristou, Department of Psychol-

ogy, School of Philosophy, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, 15784
Ilissia, Athens, Greece.

School Psychology International Copyright © 2002 SAGE Publications (London,

Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi), Vol. 23(3): 266–282. [0143–0343 (200208)
23:3; 266–282; 022322]

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conceptual framework for examining and comparing the evolution of
school psychology in different countries by focusing on common phases
and the considerable similarities that exist in the most important areas
that define the specialty of school psychology. Based on this framework,
future directions are discussed taking a proactive stance for the develop-
ment of the profession both in developed and developing countries. This
framework using a qualitative analysis also enables us to engage in
activities that have the potential of instituting important changes in
countries that differ in the development of the specialty of school
psychology. Attributes associated with school psychology in Greece and
the USA, countries that differ considerably in their educational and
cultural systems as well as the provision of school psychology services,
are used to explicate this conceptual framework.
The mental health needs of children and adolescents have concerned
professionals and policymakers for nearly a century. These concerns
have intensified in recent years, with increasing documentation of the
magnitude of the problem and the extent to which children’s mental
health needs continue to be unmet in almost every country. Mental
health disorders in youth have increased substantially since World War
II in nearly all developed countries (Rutter and Smith, 1995). Prevalence
rates of epidemiological studies in various countries including the USA
indicate that 10 to 20 percent of children and youth under 18 years of age
suffer from some type of behavioural, emotional or developmental
problem (Costello, 1989; Day and Roberts, 1991; Indoe, 1998; Knitzer,
1993; Saxe et al., 1988; Tuma, 1989; Verhulst et al. 1985; Verhulst and
Vand-der-Ende, 1997; Zahner et al., 1992). Of equal concern, only a low
percentage (20–30 percent) of those children identified to be in need of
mental health services actually receive any care, while the great
majority of students in need remain untreated (Costello et al., 1993;
Pfeiffer and Reddy, 1998; Rog, 1995).
A number of studies during the last two decades, examining the status
of children’s mental health in various countries have yielded similar
findings and correspondingly similar recommendations (Koyanagi, 1995;
Sondheimer and Evans, 1995; Stroul and Friedman, 1986; Tuma, 1989;
Wardle, 1991). Their main themes are similar and emphasize that most
children in need of mental health care do not receive it, services provided
are often inappropriate, inadequate and lack coordination across multi-
ple providers and systems (e.g. health care, educational, juvenile justice
and child welfare systems).
Several conditions affect the development of psychology in other
nations (Russell, 1984): economic, geographical, linguistic and cultural
factors together with national interests and priorities. Different models
have been further used to forecast the futures of school psychology.
Oakland and Cunningham (1999) have reviewed and evaluated three

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models (stage, linear trends and contextual) for understanding psycholo-
gy’s development and future trends. Catterall’s (1979) foundational
work on international school psychology attempted to promote under-
standing of the impact of economic and social factors to the growth of the
field. His stage model relies on hierarchical characteristics of countries
at four consecutive levels of development in school psychology, using as
a basis structural factors (e.g. economic factors, educational develop-
ment) in each country and viewing progress as sequential and directed
toward predetermined goals.
Oakland and Cunningham (1999) evaluate the strengths, but mainly
the various limitations of Catterall’s model. Significant limitations
concern basic shortcomings inherent to all stage models including lack
of consideration of uneven quality of development mainly in developing
countries and of rapid economic and social changes. Furthermore, the
use of stage models in order to ‘compare’ the development of school
psychology in different countries undermines a better understanding of
both the nature of cross-national differences and the factors affecting
school psychologists’ roles within their own educational and cultural
systems. Such lack of understanding can have dangerous consequences
leading to possible allegations – as described by Russell (1984) – that
‘some national psychologies express “feelings of superiority” that are not
only unbecoming among scientists and professionals generally but can
result in failure to recognize important new developments’ (p. 1018).
Fagan’s (1986) contextual analysis of school psychology’s development
in the US provides a very useful approach when examining the evolution
of the field in different countries. This approach underscores the
systemic, multidirectional change in school psychology based on the
complex interactions of important variables including accreditation
and credentialing issues, students’ perceptions of needs for services and
development in the disciplines and professions within psychology and
education.
Based on the common concerns regarding the status of children’s
mental health in various countries and historical perspectives on school
psychology in the USA described in the relevant literature, a conceptual
framework for the evolution of school psychology is presented, one that
incorporates basic components defining the specialty and influencing its
evolution (Figure 1). The proposed integrative framework provides a
synthesis and expands transnational considerations associated with the
following basic domains: (1) role and specialty definition – professional
practice; (2) legal issues: (a) state and federal-national laws and statutes
impacting psychology, education and provision of services and (b) certi-
fication/licensure; (3) education/preparation, accreditation; (4) scientific
and professional associations; (5) scientific foundation for practice and
(6) professional identity. The six interrelated domains described in this

