HARTWIG M Painting and Method
HARTWIG M Painting and Method
HARTWIG M Painting and Method
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ARTISTS
AND PAINTING
IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Edited by
Valérie Angenot and Francesco Tiradritti
Montepulciano 2016
This article will appear in:
Angenot, Valérie, and Francesco Tiradritti. Eds. 2016. Artists and Colour in ancient
Egypt, Proceedings of the colloquium held in Montepulciano, August 22nd – 24th, 2008,
Studi Poliziani di Egittologia 1, Montepulciano: Missione Archeologica Italiana a Luxor.
ISBN 978-88-908083-0-2.
The paging is only provisional and will change on the printed version.
METHOD IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING1
Melinda Hartwig
Curator of Egyptian, Nubian and Ancient Near Eastern Art
Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University – Atlanta (GA)
Painting adorned almost every surface in ancient Egypt, in both secular and
non-secular contexts. Art did not exist without color. Through its pigments, painting
recreated the natural and divine worlds, and enlivened each surface it touched. In
its purest form, applied on a flat surface, Egyptian painting is characterized by the
primacy of the outline. Almost every form and object is clearly contoured with interior
details rendered linearly. Line defines the preliminary contour of the form, and was
reapplied as the final outline. Within the preliminary contour, pigment was applied
in solid blocks, mixtures or in semi-transparent layers on top of various colored bases.
The color of the pigment clarified the nature and details of the artwork or monument
and lent it symbolic meaning.
In Egyptian painting, figures and objects were rendered in their most characteristic
aspect. Termed aspective,2 human and animal forms were composed as a composite
of profile and frontal views. The conventions utilized for painted figures and objects
were the same as those in hieroglyphic writing with which painting is inextricably
linked.3 In Egyptian painting, figures always appeared in flat space, grouped on base
lines, overlapped and sometimes superimposed.4 Landscape and architectural details
were represented in plan and elevation that were sometimes combined. Proportional
lines and grids were used to construct figures and arrange compositions.5 Artists were
largely anonymous and often worked as a group.
This article will discuss the methodological and technological methods that are
used in Egyptian painting. Given the wide-range of surfaces that were adorned with
pigment, the major issues, techniques, and problems associated with flat painting will
be explored. The study of Egyptian painting is typified by the plurality of approaches
available to the researcher. The most traditional and often-used approach, stylistic
analysis that traces similarities between groups of paintings and painted forms to
create a typology as well as to date works of art. This type of analysis is utilized in
art history to outline the qualities and forms of an artwork characteristics which are
connected to historical, cultural or religious trends and, sometimes, to identify the style
of particular artists, their workshops, techniques and work processes. In aesthetics,
the nature and significance of works of specific media, periods, genres or styles are
studied. Painting is also examined according to its magical function in specialized
contexts (temple, tomb, palace, house) and how it intersected with the living, the dead,
and the gods. The transmission of models, issues of center-periphery, gender, and the
1 This essay is dedicated to Betsy M. Bryan, Alexander Badawy Chair in Egyptian Art and Archaeology at Johns
Hopkins University, in honor of her Festschrift, Joyful in Thebes.
2 Brunner-Traut 1974.
3 Fischer 1986, 24-46.
4 Russmann 2000, 72-73.
5 Robins 1986; 1994.
METHOD IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING 29
analysis of the ‘other’ have also received scholarly attention. The role of iconography
is consistently explored in painting, both in terms of its meaning and function within
sacred space and its communicative aspects. The interplay between text and image is
examined particularly within the context of literary theory. Most recently, technological
examinations have elucidated the properties of pigment, binders and resin and offer
some important applications for dating and artistic workshop practices. In the sections
below, the methodologies of ancient Egyptian painting will be explored, along with
their pros and cons, and future approaches will be suggested.
12 Farina 1929; Müller 1959; Altenmüller 1975, 277, 280; James 1985; James 1996, 897-906; Hartwig 2001; Bryan 2010.
13 Hartwig 2015b, 40-41.
14 Kozloff 1979, 395-402; Beinlich-Seeber and Shedid 1987, 139-141; Mekhitarian 1956; Mekhitarian 1957; Shedid
1988, 87-90; Shedid 1994, 87-93; Tefnin 2006, 47-48.
