Vocal Jazz Pedagogy Books - Annotated Bi
Vocal Jazz Pedagogy Books - Annotated Bi
Vocal Jazz Pedagogy Books - Annotated Bi
Houston, Glennis
I.D. #210092807
Committee Members;
Casey Sokol (Supervisor)
Catherine Robbin
Trichy Sankaran
and discussion of the materials regarding their content and value as studio manuals”
Houston – Page 2
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
BOOKS........................................................................................................................................5
Improvisation.........................................................................................................................5
1. DiBlasio, Denis. Guide for Jazz and Scat Vocalists: Survivor Manual for Aspiring
2. McMurdy, Ronald C. and Willie Hill Jr. Jazz Improvisation Series: Approaching
the Standards. Ed. Pete BarenBregge. Vol. Jazz Vocalists. Miami: Warner Bros.
Publications, 2000....................................................................................................................8
4. —. Scat! Vocal Improvisation Techniques. New York: Gerard & Sarzin, 1996.. . .11
6. Niemack, Judy. Hear It & Sing It!: Exploring Modal Jazz. New York: Second
8. Snidero, Jim. Jazz Conception: 21 Solo Etudes for scat singing, jazz phrasing,
Artistry..................................................................................................................................23
9. Clayton, Jay. Sing Your Story: A Practical Guide for Learning & Teaching The Art
10. Cooper, Dr. Gloria and Don Sickler. Jazz Phrasing: A Workshop for Jazz
11. Spradling, Diana. Jazz Singing: Developing Artistry and Authenticity. Edmonds,
12. Weir, Michele. Jazz Singer's Handbook: The Artistry and Mastery of Singing
Instrumental approaches......................................................................................................33
13. Berkman, David. The Jazz Singer's Guidebook: A Course in Jazz Harmony and
Scat Singing for the Serious Jazz Vocalist. Petaluma: Sher Music, 2009..............................33
15. Zegree, Stephen. The Complete Guide to Teaching Vocal Jazz. Heritage Music
Press, 2002..............................................................................................................................43
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................45
Houston – Page 1
INTRODUCTION
Solo vocal jazz instruction is a fairly recent addition to many university curriculums. Often
beginning in the context of a vocal jazz ensemble, such studies are now more available as private
jazz voice study. Unlike classical voice, which has hundreds of years of history, teaching, and an
abundance of pedagogical materials, traditional values have mainly been transmitted directly
through practice: learned on the bandstand. With few places available to practice and absorb by
apprenticeship now, the study of jazz voice has become the domain of secondary education and
As children and teen-agers, individuals who wish to learn to sing most often seek private
teachers. Although gradually changing, the majority of private instructors continue using
classical technique and often classically oriented materials, and empirical evidence along with
casual discussions with students indicates that instruction is most often grounded in melody, text
and lyric interpretation only. Indeed, it is still often difficult to find voice teachers who are
willing to use commercial and contemporary repertoire at all, and who are also knowledgeable
about the harmonic language of jazz. Discovering a preference to study contemporary repertoire
upon entry to higher education, these young singers – in the absence of any prior piano
instruction – may find themselves years behind instrumentalists of the same age in harmonic
comprehension.
Consequently, vocal jazz education seems to lag behind that of most instrumentalists’
education. Not only do the university- and college-level instructors have to teach appropriate
contemporary commercial vocal technique, but they also have to ensure that they impart the
necessary instruction to enable their students to create a relationship to the harmony. In an article
written by Gene Aitken and Jamey Aebersold, the authors suggest that the areas in vocal jazz
still requiring attention are: 1) the inability of students to follow the changes and to deal with the
Houston – Page 2
scales and chords, 2) the improper use of scat-syllables such that the essence of the jazz concept,
style, and interpretation is lost, and 3) the lack of study and knowledge of established
instrumental and vocal jazz soloists and their music (Aitken & Aebersold). Since the article was
written in 1983, this situation has fortunately changed for the better. One of the judges from the
recent Monk Competition for Vocalists said that the harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic standard
of “scatting” and “improvising” by the young competitors was at a high level (Vitro). Melton,
writes, however, that even when vocalists study harmony and ear-training, they still have the
A search for instructional materials relating to the study of jazz voice, and which might
address this gap in harmonic knowledge, turned up a modest list of books. They range from short
aurally-based documents which discuss the art of singing jazz to more substantial books
involving the study of piano and basic theory, harmony, and rhythm. References were sourced by
means of internet and library searches, as well as by referring to the bibliographies in periodicals
and books.
The objective of this study was to analyze each of these books for harmony- and rhythm-
focused content, and their overall utility as studio manuals. They were chosen if the title referred
to jazz singing in some way, and the theory and ear-training requirements for both Humber
College and Conservatory Canada were used for curriculum guidance. The books were also
includes guidance on practicing, essential listening with reference to the major innovators, all of
the scales, and importantly, songs that utilize the scale being studied (Reeves).
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Humber requires their vocal students to take four semesters of contemporary theory and
improvisation and four semesters of improvisation lab. These courses transition the student from
learning basic terminology and notation through to advanced melodic analysis; slash chord and
polychord harmony, “world” rhythms, two-part counterpoint, and twelve-tone music. The
improvisation lab includes bebop, funk, blues, contemporary jazz, and various Latin styles, and
They are also required to take two semesters of piano (for zero credit), which instructs on the
principles of fingering, posture, chord spelling, lead sheet playing strategies, chord scale
Their four semesters of aural training progress from beginning to advanced level rudiments
of melody, harmony and rhythm, transcription and sight-singing skills, and continue through
Students take applied instrument lessons for the full four-year Bachelor’s program, with four
co-requisite semesters of master classes. The specific vocal requirements in private lessons are:
Conception
1
Humber defines a “lift” as an aural transcription matching the recorded singers’ notes, rhythms, phrasing and
inflections while singing along with the recording.
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Level 8 (estimated age 16 to 18), Conservatory Canada assumes that the student is ready for a
Theory/aural Requirements:
- Sight-reading:
- Aural skills:
In a private voice lesson, it may be difficult to provide the breadth of instruction available in
secondary institutions such as Humber College. Separate theory and harmony instruction, by a
qualified tutor, would likely be necessary. Perusing the requirements of these two curricula,
however, provides a practical guideline of the music skills and education a serious student needs
to obtain.
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Additionally, a student must become comfortable with such practical skills as: “talking
down”2 the song to the band, knowing the form and key of the composition, being able to enter at
the expected time and on the correct note, and importantly, following his or her own instructions
by singing the tune as they instructed to the band. Unfortunately the dearth of performance
opportunities means that there are few situations in which to practice these basic communication
skills.
BOOKS
The books are categorized into four loose areas of focus: improvisation, exercises and ear-
training, artistry, and those with a focus on instrumental approaches to learning to sing jazz.
Improvisation
1. DiBlasio, Denis. Guide for Jazz and Scat Vocalists: Survivor Manual for Aspiring Jazz Singers.
New Albany: Jamey Aebersold Jazz, Inc., 2000.
DiBlasio states that his book is intended to help vocalists with their “unique” problems. It is
for the vocalist “who needs a little direction,” and for those who feel alone in the world of
instrumentalists (1). This book is modest at only 31 pages and includes a CD of exercises. It is
part of the large Jamey Aebersold series, so Aebersold provides approximately half of the
content.
Chapter One defines some of the jargon inherent in jazz music and is included because of his
experiences of seeing scared and confused faces on the singers while band members discuss the
chart and how they think the singer intends to perform it (1). Chapter Two, in 1.5 pages plus
example, briefly describes how to prepare a proper lead sheet. Chapters Three and Four are on
the next page (6); they discuss chord voicings and scat-singing, and include reference to the first
2
Providing a concise summary to the band of how one wishes the song be performed. This often includes
instructions regarding what type of introduction and ending is to be used, the feel and tempo, whether rubato is
required, specific rhythmic details – stop time, shots, etc. – and any other details necessary for the performance.
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recorded exercise. The following four pages in the book illustrate chord voicings on the piano,
He indicates that a singer should learn the two- and three-note voicings in order to “scan” the
harmony (7) and further recommends learning the four-note voicings and memorizing them so
The blues in both F and B-flat follow, also with two-, three-, and four-note piano voicings, as
well as ii-V7-I progressions in root and inversions, and half-diminished-V7#9-I in all minor
keys, root and inversions. He advises the vocalist to memorize them but does not suggest a
method to do so (8).
His sentence “you really don’t have time to think about where they are on the keyboard or
what they will sound like when you’re performing” (8) is certainly true, and vocalists do need
some piano skills. Unless a vocalist is familiar with playing the piano already, however, these
few pages delve into far more complex piano skills than are perhaps appropriate, or necessary, or
even achievable. Clearly, it would worthwhile to be able to spend the time necessary on this task,
but unless singers have already spent years taking piano lessons and have some keyboard skills,
these voicings are likely beyond the patience and ability of the vocalist seeking help with a
vocalistic endeavour.
His next chapter addresses scatting and it is here that he starts to provide substantial
information for a singer, beginning with the practical advice to transcribe solos. He provides tips
as to how to learn to scat by ear if one lacks harmony knowledge, by beginning with singing
around the melody, and then embellishing it (12). He also suggests learning a line or pattern from
He provides a fairly detailed section on learning a new tune if one has harmonic knowledge.
