Clinical Pks Anticoagulation Manual PDF

CLINICAL
PHARMACOKINETICS
SERVICE
&
ANTICOAGULATION
GUIDELINES
Pharmacy Services
UK HealthCare
University of Kentucky
Revised January 2017
Editor:
Editions 20-27 and 29-now
George A. Davis, PharmD, BCPS
2
Anticoagulation Program Coordinator
Pharmacy Services, UK HealthCare
Associate Adjunct Professor, Pharmacy Practice & Science
University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy
Section Editors (Edition 37-now)

Brian Gardner, PharmD
Pediatric Team Coordinator
Kentucky Children’s Hospital
UK HealthCare
Aaron M. Cook, PharmD, BCPS

Clinical Coordinator Neuroscience-Pulmonary/Critical Care
Associate Adjunct Professor, Pharmacy Practice & Science
University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy
Donna Burgess, PharmD

Antimicrobial Stewardship Pharmacist
Past Editors:
Editions 28-34, 2006-2012
Daniel Lewis Pharm.D, BCPS
Clinical Specialist, Pharmacy
South Pointe Hospital, Warrensville Hts, OH
Editions 1-19 (1987-97)

Mary H.H. Ensom, Pharm.D., FASHP, FCCP, FCSHP, FCAHS
Professor, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and
Distinguished University Scholar, The University of British Columbia
Clinical Pharmacy Specialist, Children's and Women's Health Centre of British Columbia
Disclaimer:
The Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service and Anticoagulation Guidelines are provided to assist with
clinical pharmacokinetic monitoring and anticoagulation management of selected drugs for the Pharmacy
Services at UK HealthCare. Although the information contained in the guidelines has been obtained
from reputable sources in accordance with currently available information, the editors do not assume any
liability in connection with the use of any specific information contained herein. While great care has been
taken to ensure the accuracy of the information presented, the reader is advised that it is possible that
these pages contain some errors and omissions. If you find an error, please report it to George Davis at
georgedavis@uky.edu or (859) 323-1789.
The information provided in the guidelines is not intended to replace sound clinical judgment in the
delivery of healthcare. Dosing of monitorable drugs and anticoagulation management require
independent and informed decisions by appropriate healthcare professionals. Also, the information in this
manual may not be applicable to other healthcare institutions. Complete information concerning drug
administration, dosage, sampling times, clinical laboratory procedures, pharmacokinetic data, and
pharmacological and toxic effects of monitorable drugs should be assessed and contrasted with other
sources prior to its clinical use.
Table of Contents Page
UK Pharmacy Services on Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service 1
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) Laboratory Critical Value Call Policy 4
List of Monitorable Drugs and Therapeutic Ranges 5
Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts 7
Guidelines for Pharmacokinetic Monitoring 14
General Equations for BSA, IBW, and Clcr 16
Monitorable Drugs
Aminoglycosides – Conventional Dosing 19
Aminoglycosides – High Dose Extended Interval 31
Carbamazepine 41
Digoxin 44
Lidocaine 51
Lithium 53
Methotrexate 57
Pentobarbital 60
Phenobarbital 63
Phenytoin 66
Phenytoin, Free 75
Theophylline 76
Valproic Acid 83
Valproic Acid Continuous Intravenous Infusion Protocol 87
Vancomycin 89
Anticoagulation Guidelines
UK Pharmacy Services Policy on Anticoagulation 99
Warfarin 101
Heparin, Unfractionated 107
Enoxaparin 108
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors 110
Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) Guidelines 113
Direct Oral Anticoagulants (apixaban, dabigatran, edoxaban, rivaroxaban) 118
VTE Prophylaxis Assessment and Management 120
1
UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY HOSPITAL POLICY NUMBER: PH-02-05

CHANDLER MEDICAL CENTER FIRST ISSUED: 1/88
Department of Pharmacy Policy CURRENT AS OF: 06/10
SUBJECT: Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service Policy/Procedures

PURPOSE: To establish a standardized pharmacokinetic monitoring approach for patients
receiving drugs that are routinely monitored utilizing serum drug concentrations at
the University of Kentucky Hospital.
FUNCTIONS
AFFECTED: Clinical Pharmacist Specialists, Clinical Staff Pharmacists, Pharmacy Residents,
and Pharmacy Students
GENERAL: The Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service (CPS) Guidelines were developed to

ensure safe and efficacious dosage regimens through the application of
pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles and the determination of drug serum
concentrations. The policy/procedure manual outlines standard guidelines which
should be followed when providing clinical pharmacokinetic monitoring of the
following drugs: aminoglycosides, carbamazepine, digoxin, fosphenytoin,
lidocaine, lithium, phenobarbital, phenytoin (free and total), procainamide,
quinidine, theophylline, valproic acid, and vancomycin. In addition to the above list,
the CPS will also provide monitoring for warfarin for patients without assigned
pharmacists.
Monitoring Responsibility
Within the pharmaceutical care process, the primary pharmacist/resident who attends rounds or precepts
pharmacy students on the primary medical team is responsible for providing appropriate and cost-
conscious therapeutic drug monitoring and provision of clinical pharmacokinetic evaluations. The CPS is
responsible for overseeing the kinetic monitoring process for all patients and providing pharmacokinetic
assessments for any patient that does not have an assigned primary pharmacist/resident. This
responsibility is met through a team approach including a faculty member who serves as the Manager of
Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service along with Pharmacy Practice Residents and PY4 pharmacy students
as part of a resident/student rotation in Clinical Pharmacokinetics.
Patients with serum drug concentrations on non-covered services are identified on a daily basis utilizing
Sunrise Clinical Manager (SCM). Also, the Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) Laboratory provides an
electronic report of all completed serum drug concentrations of patients admitted to the hospital twice
daily. This allows for identification of any non-covered patients who are prescribed monitorable drugs
which have not obtained serum concentrations. Physicians may also initiate a request for pharmacy to
provide a clinical pharmacokinetic evaluation by verbal communication or through a pharmacy to dose
requisition in (SCM).
TDM Notification of Supratherapeutic Concentrations

The Therapeutic Drug Monitoring Laboratory is responsible for the analysis of all "routine" serum drug
assays evaluated by pharmacy during a pharmacokinetic evaluation. The TDM Lab notifies the primary
pharmacist of any supratherapeutic concentrations between 8AM-4PM during the week; after 4PM and
on weekends and holidays the Pharm D. resident on-call (UK Pager #330-7400) is notified. The TDM
Lab notifies the clinical pharmacokinetic service of any supratherapeutic levels for any uncovered
service. All other TDM issues should be directed to George Davis (UK Pager #330-2093).
2
Documentation in the Patient Medical Record

When a patient has a serum drug concentration drawn, the primary pharmacist should write a “Clinical
Pharmacokinetics” note in the patient’s chart within 24 hours for normal or subtherapeutic
concentrations. For concentrations that are supratherapeutic, the medical team should be notified
immediately if clinically warranted and a chart note should be written as soon as possible, but no more
than 12 hours after the concentration is reported. The chart note should contain all relevant patient
information and pharmacokinetic parameters necessary to produce the dosing and monitoring
recommendations. Please refer to the CPS Policy/Procedure Manual for guidelines for documentation of
pharmacokinetic evaluations for specific monitorable drugs. Notes written by students and non-licensed
pharmacists/residents must be co-signed by a Kentucky-licensed pharmacist within 24 hours.
Pharmacy to Dose Orders