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Figure 1 A conceptual framework of the evolution of school

psychology: a synthesis of interrelated domains

conceptual framework are examined in light of the evolution of school

psychology in two countries that differ considerably in their educational
and cultural systems – the USA and Greece. The framework attempts to
provide guidelines leading to a deeper understanding of the evolving
common phases across interrelated domains at a transnational level.
Furthermore, based on this synthetic approach of the evolution of the
specialty in two different settings, future perspectives are discussed
combining innovative perspectives and insightful cross-cultural profes-
sional considerations.

Interrelated Domains of the Evolution of School Psychology

(1) Role and specialty definition – professional practice

Development of school psychology in the USA. School psychology in
most countries is engaged in an on-going process that leads to an
evolving professional identity within psychology and education. This
dual perspective on education and psychology was evident in the early
stages of the development (1890–1930) of professional psychology in the
USA (Fagan, 1986), during which time school psychology and other
applied specialties of psychology lacked identity in terms of specialized
training, locus of practice, credentials, and organizational recognition.
Furthermore, during this early period, title confusion existed with the
terms clinical and school psychology and the titles clinical psychologist,
applied psychologist or consulting psychologist often used by personal
descretion to describe practitioners in various settings, including school
settings (Fagan, 1986; Lambert, 1993).

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Reorganization by the American Psychological Association (APA) in
1945 of school psychology as one of four professional specialties, formally
established its organizational identity at the national level. The next
period, 1950–1970, was characterized by efforts of APA’s Division 16 of
School Psychology to create greater identity for the profession (Fagan,
1986; Fagan et al., 1986). The Thayer Conference (Lambert, 1993)
presented a midcentury perspective on the roles of school psychologists,
outlined the first definition of school psychology as a scientist–
practitioner specialization in professional psychology, and established
directions for their training, certification, accreditation and practice
(domains 2, 3, 4,6 in the article’s conceptual model). Following the
Thayer Conference, school psychology texts in the USA published from
1945 to 1980 were preoccupied and concerned with role definitions and
methods of professional development in educational settings (Lambert,
1993) (domain 5). In 1981, the APA’s Specialty Guidelines for the
Delivery of Services by School Psychologists set forth formal definitions
of the specialty of school psychology.
The decades of the eighties and the nineties became a turning point
in the history of school psychology with continuous emphasis on the
importance of the ‘scientist–practitioner’ model and suggestions for
better integration of science and practice and moving beyond the
gatekeeping function of assessing for special education eligibility
(Lambert, 1993; Phillips, 1993).
Despite the several ‘calls for action’ regarding the provision of effective
school psychological services and changes in roles and functions of
school psychologists, the successful application of the scientist–
practitioner approach has been questioned and concerns raised (Bradley-
Johnson et al., 1995; Conoley and Gutkin, 1995). There is considerable
evidence though of meaningful progress throughout the century both in
outstanding school psychologists and in the development of model
school psychology service delivery programs in schools and communities
(Connoley and Gutkin, 1995) that were further described by Dwyer and
Bernstein (1998) as ‘islands of hope’ in the profession. The calls for
change in the role of school psychologists appearing over a long period
in the literature and continuously being the challenge for the 21st
century for a more widespread implementation include a greater
emphasis on the following aspects (Bradley-Johnson and Dean, 2000):
indirect service, application of the science of psychology to define
problems and design programs, prevention of problems, use of a
systematic evaluation of services, involvement of various stakeholders
in development and evaluation of services and consideration of diversity
from a broad perspective.
Fagan (1986) suggested that the history of school psychology in the USA
can be divided into two general periods, the Hybrid Years (1890–1970) and

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the Thoroughbred Years (1970–present), reflecting its initial reliance on
related fields (e.g. teacher education, guidance, educational and clinical
psychology) and its more recent self-dependence and consolidation.