The recorded exercises support this, and DiBlasio provides tracks with which to trade fours and
twos with him, and then with a saxophone. He also includes a track demonstrating his suggested
first steps at learning the new song (beginning by learning the roots, and then improvising around
them) (12).
Chapters Five, Six, Seven, and Eight occupy the next two pages, and include reference to
scales and chords for scat singing and ear training tips.
Aebersold’s Scale Syllabus, his preparatory exercises for piano, and an interval chart follow
DiBlasio’s sections, and Aebersold includes a one-page discussion on soloing. His most astute
observation is that “there’s no way anyone is going to play jazz or improvise well without
listening…” (22). He adds that, through listening, one can find all the answers (ibid). This was
Aebersold also includes a paragraph on practice procedures, which include: learning the
roots, singing the scales up to the ninth, and singing the arpeggios. Additionally, he provides a
basic song list for beginning, intermediate, and advanced singers (ibid.). In the last few pages,
Aebersold includes major and minor scale work, and finishes the book with ii-V-I progressions.
If singers had buttons or keys to press, it would be prudent to learn scales in all twelve
keys, as Aebersold suggests, in order to practice fingering and embouchure adjustment. The
voice is different in that the instrument is internal to the singer, and the changes a singer must
make with ascending or descending pitches are sensitive – they are beyond a finger adjustment.
Singing scales has the potential to become vocal technique exercises rather than ear-training
limitations would likely make it into a technique exercise, however, so it is doubtful that one
The most beneficial of the last few recorded tracks and exercises are the last two, which
include ii-V7-I progressions in two keys, and suggest good “licks” to use (31). Once the singer
learns these melodic fragments, s/he can then practice them with the last recording. Since the ii-
V-I progression is the most common in jazz, it is vital for the singer to be able to hear this chord
sequence, and sing it in tune. Therefore, this exercise acts as an ear training application to
Although there are some excellent ideas and good aural examples for guiding a singer in
learning his or her material on a deeper level than simply melody and text, this book is poorly
organized. The book as a whole is overly brief and its chapters would be more appropriately
called sections. It also contains information that appears to be copied from Aebersold’s other
instrument-focused books. It leaves one with the impression that the aforesaid singer problem is
still being dealt with in a superficial manner. When questioned regarding the length of this and
his other books, Aebersold responded that “The length of any of our books is pretty much
books but the length is not a basic concern” (Houston Email). That is not the impression one gets
from this edition. Comparing this publication with others, I have verified that there are parts that
are duplicated.
2. McMurdy, Ronald C. and Willie Hill Jr. Jazz Improvisation Series: Approaching the
Standards. Ed. Pete BarenBregge. Vol. Jazz Vocalists. Miami: Warner Bros. Publications,
2000.
Houston – Page 9
McMurdy and Hill created their 44-page workbook to help vocalists “build a melodic,
harmonic and rhythmic jazz vocabulary” (3). They use ten classic jazz tunes, and include a CD to
assist students in listening, analyzing, transcribing and committing the transcriptions to memory
(ibid). Each song uses a female and male professional singer, who performs the melody as
written, and then improvises. One chorus of improvisation is already transcribed in the book for
the student, and blank manuscript paper is provided on the following page for the student to
There are two tracks for each song; the vocalists sing it the first time, and the second is
instruments only, with several repetitions of the choruses for practicing the melody as well as for
creating one’s own improvisation. The authors also include composers’ insights, a discography,
McMurdy and Hill waste no time in getting to the exercises; this book is not about learning
harmony via keyboard skills, but is a direct line to aural training. By repeatedly listening and
transcribing the notes and rhythms from the vocal solos, one generates a relationship to the jazz
harmonic language as did the vocal masters from the past. This is jazz education at its most basic
and heralding the time prior to jazz becoming institutionalized. Songs included are Now’s the
Time, Satin Doll, Softly as in a Morning Sunrise, Summertime, I Got Rhythm, Honeysuckle
Rose, Tenor Madness, Bye Bye Blackbird, Secret Love, and Take the A Train.
The authors assume that the singer has a certain degree of theory education, so in their song
notes, they briefly comment on the crucial harmonic points about the song. For example, in their
discussion of Parker’s Now’s the Time, they recommend focusing on major, minor, and
dominant scales and chords (6). In Satin Doll, they suggest incorporating sequences in one’s
improvisation in order to give the solos form and character (10). In Softly as in a Morning
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Sunrise, they say that mastering the flat-nine chord in the bridge and the half-diminished chords
in the A section are significant to this piece (14). For each song, McMurdy and Hill refer to only
one or two theoretical and harmonic points on which to work and which they feel are pertinent to
They have written out each of the scales for the chord progressions, with the chord tones
indicated by solid note heads. Since both authors are instrumentalists, it would likely be natural
for them to incorporate guide tones, scales, and arpeggios as fundamental steps to learning the
tune. Although they do not specifically recommend a way to study the song, like learning chord
tones, scales, and arpeggios, it could be inferred by their inclusion of the chord progressions and
matching scales.
The “licks and tricks” measures include three lines of potential melodic material. The first
two lines use the chord progressions from the A section; the last line uses the first few chords
from the B section, if it is a sectioned piece. The blues tunes simply provide three different
The modest discography accompanying each piece includes both vocalists and
instrumentalists, and provides four or five excellent suggestions. For example, for Parker’s
Now’s the Time, not only are several of Charlie Parker’s recordings included in the list, but also
Art Blakey’s A Night at Birdland, Sonny Rollins’ Greatest Hits, and Eddie Jefferson’s Body and
Soul (7). Ernestine Anderson, Peggy Lee, Ella Fitzgerald, Nancy Wilson, and The Best of Duke
This is a very good and basic studio aid for guidance for transcription assignments for first-
year college or university students. At the very least, if a student were to integrate aural
Houston – Page 11
functions, s/he would garner an excellent sense of musicality, phrasing, and jazz sense.
3. Stoloff, Bob. Blues Scatitudes: Vocal Improvisation on the Blues. Brooklyn: Gerard &
Sarzin, 2003.
4. —. Scat! Vocal Improvisation Techniques. New York: Gerard & Sarzin, 1996.
Multi-instrumentalist Bob Stoloff has produced two books focused on vocal improvisation,
His first, Scat!, is a comprehensive approach to improvisation with rhythmic and melodic
exercises, transcribed solos, vocal bass lines and drum grooves, syllable articulation etudes, and
call-and-response exercises.
Beginning with a few informative pages on the history of scat and jazz vocal improvisation,
the author writes about the work of Louis Armstrong, touches on both well-known and more
unfamiliar vocal improvisors, and concludes with Vocal Summit, in which both author Stoloff
and “instru-vocalist” Bobby McFerrin were members (13). He also provides a listening list of
scat artists.
The exercises begin with several 32-bar rhythm etudes which introduce non-pitched rhythmic
patterns for triplet and duple time practice. They also contain accent markings, both on- and off-
beats, syncopations, and potential scat syllables. He states that he has included these drills with
scat syllables because the first question he is often asked by novice jazz singers is “what
Chapter two contains diatonic patterns for vocal warm up, with suggested scat syllables and
accents. Regarding syllables, he comments that one needs to consider which vowels to use while
ascending or descending in pitch, and that vowels sound better if /i/ is used on higher pitches,
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with /a/ or /u/ on lower pitches (25).3 For the female voice, classical vocal pedagogy indicates the
opposite; open vowels for higher pitches and closed vowels, like /i/, in the lower range. With the
combination of external amplification and the typically lower range of songs in contemporary
music, vowel usage is perhaps an unnecessary complication, especially if the vowels employed
are comfortable and vibrant. What is more important is which syllables to use for stylistic
considerations and accents, for stepwise versus wider intervals, and when the melodic contour
changes (ibid.)
Stoloff uses interesting rhythms in the theme and variation exercises and, to get the full
benefit of these, one needs to pay close attention to his syncopations and stressed notes. He
moves into modal jazz ii-V patterns and melodic embellishments, and includes extended
arpeggio exercises around the circle of fifths, as well as altered scales for practice in hearing flat-
and sharp-ninths (48). A teacher could include these in the vocal warmup section of the lesson,
Some modal scales follow, along with very brief notes as to which chord matches a particular
scale. He discusses altered dominant chords along with the appropriate scales to use for soloing,
and provides some small improvisation samples and exercises. Of the long exercises that come
next, one could be a duet or for use in an ensemble, with one or two individuals singing a
walking bass line while the other voice(s) sings a descending bebop scale around the circle of
fifths. Other exercises are dominant seventh with sharp eleventh, dominant seventh turnarounds,
Next in the book are the practice melodies. They begin with blues and rhythm changes, and
move to forms with more complex chord changes, and which incorporate altered and modal
scales.
3
International Phonetic Alphabet - /i/ pronounced as in ‘be;’ /u/ as in ‘loop.’
Houston – Page 13
The last half of the book contains work on vocal bass lines and percussion sounds. Vocalists
need to be aware of what the bass player plays, so the vocal bass line section could be well-used
in a studio to build this consciousness and solidify hearing root movement. The rhythm changes
for vocal bass (transposed into appropriate keys) would not only provide a female singer with
practice in reading an unfamiliar clef, but would also provide essential practice on a commonly-
used progression.