Purpose:
To provide a policy/procedure for provision of pharmacy-directed monitoring in patients on medication
regimens that lend themselves to therapeutic monitoring. Therapeutic drug monitoring is the utilization of
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic principles (often through drug concentrations) to optimize the
safety and efficacy of a medication regimen.
Information:
All new orders for monitorable drugs will be assessed by a clinically trained pharmacist within 48 hours of
initiation. If further monitoring is determined to be necessary by the pharmacist, the primary service will
be contacted with the initial recommendation. At that time, the consulting pharmacist may request a
verbal order for a pharmacy to dose order for that patient’s medication regimen in order to continue to
follow the medication regimen. Alternatively, at any time, a physician may choose to order a pharmacy to
dose consult.
Pharmacy to Dose:
1. Any physician may request a pharmacist to provide therapeutic dosing and/or monitoring services for
any specified pharmacologic agent. Such a request may be made by submitting a pharmacy to dose
order in Sunrise Clinical Manager (SCM) or by giving a verbal order entered on his/her behalf.
a. Such requests by the physician will result in the pharmacist being authorized to write orders
for the initial drug dose, laboratory tests relevant to monitoring the drug, and/or subsequent
orders for dosing adjustments as deemed appropriate by the pharmacist. Examples of these
include ordering drug concentrations and/or assessments of renal/hepatic function relative to
the dosing of an agent.
b. At any time, the physician may alter the dosing and/or monitoring orders that have been
initiated by the pharmacist.
c. At any time, the physician may request the pharmacist discontinue the dosing/monitoring
consult services being provided to a particular patient.
2. Upon receiving an order for pharmacy to dose a specific medication, a pharmacist will assess the
patient and collect relevant information necessary to appropriately dose/monitor the specified drug so
as to achieve therapeutic drug levels and minimize any potential risks of toxicity. Such items of
information may include, but are not limited to:
a. Indication for therapy (i.e. type and site of infection for antibiotic dosing/monitoring consults)
b. Age
c. Sex
3
d. Height/Weight
e. Renal/Hepatic function
f. Estimated pharmacokinetic parameters
g. Medication history and/or time of last dose (if applicable)
h. Current/last known serum drug concentration (if applicable)
3. Upon selecting a dosing and/or monitoring plan, the pharmacist will enter applicable orders into SCM.
Any orders written by the pharmacist in response to a pharmacy to dose order will be entered under
the requesting physician with the specified source of “Per Protocol”.
4. The pharmacist will provide a progress note in the chart to provide information regarding the course
of the dosing and/or monitoring services in accordance with department of pharmacy policies PH-02-
04 and PH-02-05.
5. The pharmacist will be responsible for follow-up monitoring and/or dose adjustments if the
pharmacist deems such actions necessary as documented in the progress notes.
Pharmacokinetic Guidelines
Refer to Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service and Anticoagulation Guidelines (updated annually)
4
UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY HOSPITAL POLICY NUMBER:

CURRENT AS OF: 07/2012
Clinical Laboratory Policy
Subject: Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) Laboratory Critical Value Call Policy
Purpose: To define guidelines for communicating supratherapeutic critical values at the University of
Kentucky Medical Center.
Information:
• Supratherapeutic critical values for common TDM medications are listed in Appendix I.
• Supratherapeutic critical values (except cyclosporine, tacrolimus, and sirolimus) for patients admitted to a
hospital service will be called to a pharmacist 24 hours a day based on the following schedule:
o Monday through Friday from 8:00AM – 4:00PM: Critical values will be called to the pharmacist
covering the medical service (list of service coverage will updated monthly by the Department of
Pharmacy Services and provided to the TDM Lab Manager)
 If no response in 30 minutes from initial page, then TDM lab will page the Pharmacy Resident
on Call (Pager #330-7400)
 If no response in 30 minutes from initial page, then TDM lab will contact the pharmacist in the
Central Pharmacy at 3-5641.
o Monday through Friday from 4:00PM – 8:00AM: Critical values will be called to the Pharmacy Resident
o On weekends (beginning Friday at 4:00PM and ending Monday at 8:00AM) and holidays, critical values
will be called to the Pharmacy Resident on Call (Pager #330-7400)
• Supratherapeutic critical values for patients located in the Emergency Department will be called to a pharmacist
24 hours a day based on the following schedule:
o Daily from 1:00PM - 11:00PM: Critical values will be called to the ED Clinical Pharmacist Specialist
(Pager# 330-4327)
 If no response in 30 minutes from initial page, then TDM lab will page the Pharmacy Resident
o Daily from 11:00PM – 1:00PM: the Pharmacy Resident on Call (Pager #330-7400)
• Immunosuppressants (cyclosporine, tacrolimus, and sirolimus) will be called to the transplant coordinator on
the transplant service.
o Heart/Lung: 330-2484
o Renal: 323-5953, 323-6099, 323-5737
o Liver: 323-4661
• Supratherapeutic critical values for patients in the University of Kentucky Clinics will be called directly to the
ordering physician.
5
Appendix I. THERAPEUTIC DRUG MONITORING (TDM) CRITICAL VALUE CALL CRITERIA
List of monitorable drugs and therapeutic ranges.
Supratherapeutic Lower Limit of Upper Limit of

Lab Therapeutic Range
Monitorable Drugs values called to Clinical Reportable Clinical Reportable
Abbr. Metric Units
PHARMACIST Range Range
acetaminophen ACAM 10 – 30 µg/mL >35.0 10.0 900
amikacin (peak) AMIKP 25 – 35 µg/mL >35.0 3.0 End Point
amikacin (trough) AMIKT 5 – 10 µg/mL >10.0 3.0 End Point
amikacin (random) AMIKR variable µg/mL >35.0 3.0 End Point
carbamazepine CRBZ 4 – 12 µg/mL >15.0 0.2 60
carbamazepine (saliva) FCRBZS 1.4 – 3.5 µg/mL >6.0 0.5 20
renal 100 – 200
cardiac 100 – 300 >400 called to
cyclosporine CSA ng/mL 25 2000
hepatic 100 – 300 transplant coordinator
lung 150 – 350
digoxin DIG 0.8 – 2.0 ng/mL >2.3 0.5 13.5
gentamicin (peak) GENTP 5 – 10 µg/mL >10.0 0.5 36.0
gentamicin (trough) GENTT < 2.0 µg/mL >2.0 0.5 36.0
lidocaine* LIDO 1.5 – 6.5 µg/mL >6.5 1.0 10.0
lithium LIT 0.6 – 1.2 mmol/L >1.5 0.1 End point
≥5 @ 24hrs
≥0.5 @ 48hrs -
methotrexate MTRX µmol/L 0.01 2000
≥0.05 @ 72hrs
≥0.02 @ 1-2 weeks
phenobarbital PHNO 15 – 40 µg/mL >45.0 5.0 240
phenobarbital (saliva) FPHNOS 5 – 15 µg/mL >18 5 240
phenytoin (total) PHTN 10 – 20 µg/mL >22.0 2.5 40.0
phenytoin (free) FPHTN 0.8 – 1.6 µg/mL >1.6 0.5 12.0
phenytoin (saliva) FPHTN 1–2 µg/mL >2.2 0.5 4.0
primidone* PMDN 5 – 12 µg/mL >15.0 0.1 End point
procainamide* PROC 4 – 10 µg/mL sum >30 0.2 End point
(N-acetyl) procainamide* NAPA NA µg/mL sum >30 0.3 End point
quinidine* QUIN 2–5 µg/mL >5 0.2 End point
salicylate ASAS < 25 µg/mL >30.0 5.0 300
6
List of monitorable drugs and therapeutic ranges. (cont.)
Supratherapeutic Lower Limit of Upper Limit of