Development of school psychology in Greece. The history of psychology

in the schools in Greece can be divided into two similar general periods,
the Hybrid Years ending with the twentieth century and the
Thoroughbred Years starting gradually in the new millennium.
The first historical period of psychology in Greek schools can be
described as displaying characteristics similar to those previously
described for the USA. These characteristics are related to all domains
and include the following basic issues: a gradually emerging identity of
psychology within the disciplines of philosophy, psychology and education
and a lack of identity of school psychology in terms of specialized
training, locus of practice, credentials, and organizational recognition.
The origin of psychology can be traced to ancient Hellenic
philosophy with many current psychological terms – including the
word psychology – concepts and theories having their roots in the
thought of Greek philosophers including Protagoras, Pythagoras,
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. During a historical period of only a few
hundred years, twenty five centuries ago, in ancient Hellas, the
psyche of a man was explored, not only through myths, religion and
literature, but in a systematic, logical and scientific way by Greek
philosophers (Romilly, 1992), making them the precursors of many
theories in modern psychology.
Despite the vital contribution of ancient Greek philosophy to the
definition and exploration of psychological concepts, the science of
psychology in modern Greece developed slowly compared to the rapid
developments that took place in some European countries and North
America during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning
of the 20th century (Georgas, 1995). This delayed development ‘ironically’
was due to the emphasis philosophers at the University of Athens
(established in 1837) placed on the importance of the contribution of
ancient Greek philosophers to psychology (Georgas, 1995). For a long
period of time, philosophy departments in Greek Universities were
reluctant to part with psychology, preferring to view psychology as part
of philosophy. During the 1980s, divisions of psychology within
departments of philosophy, education and psychology were founded in
the schools of philosophy at four major Greek Universities. At the end
of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, autonomous departments of
psychology offering degrees in psychology have been established at the
University of Crete, the University of Athens, the University of
Thessaloniki and the Panteios University. Psychology was not an
independent discipline within the Greek university system until the

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last decade. Thus, the majority of Greek psychologists have been
educated and trained in other countries.
Psychologists as members of multidisciplinary teams are employed in
various settings, including public and private mental health centers,
medical – educational centres, institutions and hospitals for children
with physical and mental disabilities. In reference to educational
settings, private schools first employed psychologists. Beginning in
1989, the first 50 psychologists were employed and worked in special
education public schools. The majority of psychologists working in
educational settings did not have a specialized training in school
psychology and instead mainly were trained in clinical psychology and
psychotherapy. Psychological services typically utilize individual-centred
case methods following a clinical model and traditional methods of
assessment for special education eligibility.
Although the title school psychologist has been used during the last
two decades, specialty and role definitions for school psychology were
unavailable. Recently, a gradual process of a specialty and role definition
has been started in interrelated domains (2, 3, 4, 5, 6) which will be
described separately in each domain. A process has been further started
by the Department of Psychology at the University of Athens (the
Center for Research and Practice of School Psychology) and the Graduate
Program of School Psychology and the recently founded School Psychology
Division of the Hellenic Psychological Society providing role and specialty
definitions for school psychology. Such documents will guide the delivery
of services by school psychologists in the Greek educational setting
consistent with a scientist-practitioner model in school psychology.

(2) Legal issues

(a) State and federal–national laws and statutes for psychology, education
and provision of services in the USA. The specialty of school psychology
is subject to greater legal influences than those that impact other
specialties of professional psychology, in that the majority of school
psychologists (80 percent in the USA) work in public schools, and thus
must follow legal provisions established by state and national governing
bodies (Reschly and Bersoff, 1999). Change in laws that govern access
to education (e.g. compulsory attendance and mandatory special
education) have had a crucial influence on historical development of
school psychology in USA (Fagan, 1992). The three most important
federal statutes in the USA that influence their role and function are the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (1990, 1997), the
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) and the Rehabilitation Act of
1973 (1973, 1977) (Reschly and Bersoff, 1999). Ironically, the same laws
that have led to vastly increased employment opportunities for school
psychologists (Fagan, 1988; Lund et al., 1998), have also locked school

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psychologists into the special education assessment role for decades.
The average school psychologist devotes two thirds of his/her professional
time to individual assessment and/or other IDEA – related activities
(Reschly and Ysseldyke, 1995). The specialty recognizes discrepancies
between what its members are doing and what they want to do (i.e. less
testing and more consultation and interventions; Reschly and Wilson,
1995).