He finishes with vocal drum articulations, and these may be better used in a jazz ensemble or
a cappella group. Their usefulness in the voice studio may be limited, but is warranted to create
Aside from omitting transcription or piano skills, this book is one of the better ones. It
provides a demanding rhythm workout, which is the area where vocalists tend to be weak, along
with ear-training that deals with some difficult melodic ideas. Often, vocal improvisation lines
are uninspired both rhythmically and melodically and Scat! addresses those deficiencies.
Blues-focused material comprises his Blues Scatitudes. Stoloff again includes rhythm
exercises, incorporating accents and syllabification. Ear-training work focuses largely on scales,
which include: major, major and minor pentatonic, and the blues scale. There are several pages
of exercises over the blues form, and there are eight blues compositions, which are each recorded
Blues Scatitudes is easier than his first book, Scat!; it appears to be directed at a beginning-
level vocalist. One could begin with this book prior to moving to Scat!, although there is enough
material for all skill-levels within his first book to make Scatitudes redundant.
A detraction of this book is that it is impossible to import the tracks from the CD into a
Weir’s book is the most substantial of the group, consisting of 21 chapters, and 232 pages.
She deals with the fundamentals of chords and scales, chord progressions, and includes a very
modest five pages for jazz keyboard. There is also an appendix of 19 interesting interviews with
jazz singers (Dee Dee Bridgewater, Jay Clayton, Sheila Jordan, Kurt Elling, and Judy Niemack,
to name just a few). Questions to the interviewees revolve around how they learned to improvise,
whether they practice improvisation, their proficiency level on other instruments, musical
influences for improvisation, and what they think is important to tell students of vocal
improvisation (195).
Weir also suggests solos for transcription, and indicates which ones would be appropriate for
beginning students, and which ones are more difficult (218). She provides a listening-list, which
includes both instrumentalists and vocalists, and divides the instrumental section into instruments
of focus (i.e. Tenor Saxophone, Alto Saxophone, Trumpet, etc.). The guidance in this section is
very helpful as a young singer needs to begin with easy solos. One could also use any of the
tracks on the accompanying CD, on which Darmon Meader, Michelle Weir, and Don Shelton
improvise.
Weir is first and foremost a pianist who also sings, and therefore speaks from an
instrumentalist’s viewpoint. She says that her goal in writing the book is to “make a contribution
to jazz by inspiring more interest and development in the art of vocal improvisation” (11). Her
many years of presenting improvisation clinics and working with jazz singers in both classroom
and private lesson situations has provided her with a wealth of experience from which to draw.
She notes that singers tend to be less harmonically evolved than their instrumental
counterparts. Therefore, when they solo, they neglect to use interesting, inventive, and
harmonically sophisticated lines because they remain stuck in the harmonic language of 1940s
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swing music. This, she feels, is why there is a lack of respect for vocal improvisation. Many have
suggested that the extent of a singer’s improvisation should consist of only varying and
Weir, like any instrumentalist, contends that the way one learns how to improvise is through
extensive listening and doing aural and written transcriptions. She says that “learning by ear
could be the best way for us to tap into our most creative, adventurous, and free-spirited
potential” (28). A surprising disagreement on this idea though, is from Humber’s Brian
Dickinson, who wrote The Ears Have Walls (not discussed in this paper). He says that, although
he himself recommends it, “there are many varying opinions on the merits of transcribing jazz
solos as a means to improving one’s improvising” (19). Weir feels there may be a disadvantage
if one relies exclusively on listening, however, because the harmonic nature of jazz has evolved
over the years and is now more sophisticated. She fears that it could be a slow road to fluency
without a basic theoretical understanding (ibid), and perhaps this is what Dickinson meant to
Her first section in the jazz fundamentals chapter is on scales and modes. It is a modest
introduction and she explains that, because the main thrust of the book is to teach one how to
improvise by hearing key centers, she does not want to dwell on scales. Therefore, she only lists
and transcribes the commonly used scales and the chords over which they may be used (42).
The next ten pages introduces chord progressions, wherein she provides recommendations
for some jazz theory books one can investigate for further study. The rest of the section deals
with rhythmic grooves, song forms, and a few pages of jazz keyboard.
Section Two, Beginning Improvisation, starts with melodic variation on the blues
progression. She uses simple syllables, like “ba,” “da-ba,” and “dot,” and transitions from simple
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to more complex melodic and rhythmic variation and ornamentation. Her next exercise uses a
song she calls In the Time of Summer, which is based on the familiar Summertime. The
demonstration singers provide very small melodic licks in call-and-response format so that one
can sing back the small fragments. In successive choruses, the melodic ideas become longer, and
in the last chorus Weir scats over the form, which she recommends one learn and transcribe (74).
Her most valid point within the section synopsis is again about listening, and says that “simply
hearing the music itself is probably the single most helpful method of learning jazz
improvisation” (ibid.).
The next section is about rhythm. It is similar to Stoloff’s Scat! rhythm etude exercises, in
that she approaches them by using short and simple motives and adheres to easy syncopations.
She recommends using a metronome for practice. The CD exercise contains call-and-response
rhythm fragments which use one-measure motives and easily-spoken syllables, with only drum
set as accompaniment. Less than a minute into the track, the fragments switch to two-measure
rhythms, with increased rhythm and syllable complexity. Although the exercises are not as
extensive as the ones Stoloff uses, they seem adequate for the beginning-level of singer, and
Chapter Seven deals with melody creation and recaps her section on Melody Variation, found
a few pages earlier. She quickly progresses to the blues scale, and provides numerous melodic
fragment exercises which utilize the pitches of the scale. She also discusses vocal inflections,
like the shake and fall-off, for example, and the CD track provides practice examples.
Major diatonic chord progressions are in the next chapter, with examples of two-measure
melodic motives one can use while navigating the circle of fifths, as well as over the I-vi-ii-V
progression. Weir also includes minor sixth to half-diminished-flat-9 progressions for practicing
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the harmonic minor scale over the progression. Humber College includes several of these
Chapter Nine, Learning to Hear the Changes, begins with work on learning how to hear and
sing root movement, and uses a composition Weir calls Take the Train to Harlem (103). Her
method involves simply singing the roots at first, and then singing simple rhythms on the roots.
The third step is scatting on pitches adjacent to the roots, gradually incorporating more melody
experimention. She and her colleagues demonstrate this on the CD; the first time through the
song, she sings only the melody, and the second time through Weir sings only the roots using
simple rhythms. The third time, she sings easy melodic improvisation based on the roots, and
gradually gets more experimental. On the last iteration, a different singer provides his own
improvisation for the student to learn and transcribe. To further assist the beginning-level student
to experiment with creating melodic fragments, the next track on the CD continues with the Take
the Train chord progression. The demonstration singers each provide a one-chorus call-and-
response exercise, followed by another full chorus of solos. The improvisation segments, and last
chorus of improvisation, are more difficult than on the previous track, but still accessible to the
beginning student.
structure and development, non-diatonic chord progressions, and more work on hearing the
changes. Weir delves further into achieving a deeper aural understanding of harmony using her
Take the Train by adding exercises using the root and third, followed by arpeggios and singing
She has transcribed the exercises for the non-diatonic changes, which are quite challenging
compared to the exercises in the first section. They range in length from two to eight measures,
Houston – Page 18
and introduce chromaticism. Humber uses some of these Intermediate level exercises for both
first and second year students (third year students use exercises in the Advanced Improvising
section).
The Advanced section works on more rhythmic concepts, and introduces sixteenth-note
figures in anticipation of rapid bebop lines and more chromaticism. The exercises are noticeably
more difficult, and Weir cautions that the student must be meticulous during practice because
chromaticism is so often difficult for singers (144). In addition to the short bebop lines, she
includes a longer jazz etude based on rhythm changes. Weir sings the melody the first time, with
clarinet and saxophone solos following on the second and third iterations.
Her section on Hearing the Changes Better expands on her Beginning Improvisation section
with the inclusion of arpeggios to the ninth and guide tone lines on the thirds and sevenths to aid
in harmonic definition during improvisation (153). She indicates the next step of this process as
incorporating improvisation around the thirds and sevenths, rather than only the roots. She makes
a key comment regarding how well singers need to know the harmony, and says “the true test is
this: if you can improvise a cappella on a tune and clearly define the changes, you have done
Whether or not one intends to improvise by scatting, by using Weir’s suggestions, one will
obtain much-needed further education in harmonic principals. One will be able to more skillfully
create melodic variations, and will attain the awareness needed to ensure that one preserves, or
Vocalists have their work cut out for them, and this book goes a long way toward assisting
them. This is an excellent pedagogical resource for both student and teacher, not only for
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improvisation, but also for basic jazz ear training. The concepts are presented well, and the
pacing is appropriate.
There is not enough information in this book to use it for very advanced piano or theory; one
would need to augment this book with other worthwhile sources, and the author provides
6. Niemack, Judy. Hear It & Sing It!: Exploring Modal Jazz. New York: Second Floor Music,
2004.