Lab Therapeutic Range
Monitorable Drugs values called to Clinical Reportable Clinical Reportable
Abbr. Metric Units
PHARMACIST Range Range
>15 called to transplant
sirolimus SIRO 3-20 ng/mL 2.0 50.0
coordinator
>25 called to transplant
tacrolimus TACRO 4-17 ng/mL 2.0 50.0
coordinator
10 – 20
>22.0
(bronchodilator)
theophylline THEO µg/mL 2.0 120.0
6 – 13
>13.0
(neonatal apnea)
tobramycin (peak) TOBP 5 – 10 µg/mL >10.0 0.5 36.0
tobramycin (trough) TOBT < 2.0 µg/mL >2.0 0.5 36.0
valproic acid VALP 50 – 100 µg/mL >120.0 10.0 450.0
vancomycin (peak) VANCP 20 – 40 µg/mL >50.0 5.0 150.0
10 – 20
vancomycin (trough) VANCT µg/mL >25.0 5.0 150.00
15 – 20
(life threatening
infections)
*Sent to outside laboratory and may require 2-3 days to report results. End point = sample can be diluted up to 3X.
Basic PK Concepts 7
Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts:
Linear pharmacokinetics:
• Serum concentrations change proportionally with increase in dose (e.g., increase dose
from 500mg/day to 1000mg/day, concentrations and AUC double).
• Most drugs follow linear pharmacokinetics
Concentration (mg/L)
40
30
20
10
0
0 500 1000
Dose (m g/day)
Nonlinear or Michaelis-Menten pharmacokinetics:
• As dose increases, a disproportionately greater increase in plasma concentration is

achieved
• Vmax = maximum amount of drug that can be metabolized per unit time (mg/day)
• Km = Michaelis-Menten constant, representing the concentration of phenytoin at
which the rate of this enzyme-saturable hepatic metabolism is one-half of maximum
• Classic example: phenytoin
40
dX Vmax*Css
Drug elimination rate = =
30 dt Km+Css
 Dose 
20  τ  (S)(F)(K m )
 
Css =
10  Dose  
(Vmax ) -   (S)(F)
 τ  
0
0 500 1000
Dose (mg/day)
Basic PK Concepts 8
Clearance (Cls):
• Represents the volume of plasma (or blood) from which drug is removed, in a
given time period
• Expressed in volume/time (e.g., ml/min, L/hr)
• Most IMPORTANT pharmacokinetic parameter Cls = ClHep + ClRen + ClOther
• Model-independent parameter used to estimate average steady-state
concentrations and adjust maintenance doses (“c-bar equation”):
Ko S ⋅ F ⋅ Xo S ⋅ F ⋅ Xo Cls ⋅ C ⋅ τ
C= ; C= or Cls = or Xo =
Cls Cls ⋅ τ C ⋅τ S ⋅F
• Relationship between K, Vd, and Cl:

Cls
K= or Cls = Vd*K; NOTE: Vd and Cls are INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Vd
• Hepatic Clearance (ClHep)
fub *ClInt
Extraction (E) =
QH + (fub *ClInt )
where QH = hepatic blood flow; fub = fraction unbound; Clint - intrinsic clearance
ClHep = QH X E
QH *fub *ClInt
ClHep =
QH + (fub *ClInt )
For HIGH EXTRACTION (>70%) drug, fub *ClInt >>>>> QH , the equation reduces to:
ClHep = QH
For LOW EXTRACTION (<30%) drug, QH >>>>> fub *ClInt , the equation reduces to:
ClHep = fub *ClInt
• Renal Clearance (ClRen)
ClRen = ClGFR + ClTS - ClTR

GFR = glomerular filitration rate, TS = tubular secretion, TR = tubular reabsorption
Basic PK Concepts 9
Half-life (t½) & elimination rate (K):
• Elimination t½ = time required for serum concentration to decrease by ½ after

absorption & distribution phase
• Expressed in hours or minutes
• Takes approximated 3-5 half-lives to reach steady-state
• Dependent variable (depends on Cls and Vd): t½ = 0.693 ⋅ Vd or t½ = 0.693
Cl K
C
ln 1
• Clinically, can be calculated by 2 concentrations: t½ = C2
K
• Most drugs follow first-order elimination
Plasma drug concentration versus time after an Same with a log scale y-axis.
intravenous (bolus) drug dose, assuming a one-
compartment model with first-order elimination
(linear y-scale).
• K = fraction of the drug in the body eliminated over time:

C1
ln
C2 0.693
K= or K =
T' t½
5 mg/L
10 ln
2.5 mg/L
K= = 0.173 hr -1
4 hrs
5mg/L 0.693
t1/2 = = 4 hrs
0.173
2.5mg/L
4hrs
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (hours)
Basic PK Concepts 10
Volume of distribution (Vd):
• Vd is a hypothetical volume that is the proportionality constant that relates amount of drug
in body to the serum concentration.
• Expressed in liters (L) or liter/kg (L/kg).
• Drugs distribute based on composition of body fluids and tissues.
Xo
• Vd =where X o = dose administered; Co = initial concentration
Co
• Useful for calculating loading dose: LD = Vd ⋅ C
• Can calculate Vd using steady-state peak concentration after multiple dosing:
K o (1 − e −Kt ) e-KT
Vd =
ss
Cpk ⋅ K(1 − e −Kτ )
One-compartment model
IV bolus K
1
• 1-compartment model with first-order elimination following IV bolus:
Cartesian graph paper

Sem i-log paper
100 100
80
60
10
40
20
0 1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (hours) Time (hours)
Two-compartment model:
• Many drugs follow 2-compartment model (see model and concentration-time plot
below)
• However, 1-cpt model is sufficient to individualize doses of selected drugs (e.g.,
aminoglycosides, vancomycin) in the clinical setting if concentrations are drawn
appropriately.
K12
IV bolus 1 2
K21
K10
100
10
1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (hrs)
Multiple dosing and steady-state equations:
K o (1 − e −Kt ) e-KT
C ss
=
Vd ⋅ K(1 − e −Kτ )
pk
ss
Cpk = concentration (referred to as peak) drawn at T, time post infusion
Ko = dosing rate in mg/hr
-1
K = elimination rate in hr
t = infusion time in hours (e.g., usually 0.5hrs for aminoglycosides)
ss
T = post infusion time in hours that corresponds with Cpk (e.g., usually 0.5hrs for aminoglycosides)
Vd = Volume of distribution in liters
τ = Tau, dosing interval in hours
This equation is used for aminoglycosides and vancomycin which when dosed as intermittent IV
infusion.
You can build the steady-state multiple dosing equation using the following equations (also see
next page):
1. The infusion (e.g., 30 min for aminoglycosides, 60 min for vancomycin) is a continuous
infusion:
Ko (1-e-kt ) Ko (1-e-kt )
C= or where t = infusion time
Cl Vd ⋅ K
This above equation will calculate the concentration at the end of an intermittent IV
infusion following the first dose (assuming 1-cpt model and 1st order elimination).
2. Peak concentrations are obtained post-distributional to fit a 1-cpt model so the

concentration must be eliminated the time after the end of the infusion (e.g.,
aminoglycosides = 30min; vancomycin = 60min). This can be accounted for by
eliminating the concentration by multiplying the concentration by
e-kT where T = time post infusion resulting in the following equation:
Ko (1-e-kt )
pk
C1st dose = ⋅ e-kT
Vd ⋅ K
3. Concentrations are obtained at steady-state so accumulation must be considered using