15 Bryan 2001, 65-66, 68.
16 Laboury and Tavier 2010.
17 Bács 2001; Keller 1981; Keller 1993, 61-62, 65-67; and in royal tombs, Keller 2003, 98-99.
18 Leterme, Hartwig and Vandenabeele 2009; Hartwig 2013b, 144-146.
19 Kurtz 1985.
20 Kozloff 1990; Kozloff 1992.
21 Bryan 2010, 1003-1004; Bryan 2016, 14-18.
22 Baud 1935, 225-233.
23 Müller 1986, 149-164; Shedid 1988, 18-88; Robins 1994, 182-200, 209-219; Bryan 2001, 63-72.
24 Leterme, Hartwig, and Vandenabeele 2009.
25 Černy 1952; Niwinski 1989, 73-91; James 2001, 141-144.
26 Hornung 1971, 32-37.
27 Drenkhahn 1976, 69-71; Drenkhanh 1986; Steinmann 1980, 153-155; Steinmann 1982, 149-156.
METHOD IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING 31
proportional canon.28 In temples, it has been argued that artists drew cartoons and
then transferred the designs to the wall.29 Certainly, the large number of motifs and
designs dictated the use of copybooks that were likely housed in the temple archives
and artist’s workshops.
In royal Ramesside tomb painting, the workmen’s archive at Deir el-Medina
indicates that the workforce varied from 32-120 men, including scribes, painters and
outline-draftsmen.30 Based on visual analysis, the division of craftsmen into left and right
sides of “the tomb” appears to be more an administrative than a procedural reality.31
In addition to their work on the royal tombs, stylistic and textual evidence suggests
that Deir el-Medina artists often painted their own tombs, those of their colleagues,
and contributed to a flourishing industry of painting funerary objects that included
coffins.32 Visual and documentary evidence indicates that Deir el-Medina workmen
and other craftsmen also painted a few Theban tombs.33 At least during the Ramesside
period, workshop records, tomb journal entries and receipts indicate that craftsmen
were recompensed for their work beyond their monthly salaries.34 However, given the
demands of decorating the royal tomb, the painting of non-royal tombs outside of Deir
el-Medina appears to be more the exception than the rule.
It is generally accepted that the patron regularly examined the work on his tomb
and burial equipment, given its importance for his afterlife and his self-presentation
for posterity. From the Old Kingdom, scenes of the owner visiting his tomb in a
carrying chair show his personal involvement with the decoration of this chapel and
the payment of his workmen.35 In the late Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom, stylistic
and textual evidence indicates that schools of artists moved between Memphis and
outlying provincial centers to paint relief and tomb walls with state approval.36 Stylistic
evidence exists for the same practice in the New Kingdom.37 In the New Kingdom,
private patronage systems reflected the administrative position and status of the tomb
owner and his access to trained painters.38 Painted papyri and coffins range from
custom-made to mass-produced products with blanks for the patron’s name.39 By the
Ptolemaic and Roman periods, patron choice dictated the use of painted portraits or
masks, particularly at Hawara, as well as their “style” of representation.40 Paleography
and object inscriptions also reveal the identities of artists connected with the painting
of stucco masks.41
The use of style as an interpretive and historical tool is a rich avenue of exploration
in the field of Egyptian painting. Here, successive works and their variations are
matched with historical events and aspects of culture to account for stylistic change.
The tombs of the provincial nomarchs in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties show a stylistic
change, characterized by attenuated figures with large eyes, particularly in Thebes.
2. Context and the transmission of models in painting: Sacred space, center and
periphery, gender and the ‘other’
Painting occurred in both sacred and non-sacred contexts in ancient Egypt, and
responded in similar ways.47 In temples, flat painting could be used provisionally as
the outline for reliefs or as the decoration in the chapel or temple itself.48 Since temples
were symbolic of the cosmological environment in which the gods would dwell and
confer benefits on the king and (through him) humanity, painted decoration created
and enhanced this cosmos. Scholars argue that painted images in houses and palaces
created an inner cosmos in domestic environments.49 Likewise, certain motifs in
palaces acted as talismans to guard against the entry of chaotic forces and reinforced
notions of kingship.50 Royal tomb painting in the New Kingdom recreated the cosmos
for the eternal benefit of the king. Solar related imagery in Nineteenth and Twentieth
Dynasty royal tombs followed the east-west axis, to emphasize the evening and morning
manifestations of the sun.51 Private tomb painting could also generate a series cosmoi
for the benefit of the deceased.52
In private tombs, painting occurred within a sacred space but scholars differ
about its function. Some suggest that tomb painting created a familiar world for the
deceased. Others argue that painted representations created an ideal world in the
beyond for the tomb owner or a liminal area in which the dead could meet with the
living. Some suggest tomb decoration was left unfinished so that the dead could not
come back to haunt the living.53 From the First Intermediate Period on, painted tomb
decoration is discussed in terms of the tomb owner’s self-presentation, until the post-
Amarna period, when the eternal veneration of the gods comes to the fore54.