When jazz vocalist Judy Niemack studied improvisation, she was the only vocal student of
tenor saxophonist Wayne Marsh. When she began singing she did the same thing that many, or
most, singers do – she improvised by ear; her success depended upon her inspiration and
familiarity with the song (5). She quickly realized that in order to develop her musical
vocabulary and develop her improvisational skill, she not only needed jazz theory knowledge,
but also needed to be able to hear it. Marsh showed her how to transcribe instrumental solos by
ear, how to learn to sing and play them, and urged her to focus her practice sessions on chords
and scales separately, and then on chord progressions (ibid). An interesting comment from her is
that after spending twenty-five years practicing, performing, and teaching vocal jazz, she has
returned to where she began, which is learning by ear. She feels that learning aurally is still the
The CD contains many tracks. The first seven, which total approximately eight minutes long,
are for vocal warm up. Her students told her that they found the hardest part of practicing was
simply getting started; it was with that in mind that she created this book and CD to enable a
student to simply insert it into a player and use it to not only work on the scales, but also for
warm up guidance (6). They are easy exercises to do, and stay within an appropriate range for
Houston – Page 20
both female and male voices. She uses both open and closed vowels and uses both major and
minor tonalities. She provides a brief vocal example of the exercise, which moves through all
keys, but soon ceases in order to allow the student to continue with the accompaniment.
The next dozen pages of the book contain a brief summary of modal jazz and theory
concepts. She expresses the hope that her tiny introduction about theory piques the student’s
interest enough to compel him or her to pursue further study, and in that regard she recommends
several sources (39). She also devotes a few pages to discussing scat singing, and provides a
pronunciation guide to the syllables she uses. She relays that while spending much of her time
teaching in Europe, she has found that the students there struggle with the American
pronunciations and spellings and this is her attempt to codify scat for them (ibid.).
The modal workouts follow the same pattern, and cover Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian,
Mixolydian, Aeolian, and Locrian; she provides a description and diagram of the mode, and
indicates over which chord the scale would be best used. She begins the exercises with the
pianist playing the scale while she sings it, and then moves to intervals which increase in size
from the root up, and then octave down. For example, she sings root-second-root; root-third-root;
etc., and repeats that pattern from the octave up by singing eighth-seventh-eighth; eighth-sixth-
Diatonic thirds and triads come next, followed by call-and-response with two-measure
melodic motives starting on the tonic as well as other scale degrees. Some of these motives bear
similarity from mode to mode, but they are not identical, so they provide a number of ideas to
She says that the CD is “designed to be useful in high school and college jazz choir settings,
use the CD and be able to instruct the young singers in proper breathing techniques and posture,
without having the distraction of playing the exercise. Niemack suggests using only one scale per
rehearsal, starting with the major scales (Ionian first, and then Lydian and Mixolydian). Minor
This would be a good resource if jazz ear-training courses were unavailable, as one would
assume that this information would be covered in those classes. It would also be more helpful
had she included suggestions of songs that make ample use of these tonalities.
7. Rawlins, Steve. 21 Bebop Exercises for Vocalists & Instrumentalists. Milwaukee: Hal
Leonard, 2001.
8. Snidero, Jim. Jazz Conception: 21 Solo Etudes for scat singing, jazz phrasing, interpretation,
and improvisation. Hechingen: Advance Music, 1999.
Both Rawlins and Snidero produced books similar in intent, so both are discussed in this
section.
Rawlins’ book contains, as the title says, exercises based on bebop lines. He says in his
introduction that he feels by narrowing in on only 21 clearly defined examples, one can
memorize them easily and grasp an understanding of chord alterations, phrasing, and note
selection options (3). All exercises explore all twelve keys, and are at moderate to fast tempos.
Some require time spent at a piano, as the vibraphone used to state the melody of the exercise is
The exercises cover many patterns, such as: thirds, scales ending in sharp and flat ninths,
chromatics, semi-tones with triads and neighbour tones, ascending and descending major and
minor arpeggios with chromatic root movement, three against four, sixteenth note runs, ii-V7-I
patterns, diminished triads, diminished and double-diminished scales, diminished patterns, minor
I and IV chords, and minor I to Major IV, perfect fourths and augmented fourths, the whole tone
One drawback of this book is its use of extended ranges. Rawlins feels that these exercises
will help in developing a vocalist’s, or instrumentalist’s, range, and writes that “even ‘squeaking’
out the new notes at first will help extend [your] range” (4). Vocal range extension exercises are
entirely different than these, however, and because of the melodic difficulty of some of the
exercises, it is quite possible that one’s attention to technique would become secondary,
negatively impacting the voice. It may be true that “squeaking” out pitches on non-vocal
instruments helps to expand one’s range, but it is unwise suggestion for vocal range extension
Many of the other authors have provided a CD with the vocals recorded on a separate track to
enable one to practice with only the rhythm section, but unfortunately Rawlins did not.
The accompanying CD to Snidero’s book of etudes utilizes a female vocalist and rhythm
section. The vocals have been recorded onto a separate track to allow one to practice only with
Snidero based his etudes on familiar jazz standards, some of which are Total Blues (All
Blues); Proxy (Doxy); Father Song (Song for my Father); Friends (Just Friends); and Autumn
(Autumn Leaves). Many of the songs on which Snidero based his Conceptions are likely to be in
a young jazz vocalist’s repertoire book. By learning the etude in conjunction with learning the
song, a student would obtain not only a deeper understanding of the song’s harmonic movement,
He has provided many different “flavours” of jazz, from swing to modal jazz. All key
choices are excellent for both male and female singers, and he makes ample use of different feels
and tempos. Snidero composed the etudes, so they are instrumentally conceived and make ample
use of non-chord tones and rhythmic variation. He recommends memorizing them, and
Houston – Page 23
acknowledges that this book is not meant to replace transcribing and listening but is meant as an
introduction and supplement (6). These etudes would be very acceptable for transcription
practice; they are within the abilities of novice jazz vocalist, and some would provide a
challenge.
This book has excellent potential for use as a studio manual despite the singer lacking a
strong sense of swing. And, although the singer is very good, a male voice would be an
Artistry
9. Clayton, Jay. Sing Your Story: A Practical Guide for Learning & Teaching The Art of Jazz
Singing. Advance Music, 2001.
Clayton hails from the generation of singers who had the opportunity to learn their craft on
the bandstand, and benefited from an informal apprenticeship that does not exist today. She
makes a point that she listened to everything from gospel to avant-garde (9), and that her earliest
influences were horn players whose live performances were critical to her understanding of the
Clayton excludes piano skills and theory. Her book seems to be directed at the singer who
only wants to sing, and who has no piano skills. Therefore, her first chapter begins with advice
on choosing songs, and says that choosing material is the first step in cultivating one’s personal
style (11). She feels that it is very important that a singer first learn songs by rote using a
previously recorded version. The next step is to find somebody to play the melody so the singer
can record it as written, without being influenced by another vocalist’s interpretation (ibid.). She
advises memorizing the song as soon as possible, and seems to feel that a singer really knows the
Houston – Page 24
song as long as he or she does not have to look at the lyrics (12). Other processes she advises are
analyzing the form of the tune, and singing the song rubato (ibid.)
She includes a section on lead sheets and transposition, and provides a scale chart of the
typical keys used, with a transcription of the major scales and corresponding natural minors. She
makes an odd comment when she discusses the keys and cautions the singer on the keys to use;
she writes that “some keys have so many sharps or flats that the musicians simply have to think
too hard” (16). There are certainly more favourable and typical keys to use than others, and one
wants to ensure a great performance of the song from all involved, but unfortunately her word
choice is poor.
The next several pages takes a singer through the steps for transposing a chart, and Clayton
She discusses tune list and book organization, arrangements, and how to “talk down the tune”
(33). She also demonstrates various introductions and endings (4-bar, 8-bar, vamp, etc.) and
Clayton addresses performance next, and suggests that “you learn to sing by singing…the
sooner you get out there and sing for people the better” (37). She also notes the potential of
sitting in, how one copes with stage fright, and includes a couple of paragraphs directed at a
whom one should listen, and who are considered to be storytellers (41). She makes some
excellent points in her tips on phrasing wherein she suggests that the singer must understand and
believe the lyric’s message, leave space, and sing the melody because it is never boring if it is
honest (ibid.)
Houston – Page 25
In her discussion about scatting, she observes that one should scat only if one has something
to say, and that “scatting for the sake of scatting will always sound contrived” (42). She feels that
“when a singer knows the song well and connects with its meaning...improvising happens
naturally, without effort” (ibid.). One can assume she is referring here to improvisation by
paraphrasing the lyric, as she clarifies that being able to solo over the changes is a lifelong
endeavour.
She uses the blues and rhythm changes as the primary forms over which a beginning singer
can learn to hear the changes. An interesting and fun exercise she introduces for use in a group
setting is a blues collage (43), wherein one singer begins singing a blues head a cappella; the
next singer joins in, at the appropriate point, with a different blues head. The other singers in the
group join with their choice of blues tune, resulting in a medley of blues melodies. Empirical
evidence indicates that this is a great ear-stretching, rhythm, and concentration exercise during a
She finally refers to learning the bass melody to aid in learning to improve, and suggests
another group game where one singer sings the bass line, another sings the melody of the song,
Clayton discusses her experience with free-form improvisation. She feels that it is an
invaluable tool for developing an individual’s vocabulary, for listening to the inner ear as well as
to surrounding music, and for gaining confidence in one’s intuition (46). In her workshops, she
has the participants perform some free improvisation, as well as some of her experimental
compositions (ibid.).