1
the following equation: resulting in the final equation:
1-e-kτ
K o (1-e-kt ) 1 K o (1 − e −Kt ) e-KT
C= ⋅ e-kT ⋅ = C ss
=
Vd ⋅ K 1-e-kτ Vd ⋅ K (1 − e −Kτ )
pk
Multiple dosing of intermittent infusion (0.5 hr infusion every 8 hrs)
16
12
0
0 8 16 24 32
Time (hours)
Ko
(1- e -kt ) e -kT
Vk
Concentration
Accumulation
Factor
1
t T
(1 − e −kτ )
τ
Guidelines for PK Monitoring 14
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PHARMACOKINETIC MONITORING
I. When a patient is on a monitorable drug
A. Assess the necessity for serum drug concentrations and address this issue
with the medical team.
B. Avoid problems with interpretation of upcoming concentrations by:
1. Obtaining the concentration at steady-state if possible.

2. Avoiding ordering concentrations during third shift.
3. Ascertaining that the nurse has marked the appropriate dose for
obtaining concentrations on the EMAR (ex. Doses may have been given
in the ER or documented in different areas of the medical records).
4. Staggering penicillin doses away from the dose of an aminoglycoside
around which concentrations are drawn (ideal if penicillin dose is given at
least 2 hours apart from aminoglycoside dose).
II. When a concentration is obtained
A. Using the collect/received time reported in the lab computer and the EMAR,
verify that the concentration is a peak or a trough.
B. Document that the doses preceding the concentration were on time to verify
that the concentration represent steady-state conditions.
C. Calculate the appropriate pharmacokinetic parameters and compare with

predicted population values.
D. Write concise notes including kinetic parameters on all concentrations, whether

therapeutic or subtherapeutic. (See sample notes on pages 25 & 100)
E. Document any information, not retrievable from the medical records, that was
used in making your calculations or recommendations (weight, height, or
information obtained directly from the patient or healthcare provider).
Remember… appropriate documentation will:

1. Improve the quality of care;
2. Allow continuity of care when changing services;
3. Document your role in patient management;
4. Protect you legally;
5. Protect you professionally in audits on quality of care.
Guidelines for PK Monitoring 15
III. How does Clinical Pharmacokinetic Monitoring fit into the Pharmaceutical Care
Process?
Pharmacist’s primary responsibilities in PCare:

• Identifying a patient’s actual and potential drug-related problems
• Resolving the patient’s actual drug-related problems
• Preventing the patient’s potential drug-related problems from becoming actual
problems
Clinical Pharmacokinetics role in PCare:

Identifying and resolving potential problems if the patient is:
• Taking or receiving the wrong dose of the correct drug
• Experiencing an adverse drug reaction
• Experiencing a drug-drug or drug-food interaction
Pharmacist’s Role in Clinical Pharmacokinetic Monitoring

(Am J Health Syst Pharm. 1998 Aug 15;55(16):1726-7)
• Designing patient-specific drug dosage regimens based on pharmacologic

characteristics of the drugs used, the objectives of drug therapy, concurrent
diseases & drug therapy, and other pertinent patient factors.
• Monitoring & adjusting dosage regimens based on pharmacologic responses
and on biological fluid (e.g. plasma, serum, blood, CSF) and tissue drug
concentrations in conjunction with clinical signs and symptoms or other
biochemical parameters.
• Evaluating unusual patient responses to drug therapy for possible
pharmacokinetic and pharmacologic explanations.
• Communicating, verbally and in writing, information on patient-specific drug
therapy to physicians, nurses, and other clinical practitioners.
• Educating pharmacists, physicians, nurses, and other clinical practitioners on
pharmacokinetic principles and/or appropriate indications for clinical
pharmacokinetic monitoring.
• Recommending assays or procedures for the analysis of drug concentration
in order to facilitate the evaluation of dosage regimens.
• Developing quality assurance programs to document improved patient
outcomes and economic benefits resulting from clinical pharmacokinetic
monitoring.
Equations for BSA, IBW and Clcr 16
GENERAL EQUATIONS for BSA, IBW, and Clcr

Equations for body surface area (BSA):
[ Wt(kg)0.425 x Ht(cm)0.725 x 71.84 ]
BSA (m2 ) = (Dubois; Arch Internal Med 1916;17:863)
10,000
Ht(cm) x Wt(kg)
BSA (m2 ) = (Mosteller; NEJM 1987;317:1098)
60
Equation for Ideal Body Weight (IBW):
IBW (male, kg) = 50 + (2.3 x ea. inch over 5 ft)

IBW (female, kg) = 45 + (2.3 x ea. inch over 5 ft)
(Devine; Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1974;8:650)
Estimation of GFR using serum creatinine (Scr)

• Creatinine is endogenous substance derived from muscle metabolism, small & not
bound to plasma proteins, maintains a fairly constant level, and predominantly
filtered ~85% (~15% TS) with minimal non-renal elimination.
• Proportional to muscle mass & body weight
• Normal 24-hour excretion: 20-25 mg/kg IBW (males) and 15-20mg/kg (females)
• Creatinine production decreases with age: 2mg/kg/24hrs per decade
• Several equations have been published to predict GFR using creatinine clearance
(Clcr)
Estimation of GFR using Cockcroft-Gault Equation:

(140-age)(ABW)
(Male) Clcr(ml/min) = ; (Female) Multiply by 0.85
(72)(Scr)
ABW = actual body weight
Note: Use ABW unless obese (>125% ideal body weight), suggest use Salazar & Corcoran equation.
1.73m2
Clcr (standardized to BSA, ml/min/1.73m2 ) = Clcr X
BSA
• Most commonly used equation for estimating GFR in clinical practice

• Derived from multiregression analysis
• Relationship includes corrections of creatinine production for age, weight, and
gender
• Several limitations (best for patients with average muscle mass and stable
production of creatinine)
• Should be used with caution in patients with changing Scr (e.g., acute renal
failure), low Scr (e.g., lack of mobility, patients with loss of muscle mass, spinal
cord injury), and severe renal insufficiency.
Estimation of GFR in obese patients (>125% X IBW) using Salazar-Corcoran
Equation:
[137-Age] x [(0.285 x Wt) + (12.1 x Ht 2 )]
(Male) Clcr(ml/min) =
(51 x Scr)
[146-Age] x [(0.287 x Wt) + (9.74 x Ht 2 )]