Coffin decoration is analyzed in terms of its sacred environment as an eternal
home, a miniature tomb, and a substitute body. In the Middle Kingdom, the coffin’s
form along with its painted images and texts created an environment through which the
deceased would be protected, equipped and reborn.55 From the New Kingdom on, this
47 Müller 1980.
48 Baines 2001, 149-151; Weatherhead 2007b; Ullmann 2007.
49 Kemp 1979, 53; O’Connor 1991, 181-185; Weatherhead 2007a.
50 Lacovara 1997, 35, 63-64.
51 Hornung 1990; Wilkinson 1994, 83-84.
52 Kamrin 1999, 139-157, 162-165.
53 Ideal world, Bolshakov 1997, 264-267, 279-280. Liminal area, Assmann 1983, 28-29. Unfinished, Barocas 1982, 429-440.
54 Assmann 2003.
55 Willems 1988, 238-244.
34 MELINDA HARTWIG
symbolic function was transferred to anthropoid coffins which essentially conformed
to the sAH image, the glorified image of the deceased raised to the status of divinity,
who was envisioned with a mummiform body, often with golden skin, blue-striped
wig and wsx-collar, although the range of colors remained limited.56 Greco-Roman
mummy portraits with their wrappings and cartonnage served as the visualization and
actualization of the deceased’s cosmic renewal.57 Painted vignettes recreated chapters
from various funerary books and included the deceased in the company of the gods as
well as other protective symbols that assured the deceased’s protection and rebirth.
The underlying notion behind the use and reuse of painted imagery is another
avenue of exploration. Besides the practice of archaism mentioned below, the
transmission of painted models often revealed the impact of the center on the periphery
and vice versa. Painted motifs (and in some cases styles) in necropolis centers such
those near Thebes and Memphis were transferred by the artist to his provincial
commissions, most likely with patron approval.58 Sometimes, this resulted in an entirely
new stylistic expression. Within certain necropoleis, it has been suggested that artists
were chosen for their knowledge of particular iconographic programs or connection to
the deceased and local culture.59 In terms of reuse, a number of New Kingdom painted
tombs indicate that the usurper honored the existing decoration, and in some cases,
emulated it.60 With coffin reuse, usurpation ranged from the rubbing out of the original
owner’s name to the complete repainting of the coffin’s decorative program.61 The use
and reuse of particular imagery apparently responded to the tomb owner’s status,
aspirations, the artist’s repertoire, and the sacred character of the environment in
which painting occurred.
Painted imagery also reveals the presence and confluence of different artistic
styles and/or regional traits. Regional painting styles may have influenced one another
in the Predynastic Period.62 The Minoan-style frescos at Tell el-Dab’a are debated
as being completed by artists exported from Crete, or by local artists versed in an
international artistic koiné.63 Artistic attribution, patronage and contexts of use don’t
necessarily lead to a nuanced meaning that reflects the complexity of the ancient
Mediterranean world in the second millennium.64 Instead, the very ‘visual hybridity’
of a work of art bore the imprint of social and historic memory that was inherent
in formulaic courtly interactions among the great powers of the late Bronze Age. In
Ptolemaic and Roman funerary art, previous scholarship tended to see it as Egyptian
visual renderings with Greek and Roman traits. However, recent studies of portrait
panels, painted shrouds, tombs and funerary equipment, reveal the combination of
Egyptian, Hellenic and Roman systems of representation.65 Rather than a passive
acceptance of dominant forms, the mixture of these representational systems appears
to be a dynamic response to cultural factors in the ancient Mediterranean world that
shaped selfhood.66
Iconography and the cultural significance of art complement stylistic analysis. The
analysis of the subject matter, or iconography with its attendant symbolism, continues
to be innovative. In its basic sense, iconography is analyzed in terms of the image and
what it signified. In terms of the former, primary subject matter is examined along
with objects or events to gain insight into underlying themes and concepts that, in
turn, leads to the meaning or content of the work. Inherent in iconographical analysis
is the role of symbols that indicate a general idea. In iconography, objects serve as
vehicles for symbolic meaning that could be overt (primary) or disguised (secondary).
Iconology, on the other hand, uses the observations gained from iconography to explain
the underlying cultural meanings of the work.70
71 Just a brief enumeration of some iconographic studies: for the Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods,
Hendrickx and Eycherman 2012 and Patch 2012; for the Old Kingdom, van Walsem 2005; the Middle Kingdom
and New Kingdom, Fischer 1975 and Assmann 1975, respectively. See summation in Müller 2015.