In the preface to Clayton’s brief book, Sheila Jordan writes that this book specifically
addresses the plight of a singer, and that this musical map provides the correct direction; no more
Houston – Page 26
guesswork, and no more singer jokes (8). One must remember that this book is directed at the
“art” of jazz singing and not at theory and harmony. With so many other books available that
discuss all of the topics that Clayton addresses here, and that also include harmonic instruction,
this book may not fill the niche that Jordan feels it does. It is very basic and may not assist the
vocalist much in fulfilling the requirements that are expected of singers today within the
academic setting.
10. Cooper, Dr. Gloria and Don Sickler. Jazz Phrasing: A Workshop for Jazz Vocalists. New
York: Second Floor Music, 2004.
Dr. Gloria Cooper, jazz pianist and vocalist, is Assistant Professor of Music at Long Island
University in Brooklyn, NY. She is Editor of Sing Jazz!, a compendium of lead sheets of songs
largely derived from tunes that were originally conceived as instrumental pieces, to which lyrics
were added at a later date. It is from that source that Cooper derives her working pieces for Jazz
Phrasing.
In her introduction, Cooper states that this book offers a practical, hands-on approach to fine-
tuning important elements of jazz phrasing; the book/CD combination allows one to see how the
music is notated while listening to it being played by a rhythm section, and to hear many of the
examples sung by professional vocalists (5). She arranges the tracks so the first one is played by
a trumpet; the second one is a voice duplicating the trumpet line; and the third one is the rhythm
To demonstrate how different tempos affect swing eighth-notes, she dedicates the first
twenty tracks of the CD to one song, My Little Sherri, performed in increasingly faster tempos.
While listening to only the trumpet tracks, one hears the marked difference as the eighth-notes
become more rhythmically even with the increase in tempo; the subtle differences in phrasing by
the rhythm section and the vocalist provide each tempo with its own identity (8). Cooper also
Houston – Page 27
briefly discusses the accompaniment rhythms, introducing the use of the “Charleston” figure in
bass and piano to mesh with the triplet figure set up in the drums. She also draws one’s attention
to how the feel changes when the bass switches to a walking-bass line and the drummer adjusts
These 12-measure segments are ideal tools for completely concentrating and duplicating the
phrasing and punctuation by the trumpet. Cooper also draws attention to the syllables that the
singer uses on her tracks, and comments upon how the syllables one uses – how one combines
Her next section deals with flexible, open phrasing, and she begins the discussion with
various examples of Judy Niemack’s recording of I’m Movin’ On, a bright jazz waltz. The
rhythm sections begins with a two-against-three feel and soon shifts incorporating a walking-
bass line, with brushes on the drums, while Niemack explores dynamic shaping and uses
anticipations and delays. They experiment with medium tempo, and then medium-slow, Latin
grooves, while Cooper continues with her guidance on what one should listen for (21). She also
allows for plenty of practice time for one to sing along with the rhythm section on the tracks. The
medium-slow tempo and feel is drastically different than the bright waltz with which they began,
and these examples illustrate how different feels work for the same song. She finishes the chapter
by discussing phrasing in a ballad, and provides several examples of textual treatment with
rhythm variations.
Cooper concludes her book with discussion on Hank Mobley’s Comin’ Back, to which
George V. Johnson added lyrics and then renamed Your Day Is Come (41); she provides a full
lead sheet with lyrics, rhythm specifications, feel changes, and transcribed trumpet solos. Further
discussion involves the use of backgrounds in one’s arrangement. Cooper suggests that
Houston – Page 28
backgrounds be in every vocalist’s survival kit for use in improvisation situations where there
may be more than one vocalist interacting with other solo instruments (50).
This is an informative book as a home study manual, and her lead sheets are excellent
examples of how detailed and professional-looking they should be. For the teaching studio, it
could provide great ideas for weekly homework projects on lead sheet construction.
11. Spradling, Diana. Jazz Singing: Developing Artistry and Authenticity. Edmonds, WA:
Sound Music Publications, 2007.
Spradling’s 142-page book contains four Forwards, written by notable pedagogues and
performers. Two of these individuals are Dr. Steve Zegree, who holds the Bobby McFerrin
Professor of Jazz appointment at Western Michigan University, and Mark Murphy, a jazz world
icon. Zegree is very complimentary about this “ground-breaking book” (iii), and feels that
Spradling presents solid evidence and documentation that will go a long way to dispelling
opinions and myths that some classical voice teachers believe to be the truth (ibid). Murphy does
not say very much, which causes one to wonder why Murphy’s comments were used at all, other
than the cache of having someone of his prominence offering support of the book.
Dr. Ronald McMurdy, co-author of Approaching the Jazz Standards, also provides his
accolades, and refers to this as an “exhaustive study” (vii). He feels that it will have long-term
implications for how educators can, and should, add to their arsenal of tools (ibid.).
Spradling states that the purpose of this book is to endeavour to “define the craft and artistic
parameters of jazz singing from both an artistic and pedagogical perspective” (ix), and to offer
operational definitions of the physical and acoustical behaviors of jazz singers based on scientific
spectrographic analysis of 20 significant artists (xvi). To do this, she examines several of the
same properties of voice discussed in classical vocal pedagogy books, and measures degrees of
Houston – Page 29
sameness and differences in vocal production, acoustical properties, and physical behaviors
(ibid.).
Chapter one describes how she chose the artists to include in the study. She chose the
participants only if they were listed in the New Grove Dictionary of Jazz as a singer and, if they
were multi-instrumentalists, singer had to be listed as the first instrument. Other qualifications
she defined, of which the artist had to satisfy at least five, include: being born no later than 1950,
being listed in Leonard Feather’s Biographical Encyclopedia of Jazz, having collaborated and/or
addition to singing, having recorded a significant body of work which include historically
influential tunes, having headlined at a major jazz festival (the likes of Montreal, Monterey, and
Montreaux), having been listed at least once in Downbeat, being recognized by the International
Association for Jazz Education (now defunct), having a biography published in jazz-related
journals, being a composer and writer, and having been nominated and/or having received a
Grammy award. The 20 artists who satisfied her requirements include some of the biggest
names, like Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan, Carmen McRae, Mel Tormé, Mark
She describes her process of choosing the records of the artists in chapter two, and chapter
three contains the results of the analysis. She states that jazz singers explore many more variables
in sound production than do classical singers, and that there are several categories of common
practice for jazz that are different than the common practices of classical singing. She devotes
time referring to voice science, the use (or not) of the singer’s formant, discussing first, second,
third, and subsequent formants and how they related to mouth, and tongue body and tip
placement (13-15).
Houston – Page 30
In Chapter five, on vowel production and text treatment, she reports that in the higher pitches
of both men and women, jazz vocalists tend to use purer vowels versus speech-like vowels
employed lower in their range. She does not, unfortunately, define what she considers higher
pitches and this could use further clarification. Higher pitches for classical singers are very
different from the higher pitches of jazz vocalists. Indeed, there are few pitches jazz vocalists
Her statement that this “certainly lends integrity to the study of pure vowel production for the
jazz singer” (24), seems to infer that only by relating a contemporary voice study to classical
voice does it gain validity or integrity. Commercial and contemporary voice production is very
different from classical; by invoking the comparison, and approval, of classical voice
researchers, she undermines the validity of jazz voice as its own entity. Having said that,
however, over the past number of years there has been an increasing amount of research on
contemporary and commercial voice in an effort towards dispelling the assumption by classical
voice teachers that singing jazz damages the voice. One can hope that Spradling’s research will
aid in that furthering the advancement of contemporary voice pedagogy, and perhaps a necessary
Chapter five provides some tips as to what one may do to counteract difficulties like vowel
use and “placement,” but they are difficult to locate in the density of the text. Other topics she
addresses are vibrato, posture, breath management, and disciplined practice, where she discusses
exercises. Unfortunately, the exercises are difficult to locate because they are in prose form
rather than diagram – they are lost within her discussion. In the beginning of Section Three of the
book, though, she eventually suggests using Steve Rawlins’ 21Bebop Exercises to learn
Part three documents artistic vocal improvisation, and is authored by Justin Garrett Binek of
the jazz faculty of Philadelphia’s University of the Arts. He transcribed six vocal solos, which
represent what many consider to be the finest works of the chosen artists (Sarah Vaughan, Mel
Tormé, Ella Fitzgerald, Betty Carter, Bobby McFerrin, and Mark Murphy), and then provides his
On an artistic level, this is the most interesting and helpful part of the book. For each solo, he
describes what the artist does melodically, and how it corresponds with the underlying harmony.
He summarizes the rhythmic, melodic, and scat concepts, and also provides an analysis of the
syllable choices the artists made. His transcription are informative, which, when combined with
learning the solo aurally, provides information that is much more pertinent to a jazz singer and
voice teacher than the science-heavy first part of the book. His last section is a summary of the
Spradling is obviously excited about voice science and seeks to fill a niche, however the
information contained, as well as the layout of this book, negates usefulness as a studio manual.
She invokes the spirit of art and artistry development in the title, but the content does not honour
that intent. It is a young research area, and the work is worthwhile, but the title of the book
should convey that message, and reflect her interest in the science of jazz voice.