(Female) Clcr(ml/min) =
(60 x Scr)
Wt = actual body weight in kg; Ht = height in meters
Note: Ht should be converted to meters before squared (i.e. 6'0" = 72" = 183cm = 1.83m)
Estimation of GFR by calculating Clcr from 24-hour urine collection:

creatinine production rate (mg/1440min)
Clcr (ml/min) =
Scr (mg/100ml)
Ucr X 
 1dL  X Uvol X  1 
  
=
 100ml   1440min 
 1dL 
Scr X  
 100ml 
Ucr = urine creatinine concentration (mg/dL);
Uvol = total urine volume (ml/24 hrs);
Scr = serum creatinine (mg/dL)
Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Equation (Ann Intern Med. 1999 Mar
16;130(6):461-70.)
MDRD study equation:

GFR (ml/min/1.73m2 ) = 170 X [Scr]-0.999 X [Age]-0.176 X [BUN]-0.170 X [Alb]0.318
X [0.762, if female] X [1.18, if patient is African-American]
Abbreviated MDRD study equation (ml/min/1.73m2 ):

GFR = 186 X [Scr]-1.154 X [Age]-0.203 X [0.742, if female]
X [1.210, if patient is African-American]
• Among adults, the MDRD Study equation provides a clinically useful estimate of GFR
(up to ~ 90 mL/min/1.73 m2)
• The MDRD Study equation derived based on:
– GFR measured directly by urinary clearance of 125I-Iothalamate;
– A large sample of >500 individuals with a wide range of kidney diseases;
– Inclusion of both European-American and African-American participants;
– Validated in a large (n > 500) separate group of individuals
• This equation provides estimates of GFR standardized for BSA.
• The abbreviated version (J Am Soc Nephrol. 2000;11: A0828) requires only serum
creatinine, age, sex, and race.
• Basic metabolic panel at UKCMC uses the abbreviated equation to report GFR.
• Per National Kidney Foundation recommendations: “Nonetheless, questions remain
about the equation’s generalizability because it has not been validated in diabetic
kidney disease, in patients with serious comorbid conditions, in normal persons, or in
persons older than 70 years of age. Clinical conditions in which it may be necessary
to measure GFR by using clearance methods include extremes of age and body size,
severe malnutrition or obesity, diseases of skeletal muscle, paraplegia or
quadriplegia, vegetarian diet, rapidly changing kidney function, and calculation of the
dose of potentially toxic drugs that are excreted by the kidneys.” Many of these
limitations also apply to the use of Cockcroft-Gault.
• Please note there are not sufficient studies to date that use the MDRD equation for
adjusting drug dosages for patients with renal insufficiency. This may change in the
near future as more studies with the MDRD equation are published.
Estimation of Clcr in Pediatrics:

0.45 X Ht (cm)
Clcr (infants up to 1 year of age, mL/min/1.73m2 ) =
Scr
=
Clcr (children 1 to 16 years of age, mL/min/1.73m2) ( 0.413 × Height in cm ) / Creatinine in mg / dL
Schwartz GJ, et al. New equations to estimate GFR in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 20 : 629 − 637.
AMINOGLYCOSIDES - CONVENTIONAL DOSING

1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 Cpk at 30 min after end of 30 min infusion (IV); 1 hr after injection (IM)
 Ctr within 30 min prior to dose
 at ss (4 to 5 estimated half-lives; normal renal function: t½ = 2-3 hrs)
usually around 3rd maintenance dose (or later) preferably during day
2. Recommended Frequency of Sampling
a. Routine Use In "Uncomplicated" Patients
 initial Cpk and Ctr
 repeat Cpk and Ctr, at new steady state, if initial values differ > 25%
from predicted (i.e. suggestive of unusual kinetic parameters or
deviation from sampling guidelines)
 Scr and BUN at least 2x/week; monitor other signs of renal function
 repeat Cpk and Ctr q 1-2 wks, when duration of therapy > 2 wks
b. Use in “Complicated” patients (e.g., diminished or changing hydration status

and/or renal function, concurrent ototoxic or nephrotoxic drugs)
 initial Cpk and Ctr at steady state
 Scr and BUN daily
 repeat Cpk and Ctr weekly (or more frequently as dictated by clinical
condition).
3. Therapeutic Range (Conventional Dosing)*
Patients with normal renal function: Conventional dosing for gentamicin and
tobramycin ~1-2 mg/kg-DBW/dose q8hrs and amikacin ~5mg/kg-DBW/dose
q8hrs. NOTE: Elderly patients often require a q12hr or longer dosing interval.
- Primarily used as double coverage or synergy with β-lactams for aerobic

gram-negative infections (e.g. Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Proteus, E. coli,
Serratia)
- Can be used for synergy with some gram-positive infections (e.g.

Enterococcus, Staphylococcus)
Concentration gentamicin, tobramycin amikacin

Cpk (mg/L) 5 -10 25 - 35
Ctr (mg/L) 0.5 - 2 4 - 10
*Desired Cpk and Ctr concentrations for conventional aminoglycoside dosing

should be determined clinically by site and severity of infection, causative
organism and its MIC, immunocompetence of patient, intent of therapy, etc.
See table below for general recommendations for desired Cpk based on type of
infection. *Final decision for desired concentrations should be based on clinical
outcomes in addition to a pharmacokinetic assessment.
Suggested Target
Peak Concentrations (mg/L)
Types of infections* (gentamicin or tobramycin)
Abdominal infections 6-8
Bacteremia 6-8
Empiric therapy in cystic fibrosis 8-12
Endocarditis, Bacterial (prevention & treatment)
gram positive (synergy: 1mg/kg/q8hrs) 3-5
gram negative 8-10
Eye infections 6-8
Meningitis 8-10
Neutropenic patients 6-10
Peritonitis 6-8
Pneumonia 8-10
Skin and soft tissue infections 6-8
Urinary tract infections 4-6
4. General Guidelines for Monitoring
a. Initial Dosing
1. Select desired Cpk and Ctr based on site and severity of infection, causative
organism and MIC, immunocompetence of patient, intent of therapy.
2. Estimate Clcr; standardize Clcr to 1.73 m2 if BSA known:
1.73m2
= Clcr ×
Clcr (std)
actual BSA
For obese patients use DBW = [IBW + 0.4 (TBW-IBW)] in the Cockcroft-Gault
equation to estimate Clcr and standardize to 1.73m2 to estimate
aminoglycoside K. (Leader WG, Tsubaki T, Chandler MHH. Am J Hosp
Pharm 1994; 51:2125-30)
3. Estimate K:
K= 0.00293 ∗ Clcr(std) + 0.014
4. Estimate t½:
0.693
t½ =
K
5. Estimate Vd*:
Vd = 0.25 L/Kg, average
Vd = 0.20 L/Kg, if dehydrated
Vd = 0.30 L/Kg, with CHF, volume overload, ICU patients
*Use ABW unless patient is obese (>125% IBW or TBW/IBW > 1.25)
If obese use dosing body weight: DBW = IBW + 0.4 (TBW-IBW)
6. Calculate dosing interval (τ) :

t = infusion time (e.g., 0.5hr)
ln(Cpk /Ctr )
=τ +t+T T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 0.5hr)
K
7. Calculate maintenance dose (Ko) using target Cpk:

-Kτ
ss
Cpk ⋅ Vd ⋅ K ⋅ (1-e ) t = infusion time (e.g., 0.5hr)
Ko = T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 0.5hr)
(1 − e-Kt ) ⋅ e-KT
**NOTE that Ko = mg/HOUR and the dose must be adjusted to account for
0.5hr infusion. (e.g. If Ko = 200mg/HR, then the dose = 100mg/30min for ½ hr
infusion)
8. Round dose to nearest 10mg or available stock bag dose (e.g., 80,100,120mg)
then recalculate the actual Cpk:
actual (rounded) dose
desired Cpk X = actual Cpk
calculated dose
−KT '
tr = C pk ⋅ e
9. Estimate trough: C ss ss
T’ = time between Cpk and Ctr
10. If necessary, calculate loading dose (Ko*):

Ko Cpk ⋅ V ⋅ K
=K *o = or or = V ⋅ Cpk
ss
(1-e-Kτ ) (1 − e-Kt )
Weight-based method: 1.5 to 2 mg/kg (use DBW if obese)
b. Dosage Adjustment Using Sawchuk-Zaske Method:
Assumptions: Concentrations represent steady-state conditions; 1-compartment

model; principle of superposition; linear elimination.
1. Verify administration and sampling times.
2. Calculate K:
ss
Cpk T’ is determined by subtracting the time difference between Cpk and Ctr
ln ( ss
) from the Tau. For example, if the time difference between Cpk and Ctr
C
K= tr was 1.5hrs and the Tau = q8hrs, then T’ = (8 - 1.5) = 6.5hrs.
T'
3. Calculate t½:
0.693
t½ =
K
4. IF peak concentration is drawn late, calculate if drawn at correct time:

ss
Cpk
Cpk =
e-Kt'
ss
where Cpk = peak concentration drawn at appropriate time;
ss
Cpk = peak concentration drawn late; t' = time between late Cpk and Cpk
5. IF trough concentration is drawn early (e.g., >30min prior to dose), calculate if
drawn at correct time:
-Kt'
tr = C tr ∗ e
Css
where Css
tr = trough concentration drawn at appropriate time
(e.g., suggest use dose administration time)

Ctr = trough concentration drawn early; t' = time between early Ctr and Css
tr
6. Calculate Vd:
If doses have reached steady state (e.g., previous doses on time,

concentrations drawn appropriately), use:
K o (1 − e −Kt ) e-KT t = infusion time (e.g., 0.5hr)

Vd =
⋅ K (1 − e −Kτ )
ss
ss T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 0.5hr)
Cpk
If doses have NOT reached steady state AND there are at least 3
concentrations after a multiple dose (e.g., trough, peak, & random) or 2
concentrations after the 1st dose (e.g., peak and random or 2 random
concentrations) use:
K o (1-e-Kt ) Cmax
pk
= peak extrapolated to END of infusion
Vd = t = time of infusion
K (Cmax
pk - Ctr e-Kt' ) t' = time between Ctr and Cmax
pk
To use above equation, calculate peak at end of infusion:

Cpk
Cmax
pk = -KT T = time between Cpk and Cpk
max
7. IF measured Ctr is high, calculate time required to achieve desired Ctr:
ln  1 
Ctr Ctr1 = high Ctr; Ctr2 = desired Ctr
 Ctr2 
t' = t' = time required from Ctr1 to Ctr2
K
8. Calculate new dosing interval (τ):
ln(Cpk /Ctr ) t = infusion time (e.g., 0.5hr)

τ= +t+T
K T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 0.5hr)
9. Calculate new dosing rate:

ss
Cpk Vd K(1-e-Kτ ) t = infusion time (e.g., 0.5hr)
Ko = T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 0.5hr)
(1-e-Kt ) e-KT
**NOTE that Ko = mg/HOUR and the dose must be adjusted to account for ½ HOUR
infusion. (e.g. If Ko = 200mg/HR, then the dose = 100mg/30min for ½ hr infusion)
10. Round dose to nearest 10mg or available stock bag dose (80,100,120mg) then
recalculate the actual Cpk:

calculated dose
11. Estimate trough to be obtained with above Ko and τ:
ss -KT'
tr = Cpk e
Css
12. Document the pharmacokinetic assessment in the medical records.
Document pertinent clinical monitoring parameters, dose recommendations

and estimated and/or calculated pharmacokinetic parameters in the medical
record. (Also refer to Department of Pharmacy Guidelines for Writing Notes in
Patient Charts, PH-02-04)
- Briefly describe the rationale of the drug and determine if warranted

based on clinical and patient information.
- Document the current day of therapy and goal length of therapy (e.g.,
Day #2/10 gentamicin), and any concomitant antibiotics.
- Document the collect times of the reported concentrations and note if the
samples were obtained appropriately. For example, if actual Cpk was
drawn late, also document the estimated Cpk if drawn correctly.
- Include the calculate PK parameters: K (hr-1), t½ (hrs), Vd (L) and Vd
(L/kg – DBW).
- Write a new dosage in mg and mg/kg-DBW/dose (e.g., gentamicin 100
mg IV q8hrs, 1.5mg/kg/dose).
- When changing a dosage, include the start time of new dosing regimen
with the order (very helpful for the pharmacist entering the order and the
nurse administering the drug).
- Include a range for the predicted concentrations with the new dosage
recommendation: (e.g., Cpk = 8-10mg/L; Ctr <2mg/L, ~1mg/L).
- Include other pertinent information used to assess the patient: weight
(ABW, IBW, DBW), height, BSA, Scr, Clcr, BUN, urine output, I/Os,
cultures, Tmax, WBC, differential, allergies, and other nephrotoxic
medications (e.g., furosemide, amphotericin, vancomycin).
- Sample note provided on next page.
Sample Note
PHYSICAL/HISTORY/ Patient Name:

PROGRESS NOTES Medical Record:
Date of Birth:
Date Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service RE: Tobramycin Day #2/14
9/2/2001 Patient is 50yo WM being treated with tobramycin 120mg IV q8hrs (1.45 mg/kg/dose)
12:00 and Zosyn 3.375gm IV q6hrs for nosocomial pneumonia based on positive sputum
cultures for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Current Tmax 102.5, WBC = 15K.
ABW = 90kg
Ht = 6’0” Tobramycin concs drawn around 3rd dose on 9/2:
IBW = 77.6kg Trough = 2.2 mg/L C: 07:30
DBW = 82.6kg Dose = 120 mg IV infused from 08:00 – 08:30
BSA = 2.13m2 Peak = 7 mg/L C: 09:00
Scr = 1.2 (today) Assessment of concs: Previous doses administered on time & represent steady-
Clcr = 86ml/min state;
Clcr (std) = Ctr & Cpk drawn appropriately; Cpk is below recommended range for pneumonia (8-
70ml/min/1.73m2 10mg/L) & Ctr above therapeutic range (<2mg/L). Renal function stable.
PK parameters: K = 0.18hr-1; t½ = 3.9 hrs; Vd = 19.6L (0.24 L/kg)
Recommendations:
1. Suggest changing tobramycin to 160mg IV q12hrs (1.9 mg/kg/dose) to yield a