(b) State and federal–national laws and statutes for psychology, educa-
tion and provision of services in Greece. Legal issues also highly
influence the role, function and employment opportunities of psycholo-
gists in Greek public schools. Consistent with national law (1566/85)
regarding the structure and function of primary and secondary educa-
tion, the first 50 psychologists were employed in 1987 and worked in
special education schools. A recent law (March 2000) addressing special
education needs and the integration of students with special needs
includes a provision for 149 positions for employment of psychologists
and expands the provision of their services to regular schools. The law
provides for regional centres that are to provide diagnosis, assessment
and support services for students in the public education, staffed by
multidisciplinary teams (e.g. psychologists, psychiatrists, special educa-
tion teachers, speech therapists).
Although this new law has the potential to make a decisive impact for
the evolution of the profession of school psychology, only a general
psychology degree is required for employment in these centres. Additional
requirements for specialty education and training in school psychology
are not needed. The experiences during a decade of functions of
psychologists working in special education schools, strongly suggest
that special education assessment will dominate service in the new
centres (a condition that also characterizes services in community
mental health centers during the last years). Furthermore, a lack of
specialized training in school psychology will perpetuate the dominance
of a clinical model in the provision of services, including an emphasis on
child rather than systems level and on intervention rather than
prevention, similar to the process characterizing school psychological
services in USA educational system during many decades (Fagan,
1992).

(c) Certification-licensure in the USA. State departments of public

instruction typically certify one or more levels of school psychology
(Pryzwansky, 1999). Variability exists among the 50 states concerning
standards for entry-level credentials. Concerns have been raised regard-
ing standards for university education and training programs leading
to the school psychology credential in some states (Lambert, 1993).

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During the middle of 1980s National Association of School Psycholo-
gists (NASP) established the National Certificate in School Psychology
(NCSP) based on its standards for training and practice. State psychol-
ogy boards control the licensure of psychologists for independent prac-
tice. Licensure generally is generic license and without reference to
specialties in psychology (Pryzwansky, 1999).

(d) Certification-licensure in Greece. Licensure process at a national

level in Greece is different. There have been problems due to many
differences in education and training of psychologists studied in various
countries. Two laws, one in 1979 and another in 1998, address the
licensing of psychologists. The licence is generic and requires at least a
bachelor’s degree in psychology. Attempts to raise the qualifications for
obtaining a licensure have been controversial. The Ministry of Health
recently established a committee to propose necessary qualifications for
specialty licensure in clinical, school and organizational psychology.

(3) Education/preparation, accreditation

Education in the USA. During the early hybrid years of school psychol-
ogy in the USA, the practice of school psychology preceded formal
training programs. Thus, the chronological sequence of professional
development started from perception of need for services to their provi-
sion leading later to the training of professionals (Fagan, 1999). During
this early period, preparation of school psychologists (e.g. curriculum,
faculty and supervision) often was blended with preparation of clinical
psychologists, counselors and teachers, with school psychology emerg-
ing ‘as a version of applying a clinical method to children and others in
educational settings’ (Fagan, 1999, p.27). The formal preparation of
school psychologists was initiated with undergraduate and graduate
programs at NYU in 1929. Previous preparation processes were more
informal (Fagan, 1999).
During this early period, preparation programs influenced the nature
of practice and the development of the earliest certification requirements
(Domain 2), while, gradually, with the consolidation of certification
requirements, the process began to reverse leading during the last two
decades to a point now where many training programs are based almost
exclusively on state certification and licensure requirements (Fagan,
1999).
Lambert (1993) underscores the critical impact of various national
conferences (Boulder, Thayer, Vail, Spring Hill, Olympia, Utah,
Gainesville) on the development and application of models of training,
especially on the scientist-practitioner model. Regarding accreditation
process, APA accredits doctoral-training programs with specialization

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in school, clinical and counseling psychology and NCATE (NASP)
accreditation process is a unit or specialization recognition system
(Pryzwansky, 1999).