12. Weir, Michele. Jazz Singer's Handbook: The Artistry and Mastery of Singing Jazz. USA:
Alfred, 2005.
Weir begins by providing a listening list of twenty vocal jazz CDs, and stresses that “no
matter how informative any book may be, it can never be a substitute for hearing this music” (6).
She also suggests a list of 45 standards she recommends a singer new to jazz include in his or her
repertoire (7).
Houston – Page 32
In Chapter One, Weir provides lead sheets for five standards, each in two keys to make them
suitable for both female and male singers. She also suggests a variety of artists who have
recorded versions of the songs, from Ella Fitzgerald and Anita O’Day, to John Pizzarelli and
Barbra Streisand (who is not noted for singing jazz, but who is a great interpreter) (9).
This book focuses solely on interpretation, and works on things like: phrasing, pronunciation,
and conversational text delivery, making the song personalized, melody treatment, and swing
rhythm feel. In her chapter on how to learn a new song, in addition to the obvious point that one
needs to learn the original melody and choose the proper key, she devotes a couple of pages to
Personal experience indicates that vocalists, even at the university level, do not often have a
solid concept of what good lead sheets look like. Without proper instruction and examples, the
charts they create are often almost illegible. Chapter Nine is dedicated to that topic, and provides
good instruction and clear examples that include melody, lyrics, and chords.
Chapter Ten deals with creating an arrangement and is intensely informative. Several tracks
on the accompanying CD demonstrate the numerous examples she provides for introductions and
endings, in both major and minor keys, and are notated with chord symbols and slash notation
for rhythm. This section is very valuable; often, if a vocalist does not have piano and theory
skills, he or she leaves introductions and endings up to the instrumentalists and they often fall
back on some fairly standard chord choices. Notating specific introductions and endings on the
lead sheet provides for a much needed change from the default choices, and indicates that the
vocalist has done some homework. Weir includes examples of charts at the end of this chapter
(excluding lyrics and melody lines, which are easily available in fake books), and describes the
components she feels are important to include, such as introduction, form, feel, and endings.
Houston – Page 33
The last few chapters of the book address creating a gig book, rehearsing with the band,
rhythmic grooves and styles, and participating in a jam session. She also provides a good
resource list of publications for piano study, vocal technique, jazz theory, jazz singing, and
This book would be valuable to a singer starting his or her exploration of the vocal jazz
medium, as well as a more experienced singer looking to enhance his or her lead sheet skills.
Weir’s modest publication, of fewer than 100 pages, is a stark contrast to Spradling’s, in that this
book truly focuses on the artistry, interpretation, and essence of singing jazz. It contains basic
material to establish a solid foundation in creating one’s relationship to the music, and would
work very well for a student studying at home. If one were to use this publication in conjunction
with Weir’s Improvisation, one would glean a solid grounding in the art form.
Instrumental approaches
13. Berkman, David. The Jazz Singer's Guidebook: A Course in Jazz Harmony and Scat Singing
for the Serious Jazz Vocalist. Petaluma: Sher Music, 2009.
The title suggests that this book is directed exclusively at the singer who wishes to improvise
by scatting, and Berkman states in his introduction that being able to scat indicates that the singer
has internalized the chord changes in a deep way (i). He makes some astute observations about
vocalists when he discusses the difficulty that many instrumentalists have with singers; scatting
is difficult to do well, and often a vocalist “wings it” (ii), relying on his or her ears only, without
having done the requisite study of the song’s harmony (Judy Niemack referred to this very thing
in the introduction to her book). This is in contrast to an instrumentalist who sings, who has
spent years immersed in harmony study, and who subsequently does a much better job with
Understanding the harmony better, however, allows a vocalist to sing the melody with
greater freedom and to consciously choose more interesting and instrumental-like alternate
melodies than a singer who is unfamiliar with harmony, and who improvises using mostly chord
tones (ibid.). Obviously, a jazz vocalist does not have to scat to improvise, and there are varying
opinions as to whether a singer should scat at all. Great interpreters can bring tears to the
listeners’ eyes by having a deep relationship to the lyric and by telling the story, without
employing vocal gymnastics and deviating much from the written melody.
Berkman acknowledges the difficulties and practicing implications in his reference to long
scalar passages that instrumentalists often use, and suggests that a vocalist is apt to become
distracted from the point of the exercise because the technical demands are so challenging (iii).
In contrast to Rawlins’ suggestion that these long exercises actually aid in increasing one’s range
(Rawlins 4), Berkman advocates that singers use the smaller, more vocalistic tetra-chords and
guide-tone lines for harmonic study, as the point of these exercises is to promote hearing the
He begins the book with an introduction to playing the piano. The first few pages are at a
beginner-level and include a diagram of a keyboard with the note names written on the keys.
Berkman proceeds from instruction on locating and playing notes with one finger to four-note
singer voicings within approximately 14 pages, and then also discusses adding upper extensions.
He suggests periodically that if one has had his or her fill of piano, it would be appropriate to
move on in the book as the piano instruction soon involves altered tones and rootless voicings.
For a chapter entitled Becoming a Functional Pianist, there is an overwhelming amount of fairly
advanced material and one would hope this would not dissuade the singer from progressing
His next chapter, on Lead Sheet Basics, is an introduction to theory, and is laden with
information that would possibly be beyond a beginning student. He does an excellent job in
discussing what fuels instrumentalists’ complaints about the chords in vocalists’ charts, and why
this happens (52). He clarifies his points by using Bye Bye Blackbird; he provides four variations
of harmonies with a discussion on why one might choose one over the other. He also discusses
chord substitutions and introductions and endings, although does not provide the numerous
In his opening discussion on the Melody of Songs in Chapter Three, he reminds the reader
that single line instruments, like the voice, are usually more aware of the horizontal nature of a
melody and how it moves from interval to interval (56). This is in contrast to being aware of the
melody’s vertical relationship to the chords and bass notes, and the consequential harmonic
colours that occur as the chords change. Additionally, a pianist can accompany a rubato
performance more sensitively if a vocalist can perceive the harmonic colours of the changes,
because the singer simply understands how the text aligns to the chord changes (57). He blames
these differences for much of the problem that pianists and other instrumentalists have with
He also discusses singers who change the melody, think that they are being creative, but
remove the essence of the melody because they do not understand what note of the chord they
are singing (59). To demonstrate this, he uses three measures of All the Things You Are, and
describes that he often hears singers sing the bridge without the chromatic notes and interesting
intervals (ibid); they create a blander melody, ironically in the pursuit of creativity, because they
do not understand the relationship between the melody and the underlying harmony.
Houston – Page 36
He suggests an exercise to combat this lack of connection to the harmony, which involves
singing the melody, but assigning numeric values to the melody notes over the chord. As the
chords change, one can see that, for instance, the third note of one chord becomes the seventh
note of the next. He uses four-measures of We’ll Be Together Again; the vocalist sings 6-1-2-4-
1-3-4-3-4-5-7-6-#4 over the chord progression G7, CMaj7, A-flat7, Dmin7, G7, Amin7, D7#11
(60). While singing a G over the Dmin7 chord, the chord changes to the G7 on beat three and
one hears the interesting shift in chord colour while singing the more dissonant fourth of one
He cites two reasons why this exercise is helpful; the first is that hearing what notes one
sings over the root helps one’s intonation. Ironically vocalists often have pitch problems, which
is detrimental to an instrument without valves or keys. If a singer thinks only of the horizontal
nature of a melody, he or she misses the point that singing a C over a CMaj7, and moving to a B-
flat sung on an A-flat chord feels differently than do those same notes sung over a different
The other reason is that knowing what notes the melody uses on each chord provides insight
into what other notes one may use to alter the melody. Using numbers to represent the note
Chapter Four begins his scatting sections, where he starts by instructing the student to learn
the roots; one should not only learn to sing the roots while playing the melody, but also play the
roots while singing the melody. This is a step often omitted, and personal experience indicates
that this is beneficial to not only learning the basics of the song, but also for ear-training. Work
on singing the thirds, fifths, sevenths, and extensions follow, but not only singing up and down
4
The example melody is incorrectly stated in the text as moving from G to E on the first two notes. The correct
notes are E to C
Houston – Page 37
the arpeggio from the root. He advises starting with the inner voices and moving upwards and
downwards, using as many configurations of those pitches as one can create. He also suggests
which extensions to use and when: i.e. natural ninth or flat ninth; natural 11 or sharp 11; and flat
13 or natural 13. The work is intensive, and he acknowledges that it will not be a quick process
to learn to hear these notes. He advises to pick one song and perform all of these steps, as once
one begins to hear these notes, the process and ear-training translates to other pieces.
Chapter Five introduces chord scales, with Chapter Six applying the scales to a song. He
makes a key point in this chapter when he says that scat solos tend to be reactive because singers
typically need to hear what is being played so that they can fit into the sound by finding notes
consonant to the harmony (85). This is opposite to instrumentalists, who anticipate the harmonic
change, plan for it, and exploit the chord scales by maintaining the tension created by their
choice of notes which are at odds with the harmony. By only being able to react, rather than
being proactive, a vocalist can never truly be a leader, and thus their solos remain bland (ibid.).