Cpk ~8-10 mg/L & Ctr ~ 1mg/L; begin next dose at 20:00 today when conc. =
1mg/L; discussed with resident on primary team.
2. Not necessary to recheck Cpk & Ctr unless change in clinical status or renal
function; if continue therapy > 7 days, would suggest recheck concentrations
to assess for drug accumulation.
3. Suggest checking Scr/BUN at least 2X/week to assess renal function.
George Davis, Pharm.D. #330-4215

Neonatal Guidelines (gentamicin, tobramycin):
Neonatal dosing guidelines (gentamicin, tobramycin)

Assume Vd (0.5 - 0.6 L/kg)
Gestational Age Dosage
<= 7 postnatal days: 5 mg/kg IV Q48H

<= 29 weeks 8 to 28 days: 4 mg/kg IV Q36H
>28 postnatal days: 4 mg/kg IV Q24H
<= 7 postnatal days: 4.5 mg/kg IV Q36H

30 – 34 weeks
> 7 postnatal days: 4 mg/kg IV Q24H
>= 35 weeks 4 mg/kg IV Q24H
HIE
4 mg/kg IV Q36H
(Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy)
Comments:
 Don’t confuse “once daily” dosing with every 24-hour dosing interval in neonates.
 Neonates require a longer dosing interval (decreased clearance) and larger mg/kg dose (increased volume).
 Concentrations may not be warranted in all neonatal patients.
 If extended therapy is indicated (e.g., positive blood culture), concentrations (peak and trough) should be
obtained with the 3rd dose.
 If urine output decreases < 1ml/kg/hr for at least 8 hours, concentrations are warranted.
 Goal concentrations usually: peak = 5-8mg/L; trough < 2mg/L.
Dose may be infused over 30 minutes (always check administration technique as possible source of error).
Pediatric Guidelines (gentamicin, tobramycin)
Infant and children dosing guidelines (gentamicin, tobramycin)

Assume Vd (0.3 - 0.35 L/kg)
Age Dosage
Infants: ≥1 month <10 years 2.5mg/kg/dose IV q8hrs
Children: ≥10 –14 years 1.7-2.5 mg/kg/dose IV q8hrs
Children: >14 years - adult 1-2 mg/kg/dose IV q8hrs
Pediatric cystic fibrosis (CF) patients dosing guidelines (gentamicin, tobramycin)

Vd = 0.4 – 0.45 L/kg
Dosage Comments
 Q12hr dosing should be considered for patients started on aminoglycosides for first
time and if documented half-life is <2 hours based on patient-specific PK parameters
 Q24hr dosing should be considered in patients on other nephrotoxins (e.g.,
5-7 mg/kg/dose IV vancomycin)
 Larger Vd (0.4-0.45 L/kg) due to decreased body fat and increased Cl due to
q12hrs increased GFR.
 Pediatric CF patients are excluded from the once-daily aminoglycoside dosing but
or some patients may be receiving a “high dose regimen” twice a day.
 For CF patients, levels are usually obtained on the 3rd day rather than the 3rd dose
to allow for rehydration.
10-14 mg/kg/dose  Concentrations should be obtained at 4 and 10 hours post dose (12 hours may not
IV q24hrs be measurable). Peak and trough levels appropriate for q8h dosing.
(concurrent  Usually require higher doses to achieve desired concentrations (Cpk > 12 mg/L; Ctr
Vancomycin < 1mg/L).
therapy or past  Must be very cautious of nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity because of long term and
recurrent use.
history dictates)  Repeat concentrations are usually not obtained unless significant changes in dose
are warranted (e.g., >30%), available concentrations are not reliable, or therapy is
continued beyond 14 days.
 If duration of concentration < 0.5 mg/L is greater than 6-8 hours with q24hr dosing,
may need to consider lower dosing at more frequent dosing intervals
6. Guidelines for Dosing in End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)

- Defined as GFR < 15 ml/min or on renal replacement therapy (RRT)
Gentamicin and Tobramycin Dosing/Monitoring – Conventional IHD

Monitor based on duration of therapy
1. Serum concentrations not necessary in patients on therapy <5 days
2. Serum concentrations recommended in patients with culture positive infection
or expected duration of therapy > 5 days.
Guidelines for Monitoring

1. Initial dosing
a. Assume Vd – 0.3-0.35 L/kg
b. Synergy dosing
i. Loading dose 1.5-2 mg/kg (DBW)
ii. Maintenance dose 1mg/kg (DBW) after each hemodialysis
c. Moderate to severe infections (aggressive management)
i. Loading dose 2-2.5 mg/kg (DBW)
Effect of hemodialysis
1. Removes approximately 30-50% with typical HD session (e.g., 3-4 hour)
2. Levels taken 1 hour post dialysis are true troughs; levels taken prior to dialysis
can be used during the 30-50% removal assumption.
Concentrations
1. Single drug level approach (synergy dosing)
a. Most commonly utilized approach at UK
b. Pre-dialysis (random) concentration
c. Extrapolate post-dialysis concentration (trough) by assuming 50% drug
removal during a 4 hour dialysis session
d. Target of trough < 2 mg/L to conserve remaining kidney function and
minimize risk for ototoxicity.
2. Multiple drug level approach (aggressive management)
a. Peak concentration drawn 2 hours after dose
b. Pre-dialysis (random) concentration
Maintenance dosing (multiple drug levels)

1. Calculate Keoff IHD
a. Keoff IHD = (Ln Cp1/Cp2)/t
Cp1 = Peak concentration; Cp2 = Pre-dialysis (random)
t = time between Cp1 and Cp2
2. Calculate half-life off IHD
a. t1/2 = 0.693/keoff IHD
b. Extrapolate actual peak concentration
c. Extrapolate post-dialysis concentration (trough) by assuming 50% drug
removal during dialysis
3. Determine Vd
4. Calculate maintenance dose using desired peak concentration (Cpk)
a. Ko = (Cpk(des) – Ctr) x Vd
b. Typical dosing 1-1.8 mg/kg after each dialysis session
Dialysis factors that may lead to lower percentage of drug removed

1. Dialysis duration <2 hours
2. Blood flow reduced to <200 mL/min
3. Ultrafiltration only (no hemodialysis)
4. Less permeable dialyzers (filters) used
5. Patient is volume overloaded
Aminoglycoside Dosing/Monitoring – CRRT

Dosing recommendations for critically ill adults receiving CVVHD/CVVHDF*
Infection with Gm Infection with gram-negative bacteria

positive bacteria
Aminoglycoside Synergy dosage Loading dose Maintenance dosage
Gentamicin 1 mg/kg q24-36h 3 mg/kg 2 mg/kg q24-48h
Tobramycin Not applicable 3 mg/kg 2 mg/kg q24-48h
Amikacin Not applicable 10 mg/kg 7.5 mg /kg q24-48h
Note: Use calculated dosing body weight. Target peak and trough levels vary
depending on type of infection.
*Trotman RL et al. CID 2005;41:1159-66.
Guidelines for Monitoring

1. Typical dosing interval during CRRT is q24-48h
2. Synergy dosing yields target peaks of 3-4 mg/L
3. Higher target peaks require longer dosing intervals
Levels
1. Two random serum concentrations will be obtained 4 and 12 hours after
completion of the 1st dose.
2. Determine appropriate maintenance dose based upon calculated PK
parameters (ensure CRRT uninterrupted between concentrations)
Factors that may lead to changes in amount of drug removed

1. Changes in ultrafiltration rate
2. Dialysis interrupted (i.e. filter clotted, particularly overnight)
3. Alterations in existing renal function (ARF vs CRF)
Useful References
1. Dager WE, King JH. Aminoglycosides in intermittent hemodialysis: pharmacokinetics with individual
dosing. Ann Pharmacother 2006;40:9-14.
2. Trotman RL, Williamson JC, Shoemaker M, Salzer WL. Antibiotic dosing in critically ill adult patients
receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. CID 2005;41:1159-66.
Suggested References for Influences of Pathophysiological States on

Aminoglycoside Kinetics:
Ascites: Sampliner (1984) J Clin Pharmacol 24:43.
Burn Patients: Zaske (1976) J Trauma 16:824.