72 Coffins: Willems 1988, 239-244; Taylor 2001a, 214-243; Taylor 2001b. Pottery: Graff 1999. Papyri: Niwinski 1989,
37-42; Niwinksi 2000. Textiles: Pinch 1993, 131-134.
73 Hornung 1990.
74 Bochi 1994; Bochi 2003; Laboury 1997, 49-81; Kanawati 2001; Hartwig 2004; Hodel-Hoenes 2000; Parkinson 2008,
and see below section 4.
75 Robins 1993, 187-189; Kamrin 1999, 96-98, 105-115; Manniche 2003; Hartwig 2004, 37-54; Bryan 2009, 19.
76 Wallace 1966, 107; Ritner 2001, 333.
77 Freed 1999, 119-123; Weatherhead 2007a, 349.
78 Fischer 1975; Hornung 1990, 78-79; Assmann 1987b; Hartwig 2004, 126-130; el-Shahawy 2010, 298-301.
79 Smith 1998, 242; Morkot 2003, 89-90.
80 For an excellent enumeration, see Müller 2012, 118.
81 van Walsem 1998; van Walsem 2005, 65-69, 101-103.
METHOD IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING 37
in iconographic interpretation, the result can be a clear vision of the meaning and
cultural/religious dimensions of painted decoration.
82 Tefnin 1991.
83 Angenot 2005; Angénot 2011, 255.
84 Angenot 2005: 21-23; and see discussion in Angenot 2015.
85 Fitzenreiter 2001, 83-88, 129-140.
86 Assmann 2002, 343-344, 352-354, 419.
87 Müller 1990; Müller 1998; Peden 2001; Navrátilová 2007, 131-144; Den Doncker 2012.
88 Fitzenreiter 2011; Hartwig 2011, 316-321; Hartwig 2015b, 51-53.
89 Schäfer 1974.
90 Brunner-Traut 1974.
91 Baines 1985b.
38 MELINDA HARTWIG
addressed as a code; part of a transmitted language that shifts in meaning depending
on the lens used (i.e. scholarly knowledge or technological observation).92 The way in
which the mind orders information underlies these discussions and suggests that the
perception of aesthetics and cognitive theory, which have been successfully applied to
hieroglyphic images in the Egyptian language offers a promising approach for future
studies in the field of Egyptian painting.93
According to the ancient Egyptian worldview, color reflected the character of all
things made by the Creator.94 Color originated from the divine power and strengthened
contact with it. In religious terms, color conveyed concepts through the properties of
its minerals that the Egyptian mind could not grasp. Color also conveyed information
about an object’s actual state, and through the underlying magical powers associated
with color, gave it supernatural qualities.95 Thus, color represented the visible world
and conveyed symbolic concepts. Colored minerals and stones replicated and reinforced
the perception of Egypt’s natural environment, which were codified and utilized in
painting. Yet, color symbolism often reflected complicated religious concepts with
meanings that were often contradictory.96
Examination of Egyptian color terminology development according to the Berlin-
Kay model reveals four basic color terms, km (black), HD (white), dSr (red), and wAD (green).97
Unfortunately, ancient Egyptian words do not correspond to the range of colors used
in the palette, which suggests that color terms belonged to a working vocabulary of
limited applications.98 Diagnostic features such as size, shape, and location (in space
and time), and lexicalized features of brightness, texture, and coloring materials may
have taken precedence over the development of color vocabularies.99 Nevertheless,
most scholars agree that the ancient Egyptians did not have an absolute definition of
color terms in the European sense because the range of color usage was not always
anchored in language.
Studies in the field of Egyptian painting are in the area of technology, in particular,
the analysis of the chemical properties of pigments, binders, varnishes and pigment
recipes,100 the quantifying of prestige by the use of certain pigments,101 and the variations
in the perception of color.102 Archaeometry (the application of scientific techniques from
natural sciences to answer specific questions about different materials in art history
or archaeology) has opened a new way of painting analysis. Archaeometric analysis is
conducted by elemental methods such as x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and x-ray power
Suggested Reading
Surveys such as Robins 1986, James 1996, Hartwig 2001, Tiradritti 2008 and Bryan
2010 give succint overviews of painting. Several volumes of symposium papers discuss
the cultural and technological applications of painting including, Davies 2001a, Tefnin
1997, and Kóthay 2012. For a lucid summary on the nature of painting, see Russmann
2000; and on the scientific aspects, see Lee and Quirke 2000; Middleton and Uprichard
2008; and Dawson, Rozeik and Wright 2010.
103 For example: Kondo and Yoshimura 2004; Vandenabeele et al. 2009; García-Moreno, et al. 2013.
40 MELINDA HARTWIG
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