He works with tetra-chords and chromatic patterns in the following chapters, but hidden in
the middle of one of the pages contains his suggestion what an actual vocal practice session
should be. Based on two hours and 30 minutes, one should allow for 30 minutes of transcribing,
30 minutes of piano practice, 30 minutes of scatting, 20 of melodic analysis, with the rest
devoted to working on charts (99). This must be in addition to the work a vocalist should
He discusses Guide Tone Lines in Chapter Nine, and challenges singers to devote some time
to this topic by saying that although a few singers with whom he has worked have “dabbled”
with his approach none of them has consistently worked to develop this skill (105). For
Berkman, guide-tone lines are not simply the long notes on thirds and sevenths of ii-V7
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progressions moving in half- or whole-step motion. He recommends using as many tensions and
altered tensions as possible (106), and uses Autumn Leaves as an example. He uses ninths, flat-
ninths, and flat-thirteenths in addition to the expected thirds and sevenths (ibid.), and the result is
a stepwise line that is decidedly more interesting than the simpler thirds and sevenths guide-tone
line.
He waits until Chapter Ten to discuss the blues scale because, as he says, “even good singers
when singing blues often use this scale compulsively without even knowing it” (110). He begins
by suggesting motives to be sung over an F-blues, but says that one should pay attention to
where in the form the blues scale is actually used most. Berkman says that for the first four bars
of the form, it is more common to hear chord-tone based melodies, and cites Dan Greenblatt’s
The Blues Scales, wherein that author suggests using a major pentatonic including tones 1, 2,
flat-3, 3, 5 and 6 (Greenblat qtd. in Berkman 112) for that section. Berkman continues with his
suggestion that one should emphasize the seventh scale-tone of the dominant seventh chord in
bar four, and use the traditional blues scale in bars five and six to make strong lines. A singer
needs to avoid indiscriminately using the blues scale everywhere (ibid.). By following these
suggestions, a singer ultimately has two methods for working on the basic blues: playing lines
based on chord tones, and using blues motives (113). He devotes the rest of the chapter to bebop
blues and minor blues, and suggests blues heads the vocalist should learn.
His penultimate chapter is interval drills, and is included to help vocalists gain confidence
and to be able to scat with stronger, more interesting lines by incorporating chromaticism and
large intervals (119). Berkman starts with intervals in an atonal context by suggesting that one
play a note, and sing up a minor third; from different note sing a minor third downward. Then he
stacks another minor third on top, resulting in a diminished triad. After singing the triad
Houston – Page 39
ascending, one chooses a different note, and sings the diminished triad downward. Next, he adds
the final minor third in the diminished seventh chord, to be practiced the same way as the smaller
Another way to practice intervals is to sing major scale diatonic intervals, starting with thirds
and working one’s way to sevenths. He says that singing the major scale is useful for checking
one’s intonation, especially when it comes to the larger intervals. He also says, however, that it is
much more useful to sing unusual scales in different intervals, and provides tracks on the
accompanying CD. He starts with Locrian, ascending and descending in thirds, fourths, fifths,
sixths, and sevenths, and provides the same interval practice for the Phrygian, Locrian natural 9,
diminished, and altered scales (122). His last chapter addresses further work on additional forms
and vamps, using the same steps as for other harmonic work.
He makes a discouraging point in his conclusion when he writes that his experience with
singers learning to improve their scatting through steady work has not been terribly good (133).
He does not know why this is, but speculates that learning to solo over the changes is simply not
a high priority for most singers. He also postulates that vocalists simply do not have a systematic
way of approaching the material; they do not know what to do and they have not been schooled
to connect with the jazz instrumental tradition (ibid.). Music is about feeling and conveying an
emotional stance, and he guesses that by taking a pragmatic approach to learning a song, singers
might feel that the connection to the underlying mystery or magic will disappear (ibid.).
Another disturbing point he makes is that one jazz school of which he is aware has recently
stopped admitting vocalists to their grad program (133). Add that to the schools which are
abolishing, or have abolished their vocal jazz programs, like SUNY, and it is a grim picture
indeed.
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Berkman’s book is obviously not for the faint of heart. If one can overlook the editorial
mistakes, misspelled words, missing or wrong music examples, and duplicated sentences, there is
This is completely instrumentally conceived, but with an awareness of the vocal instrument’s
needs. Clearly, vocalists who consider themselves to be jazz singers must take their craft
seriously and devote much more concentrated and directed practice than they apparently do now.
Berkman’s manual is very challenging, but when one considers the vast difference in musical
knowledge between instrumentalists and most vocalists, it behooves the vocal jazz teacher and
singing student alike to study this material, and incorporate at least some of Berkman’s
suggestions. This is an excellent study source and should be dust-free in all jazz vocalists’
libraries.
14. Farnsworth, Anne. Jazz Vocal Techniques: An Instrumental Approach to Jazz Singing. 3rd.
Los Angeles: JazzMedia Press, 2000.
The Introduction contains some practical, but brief, information about rhythm, repertoire,
improvisation, and singing. Chapter Two is on intervals, scales, and chords, including the Dorian
and Mixolydian scales. She provides some blank staff paper for one to work on ear-training and
chord identification exercises. Chapter Three begins with a discussion about form, bridgeless
Chapter Four, entitled “Did You Bring Your Charts,” briefly talks about charts, the vocalist’s
book of songs, and transposition. This chapter contains one of Farnsworth’s most surprising
statements with her instruction to the fledgling vocalist that it is “perfectly acceptable to refer to
the key by the number of sharps or flats” (45). Modally-conceived songs dip in and out of key
Houston – Page 41
centres which makes assigning a key signature difficult. Beginning singers, however, are more
likely to sing songs from the swing era, and these songs typically have identifiable keys.
According to one of Calgary’s noted jazz pianists, an efficient way the “pros” indicate the key of
sharps, and fingers down to indicate flats. For example, three fingers held upwards to the band
means A major, unless minor is specified (Houston Zanboer). Regardless of whether singers use
this method, or verbalize the information, singers need to know the key in which they are
singing.
The next two chapters discuss singing and improvising with the blues. Although she refers to
“getting vertical” (59), she advocates using Solfege for becoming familiar with the melody of a
song, and gives a one-sentence nod to using numbers. If a young singer is unfamiliar with the
Solfege system, though, there would be a great potential for the process to become more about
learning which Solfege syllable to use. As well, Solfege emphasizes the horizontal relationship
of one interval to the next. For jazz, Berkman’s suggestion of using numbers seems to be a much
more direct and logical way to hear the relationship of the melody to the roots and chords.
Chapter Seven is Harmony in Jazz Standards, and deals with ii-V7-I progression and tonal
centres. Farnsworth briefly analyzes a few measures of Satin Doll and The Lady Is a Tramp and
Chapter Eight discusses Intros, Tags and Codas, and Chapter Nine deals with Advanced
Improvisation, where she mentions upper structure chord tones. Many examples in this chapter
are unfortunately incorrect. For example, in her musical examples, she uses her example of
Overall, she treats topics very briefly. In her discussion of sequences, she devotes four
sentences to the topic, and excludes an example. She writes: “A sequence is similar to
sideslipping in that a motive is repeated. But the sequence usually fits diatonically with the
changes, and is repeated several times. The use of Pentatonic scales, that is a scale of five notes
in the pattern of 1235 [sic] in Major keys and 1-flat3-4-5 [sic] in minor keys, is an example of
sequencing” (124).
Regarding modes, she refers only to Dorian and Mixolydian, and within these brief bits of
information, she deals with altered scales and chords within six pages.
After the thoroughness of Berkman’s book, this is an utter disappointment. Not only does
avoid in-depth discussion of topics (for example, rhythm is discussed only on one page), the
book is rife with errors, omissions, incorrect examples, and contradictions in her information.
The valid points she does make are lost in the amateurish format and type-setting. After showing
this book to a fellow PhD student, who is a horn-player and teaches jazz theory at Humber, his
It is unclear as to Farnsworth’s intended audience, although she writes on her website that it
is for all levels. Perhaps a beginning singer would find some material worthwhile, but with so
She has updated this volume recently, and provides chapter one online. It is only available by
15. Zegree, Stephen. The Complete Guide to Teaching Vocal Jazz. Heritage Music Press, 2002.
Zegree is one of the foremost authorities on the vocal jazz ensemble. One of the forwards of
his book is written by Janis Siegel, a long-time member of the Manhattan Transfer, who states
that she wishes that she had studied with him when she was in college. Much of the perspective
Houston – Page 43
of this book is directed at ensemble teachers, but he includes a section on solo singing within the
ensemble context, as well as an appendix section for the aspiring jazz solo singer.
After his chapter one discussion about what vocal jazz is, and a brief history of the art in
chapter two, he turns to style in chapter three, where he provides swinging and syncopation
direction to the many ensemble directors trained classically. He has an instrumental background
(he is a pianist, and admits in the preface that one would not want to hear him sing [ix]), so
focuses on metronome usage, which is often an unfamiliar concept to singers. In any ensemble it
is vital that everyone maintain the same rhythm, and although singing solo jazz voice in a
smaller group affords more flexibility regarding back and front-phrasing, by practicing with a
metronome on one’s own, one can achieve a greater awareness of the supporting pulse of the
music.