Education in Greece. The chronological phases of professional develop-

ment in Greece also followed an ‘inconsistent’ order, one similar to that
previously described in the USA, i.e. from perception of need for services,
to their provision and later to the preparation of providers. Thus, after
employing the first psychologists in public special education schools,
formal preparation of school psychologists was initiated in Greek
Universities.
Graduate programs in several psychology areas were founded in
Greek Universities during the last decade of the 20th century. There are
two graduate programs in school psychology leading to a Metaptychiako
Diploma (equivalent to a Master’s degree): Graduate Program of School
Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Athens and
Graduate Program of School and Developmental Psychology, Department
of Psychology, University of Thessaloniki.
This early period of graduate preparation has characteristics and
problems similar to those previously mentioned (e.g. a variety of
backgrounds among faculty members having being prepared in different
countries, the blending of training in clinical psychology, the lack of
coordination between the university departments regarding the basic
school psychology graduate program curriculum and the lack of a clear
definition of the specialty and of guidelines for the provision of services
by school psychologists). The proposed draft of the school psychology
licensure emphasizes general requirements. Thus although licensure
constitutes an important step for the establishment of school psychology
as a specialty, it is expected to have little influence on the content of the
preparation.
The Thoroughbred Years of the field have already started with the
evolution of the graduate preparation programs that have emphasized
different roles of school psychologists and provision of school-based
services in collaboration with teachers (Paraskevopoulos, 1992). Its
evolution is progressing, given the development of the scientist–
practitioner approach in school psychology in the Greek educational
setting, one combining theory, research, education, training and practice.
School-based consultation and indirect service delivery are emphasized
along with the development of a databased model of alternative school
psychological services (Hatzichristou, 1996, 1998, 2000; Hatzichristou
et al., 2000). It is anticipated strongly that professional preparation
programs will eventually shape school psychology’s identity in the
future.

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(4) Scientific and professional associations
Associations in the USA. The American Psychology Association (APA),
the American Psychology Society (APS) and the National Association of
School Psychologists (NASP) constitute the basic professional organiza-
tions that have a decisive influence on the evolution of school psychol-
ogy. Although collaboration between APA and NASP was difficult
during the decade NASP was formed, they have forged a collaborative
relationship. Nevertheless, NASP and APA have independently
developed guidelines for the practice of school psychology, accreditation
standards, ethics code, a separate literature and national conventions
(French, 1990). Despite these differences their policies are generally
consistent in reference to basic preparation for school practice (Lambert,
1993). Over the long history of the field, APA’s and NASP’s involvement
in all interrelated domains (domains 1, 2, 3, 5, 6) was vital to the
evolution of the profession.

Associations in Greece. There are two basic associations in Greece with

the majority of psychologists being members of one or other. The
Association of Greek Psychologists, established in 1963, is responsible
for promulgating the interests of professional psychologists and is a
member of the European Federation of Professional Psychologists
Associations. The majority of Greek psychologists of all specialties are
members of this Association. A second association, the Hellenic
Psychological Society, established in 1991, is member of the Inter-
national Union of Psychological Sciences. Its members are university
faculty and psychologists working in research centers. Similarly to
APA, the minimum requirement criterion for full membership is a
doctoral degree in psychology. Divisions of various specialties were
established in the Hellenic Psychological Society in 2000, including the
Division of School Psychology. Members of this Association also can be
members of two divisions based on their areas of interest and work;
specialty preparation is not a necessary criterion. As previously
mentioned, a process to establish a specialty definition and service
guidelines has been initiated. Each association has independently
organized psychology conferences and specialized seminars. Similarly
to American associations, both Greek associations have been independ-
ently involved in all interrelated domains (domains 1, 2, 3, 5, 6) for the
development of psychology in Greece and with the passage of time have
developed closer cooperation between them, thus overcoming difficulties
related to different policies.

(5) Scientific foundation for practice

Scientific foundation in the USA. In the context of the evolution of
school psychology, during the early period the texts on school psychology

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were preoccupied with role definitions, psychological testing, and refer-
ral issues (Lambert, 1993). During the 1980s – a turning point in the
history of the field – literature on school psychology continued to grow
with the first edition of the Handbook of School Psychology being a
measure of the specialization. School psychology journals in USA (four
journals currently devoted to school psychology) were published with
articles focused on scientist-practitioner and research roles, while on a
broader front School Psychology International and school psychology
journals in various countries were also published (Lambert, 1993).

Scientific foundation in Greece. During the last two decades in Greece,

research related to different areas of psychology (Georgas, 1995), the
adaptation and standardization of intelligence and personality tests for
use in Greece (e.g. the adaptation of WISC-R) and the construction of
new tests (Athena test for diagnosis of learning difficulties) have
developed rapidly. Furthermore, many psychology books have been
published on various topics, some being translated from English texts
and some written by Greek psychologists. Each psychology association
publishes a psychology journal. Articles have been published in Greek
scientific psychology and education journals either separately or in
special issues with topics related to psychology in the schools.

(6) Professional identity

Individuals have been described as manifesting several layers of mental
programming, that correspond to different levels of culture (Hofstede,
1991): a national level, a regional and/or ethnic and/or religious and/or
linguistic affiliation level, a social class level, and an organizational
level according to the socialization patterns of a work organization. It
has been further stated that mental health programs from these various
levels may not be necessarily in harmony, but may conflict (Hofstede,
1991). Based on various layers of mental programming, professional
identity is closely related to personal identity and to all domains
previously described as being important to the evolution of school
psychology. As Lambert (2000) has precisely described, based on her
observations of school psychology over time,

becoming a school psychologist is not simply accomplished by reading about

school psychology, taking prescribed courses, or getting a credential or license
for professional practice. Becoming a school psychologist requires engage-
ment in a process of acquiring a conceptual framework reflecting the scientific
and professional knowledge that make up the foundation of school psychology
practice’ (p.134).

The increasingly pluralistic character of almost every school setting in

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the world makes intra-cultural, cross-cultural, or cross-national con-
siderations essential to the development of professional competence.
The development of cross-cultural and cross-ethnic professional compe-
tence is a multidimensional process that requires extensive study and
knowledge about multiculturalism and various cultural/ethnic groups
combined with experiences in culturally diverse settings (Barnett et al.,
1995). The combination of knowledge mastery and practice is critical for
providing learning and self-reflection opportunities that lead to changes
in attitudes, misconceptions, behaviours, and skills. Thus, this compli-
cated and difficult change process involves a long-term effort one that
may begin with persuasion (i.e. a person chooses to adopt a new view) and
leading to conversion (i.e. when a person internalizes it) (Alpert, 1985).
Personal reflection together with professional growth and development
are necessary for overcoming the power difference dimension – dominant
and subordinate – of culture and ethnicity (Barnett et al., 1995) which
impacts on the role and functions of the school psychologist who works
in multiethnic settings and collaborates with colleagues from different
countries. It should be noted that problems exist in both cases. Regarding
the ‘dominant’ culture groups at a cross-national level, concerns have
been raised about possible consequences of ethnocentricy in American
psychology, the reluctance to read much of the newer psychology from
other countries and the general lack of interest of students in other
nations (Cole, 1984; Russell, 1984). Regarding the ‘nondominant’ culture
groups, concerns have been raised about the teaching of faculty members
in various countries who acquired higher degrees in Australasia or
North America. Their academic work reflects their training in rejecting
or ignoring the philosophical background of their own society and
imposing unquestionably their imported epistemology and methodology
on their students (Nixon, 1990).
Based on the previous concerns, the development of professional
identity of school psychologists from both culture groups – ‘dominant’
and ‘nondominant’ – can be conceptualized following the acculturation
process used by members of the nondominant culture. As described in
the relevant literature (Basic Behavioral Science Task Force of the
National Advisory Mental Health Council, 1996), the bicultural adapta-
tion process can include several alternative strategies from assimila-
tion, acculturation, alternation or biculturalism to multiculturalism.
Future directions of school psychology for both groups should include
a consistent effort for the development of a multicultural professional
identity. Apart from long standing efforts of professional associations for
crossnational collaboration at scientific and professional levels, empha-
sis should be placed on education and training for multicultural profes-
sional development. Regarding the ‘dominant culture’ group, an attempt
can be made for including in school psychology course syllabi papers with

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significant international or crosscultural content. Researchers can also
make an effort to include in their papers discussion of findings of
relevant studies from other countries. Furthermore, broader and more
consistent effort can be made for inviting scientists and professionals
from various countries as guest speakers at regional and national
conferences. Regarding the ‘nondominant culture’ group, to the extent
tendency to assimilation into scientific and professional practice of
school psychology in English-speaking countries is strong, an effort
should be made for a creative synthesis in education and preparation in
order to achieve international standards, recognize local goals and
respond to the national or regional needs of people.
In conclusion, the proposed conceptual framework identifies basic
components of the evolution of school psychology. Evolving phases of
interrelated domains are explored within a country and across coun-
tries. Common phases and considerable similarities in the most impor-
tant areas that define the specialty of school psychology are identified
showing that a similar dynamic process of change that differs in pace is
followed in different countries. Knowledge of the history of the profes-
sion in each country promotes a deeper understanding of school psychol-
ogy and provides insights for future directions. Cross-national collabo-
ration that involves reciprocal knowledge sharing and personal reflec-
tion fosters our professional development and encourages a visionary
and proactive approach for the evolution of school psychology worldwide.

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