Zegree also discusses vibrato usage and its stylistic and musical aspects in this chapter.
Constant vibrato not only interferes in the tuning within an ensemble setting, but is also pertinent
to the solo jazz singer. Too much vibrato use is stylistically incorrect and shows a singer as likely
having been classically-trained and continuing to use classical vocal production. To demonstrate
the impact of an ensemble using vibrato, and to highlight the difference between vibrato usage
He also highlights tonal flexibility in the use of slides, fall offs, breath accents, and scoops, as
well as diction. These topics are not discussed in too great of an extent in other books, and these
things would typically be covered in a singer’s lesson when dealing with performance practice
Chapter Five is jazz theory, wherein he suggests warm ups for the ensemble in order to
practice theory aurally. He suggests using minor, diminished and augmented triads in addition to
Houston – Page 44
major; scales in major, natural minor, harmonic, and melodic minors, as well as whole tone and
chromatic; and arpeggios using minor and dominant sevenths on the ii-V7-I progression.
His Art of Solo Singing chapter is very short, but includes a worthy example of Sunny
Wilkinson singing a few measures of But Beautiful, wherein she demonstrates the steps a singer
can take to improvise on the melody (47). He makes some recommendations on how to
effectively portray the emotion in a ballad, like the obvious singing the lyrics in a conversational
manner, singing the verse (which is often omitted), and establishing the mood and use of space,
He states in the opening paragraph of his chapter on Improvisation that it will not be covered
in great detail because obviously it is simply too extensive a topic to do justice in only one
chapter (52). The processes he suggests, though, are not surprising: have the students listen to
both vocal and instrumental improvised solos; do written transcriptions, imitating every phrase,
breath, and articulation; extract one or two melodic phrases from the transcribed solo and
concentrate on pitch accuracy and jazz articulations; and develop pitch accuracy by learning
specific phrases slowly and reinforcing the pitches at the piano (55).
He includes a chapter entitled Listen, Listen, Listen in which he provides a good example of
a listening form that the private vocal teacher could provide to his or her students to ensure that
the listening component of the lessons is completed and recorded. The point of this is to make
listening to instrumental and vocal jazz an actual concentrated effort and not something that
occurs in the background while being otherwise occupied. The form includes information like
label, composer, arranger, and date of recording session, to which one should add comment areas
Appendix Three is entitled For the Aspiring Solo Singer, and includes very brief advice on
song selection: how to relate to the text, thoroughly learning the song by learning to play the
chord changes, reciting the lyric as poetry, learning the form, experimenting with a solo section,
key selection, mood, style, feel, groove, and writing a lead sheet (109). Again, these are topics
covered to a greater extent in other books dedicated to solo voice with greater potential for use as
studio manuals.
CONCLUSION
There should be no reason for jazz singers to lack basic jazz theory and harmony
knowledge given the breadth of resource material available, but vocalists are still often derided
for not doing the requisite work. In my conversation with an instructor, she indicated that to this
day, vocalists often question the need to know theory, harmony, and piano when all they want to
The voice is a difficult instrument with which to master the jazz idiom but because the notion
persists that a person who sings jazz does not require flawless technique to sing, and because it is
fairly easy to produce some sort of a sound, many individuals come to jazz singing never having
studied voice, or having studied it only classically. Often, they have no experience on any other
instrument, and therefore have no relationship to rhythm and the foundation of harmony that
instrumentalists do.
Having said that, though, vocalists of previous eras did not always play another instrument in
addition to singing, and, of today’s singers, Dee Dee Bridgewater asserts that the voice is her
only instrument (Weir Improvisation 196). What Bridgewater does do, though, is listen only to
instrumentalists. She realized that instrumentalists constantly take risks in live performance, and
notes that singers are less apt to do so because they feel a primary responsibility to preserve their
Houston – Page 46
image as a good vocalist. It may be that for many vocalists, the greater risk is to appear to be a
mediocre singer. They are more likely to be criticized if the singing is not just right (ibid). By the
extent of her listening, Bridgewater has internalized much of the jazz language that most of these
Clearly, some of the materials reviewed are more worthy and substantial than others and
provide more than enough information for a vocalist to become a skilled improviser, melodically
and textually. One must question, however, whether these manuals are fundamentally needed at
all. The point that has been made repeatedly by most of the cited authors is that one must listen a
great deal to the music to absorb it and do either written or aural transcriptions – preferably both.
After all, the great singers of past eras did not have the luxury of learning from university or
college theory and improvisation classes. And although their roads were not easy, they did have
the benefit of live music occurring nightly in which to immerse themselves, as well as eventually
being able to participate in late-night jam sessions. Although recorded music is a dim substitute
for live participation, there is the possibility, with so much available recorded music, for
vocalists to hear and sing along with a great variety of high caliber artists. Singers need to make
the time for it, and have the dedication to this craft. No amount of theory or harmony training
will provide the essence of singing jazz without concomitant listening to absorb the nuances and
Jazz is now an academic subject requiring that students receive documented and graded
progress. What these books do is provide guidance in creating academic lesson plans so that the
singing student receives education in logical and measurable steps. They provide direction as to
how keenly one must listen and how intensely one must work to absorb the jazz language. In
Houston – Page 47
many instances, they provide more than enough information to create well-informed singers, and
in some cases offer excellent discographies compiled with the beginning student in mind.
After a great deal of thought and analysis, I recommend the following books for studio
use: both of Michelle Weir’s books (Jazz Singer's Handbook: The Artistry and Mastery of
Singing Jazz and Vocal Improvisation), Berkman’s The Jazz Singer's Guidebook: A Course in
Jazz Harmony and Scat Singing for the Serious Jazz Vocalist , McMurdy and Hill’s Jazz
Improvisation Series: Approaching the Standards, Niemack’s Hear it & Sing it!, Snidero’s Jazz
Conceptions: 21 Solo Etudes for Scat Singing, Jazz Phrasing, Interpretation, and Improvisation,
Works Cited
Aebersold, Jamey. Jazz Ear Training. Indiana: Jamey Aebersold Jazz, Inc., 1989. Print.
Aitken, Gene, and Jamey Aebersold. "Vocal Jazz Improvisation: An Instrumental Approach."
Jazz Educator's Journal Oct/Nov (1983): 8-10-73. Print.
Berkman, David. The Jazz Singer's Guidebook: A Course in Jazz Harmony and Scat Singing for
the Serious Jazz Vocalist. Petaluma: Sher Music, 2009. Print.
Clayton, Jay. Sing Your Story: A Practical Guide for Learning and Teaching the Art of Jazz
Singing. Advance Music, 2001. Print.
Cooper, Dr Gloria, and Don Sickler. Jazz Phrasing: A Workshop for Jazz Vocalists. New York:
Second Floor Music, 2004. Print.
DiBlasio, Denis. Guide for Jazz and Scat Vocalists: Survival Manual for Aspiring Jazz Singers.
Tran. 31. Indiana: Jamey Aebersold Jazz Inc., 1991. Print.
Farnsworth, Anne. Jazz Vocal Techniques: An Instrumental Approach to Jazz. 3rd ed. Los
Angeles, CA: JazzMedia Press, 2000. Print.
LoVetri, Jeannette and Edrie Means Weekly. "Follow-Up Contemporary Commercial Music
(CCM) Survey: Who's Teaching what in Nonclassical Music." Journal of Voice 23.3 (2007):
367-75. Print.
LoVetri, Jeannette. "Editorial: Contemporary Commercial Music." Journal of Voice 22.3 (2008):
260-2. Print.
McMurdy, Ronald C., and Willie Hill Jr. Jazz Improvisation Series: Approaching the Standards.
Ed. Pete BarenBregge. Jazz Vocalists ed. Miami: Warner Bros Publications, 2000. Print.
Niemack, Judy. Hear it & Sing it! New York: Second Floor Music, 2004. Print.
Houston – Page 49
Rawlins, Steve. 21 Bebop Exercises for Vocalists and Instrumentalists: For the Development of
Jazz Phrasing, Style, and Note Selection. Wisconsin: Hal Leonard, 2001. Print.
Reeves, Scott D. Creative Jazz Improvisation. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.
Snidero, Jim. Jazz Conceptions: 21 Solo Etudes for Scat Singing, Jazz Phrasing, Interpretation,
and Improvisation. Hechingen: Advance Music, 1999. Print.
Spradling, Diana. Jazz Singing: Developing Artistry and Authenticity. Edmonds, WA: Sound
Music Publications, 2007. Print.
Stoloff, Bob. Blues Scatitudes: Vocal Improvisation on the Blues. New York: Gerard and Sarzin,
2003. Print.
---. Scat!: Vocal Improvisation Techniques. New York: Gerard and Sarzin Pub. Co, 1996. Print.
Weekly, Edrie Means, and Jeannette LoVetri. "Follow-Up Contemporary Commercial Music
(CCM) Survey: Who's Teaching what in Nonclassical Music." Journal of Voice 23.3 (2009):
367-75. Print.
Weir, Michele. Jazz Singer's Handbook: The Artistry and Mastery of Singing Jazz. USA: Alfred,
2005. Print.
Zegree, Stephen. The Complete Guide to Teaching Vocal Jazz (Including Pop and Other show
Styles). USA: Heritage Music Press, 2002. Print.