Zaske (1978) Surgery 84:603.
Loirat P (1978) N Engl J Med. 26;299(17):915-9
Zaske (1991) J Burn Care Rehabil. 12(1):46-50
Hollingsed TC (1993) J Trauma 35(3):394-8
Weinbren MJ. (1999) J Antimicrob Chemother 44(3):319-27
Critically Ill Patients: Dasta (1986) Critical Care Med 14:393.

Hassan (1986) Critical Care Med 14:394.
Bressolle F (1996) Antimicrob Ag Chemother 40(7):1682-9
Watling SM (1993) Ann Pharmacother. 27(3):351-7.
Mann HJ (1998) Pharmacotherapy. 18(2):371-8.
Barletta JF (2000) J Trauma Nov;49(5):869-72
Cystic Fibrosis: Kearns (1982) J Pediatr 100:312.

Kelly (1982) J Pediatr 100:318.
Vic (1996) Eur J Pediatr 155:948-953.
Campbell D (1999) Ther Drug Monit. 21(3):281-8.
Elderly: Bauer (1981) Antimicrob Ag Chemother 20:587

Zaske (1982) JAMA 248:3112
Matzke (1987) J Clin Pharmacol 27:216
Morike K (1997) Drugs Aging. 10(4):259-77.
Triggs E (1999) Clin Pharmacokinet. 37(4):331-41.
Obesity: Blouin (1979) Clin Pharmacol Ther 26:508.

Bauer (1980) Am J Hosp Pharm 37:519.
Traynor (1995) Antimicrob Ag Chemother 39(2):545
Pediatrics: Watterberg (1989) Ther Drug Mon 11(1):16-20

Butler (1994) Clin Pharmacokinet 26(5):374-395.
Ettinger (1996) J Antimicrob Chemother 38:499-505.
Semchuk (1995) Biol Neonate 67:13-20
Murphy (1998) AJHP 55:2280-88.
Thureen (1999) Pediatrics 103:594-598
Langlass (1999) AJHP 56:440-43.
Aminoglycosides – High-dose, Extended Interval Dosing 31
HIGH-DOSE EXTENDED INTERVAL DOSING (HDEI)
There are several studies suggesting that larger doses of aminoglycosides with extended
intervals (e.g., q24hrs) are just as effective, and less toxic, than conventional dosing given three
times a day. HDEI regimens take advantage of concentration-dependent killing through the
optimization of peak concentration / MIC ratios. In addition, there are potential cost savings for
nursing, pharmacy, and laboratory personnel. The HDEI policy has been used on the Trauma
Surgery Service at the University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center since 1993. This is also
referred to as “Once daily aminoglycoside dosing”.
Inclusion Criteria: All adult patients ordered aminoglycosides for prophylaxis, empiric therapy,
or documented infection. (Aminoglycosides are usually indicated as synergistic or adjunctive
therapy with other antibiotics as double coverage for gram-negative infections).
Exclusion criteria:
1. Patients with ascites
2. Patients with burns on >20% of total body surface area
3. Pregnant patients
4. Patients on dialysis
5. Patients with gram positive bacterial endocarditis
6. Pediatric patients (<18yo) – please refer to pediatric dosing guidelines
7. Patients with cystic fibrosis (with/without lung transplant) – please refer to specific
guidelines for CF patients
Initial Dose: Doses should be based on DOSING BODY WEIGHT, ideal body weight plus 40%
of estimated adipose tissue mass above IBW (see Dosing Guidelines).
• Patients with estimated Clcr ≥ 40 mL/min/1.73m2 will receive initial

gentamicin/tobramycin dose of 7 mg/kg-DBW, infused over 30 minutes. Amikacin
dosage is 15-20mg/kg/day-DBW.
• Alternative dosing in special populations include:

o Orthopedic Surgery services commonly will use gentamicin 5mg/kg-DBW for
prophylaxis/pre-emptive therapy with open fracture
o Obstetrics which use gentamicin 5mg/kg -post-partum dosing body weight (see
page 36 for OB guidelines)
o Cystic fibrosis patients (Without lung transplant) - Guidelines on page 26 for
pediatric CF dosing and page 35 for adult CF dosing.
o Cystic fibrosis patients with lung transplant have been shown to have altered
aminoglycoside pharmacokinetics (increased half life) following transplant and
dosing should be individualized based on concentrations.
• Patients with estimated creatinine clearances < 40 mL/min/1.73m will receive an initial
gentamicin dose of 3 mg/kg, infused over 30 minutes.
INITIAL DOSING GUIDELINES FOR ADULTS:

1. Estimate Creatinine Clearance (Clcr) using Actual Body Weight (ABW) for non-obese
patients; in obese patients (>125% IBW) use Dosing Body Weight (see below for equation).
Males Clcr =
(140-Age ) ×ABW Females Clcr =Clcr *0.85
72×Scr
2. Estimate Body Surface Area (BSA) using the Mosteller equation:
Ht(cm) x Wt(kg)
BSA (m2 ) =
60
3. Calculate Standardized Creatinine Clearance:
1.73m2
Clcr(Std) = Clcr *
BSA
4. Determine Ideal Body Weight (IBW).
IBW (kg) = 50 (kg) + (2.3 (kg) x ea. inch over 5 ft) male
= 45 (kg) + (2.3 (kg) x ea. inch over 5 ft) female
5. Calculate Dosing Body Weight (DBW):
DBW = IBW + 0.4 (ABW-IBW) (If ABW<IBW, then DBW = ABW)
6. Calculate the patient’s dose (gentamicin & tobramycin) based on Dosing Body Weight.
a) If Clcr(std) ≥ 40 ml/min/1.73m2, then give 7 mg/kg-DBW.
b) If Clcr(std) < 40 ml/min/1.73m2, then give 3 mg/kg-DBW.
Amikacin: Doses used for single daily administration of amikacin range from 15 to
20 mg/kg/day (Marik et al, 1991; Maller et al, 1993 - 20mg/kg/dose: Cpk ~40mg/L
and Ctr24hr <4mg/L).
7. Dilute dose in 100 ml of either 5% Dextrose or Normal Saline and infuse over 30 minutes.
8. Order two concentrations at 4 and 12 hours after the end of 1st dose.
Monitoring: Two concentrations (ordered as “random” concentrations) will be obtained:
1) 1st concentration will be drawn ~4 hours* after completion of the 1st dose.
NOTE: The random concentration at 4 hours post-infusion may range from 4-13 mg/L depending
on renal function and volume status. Patients with normal renal function (>100 ml/min) usually
average a 4-hour random ~5-8 mg/L (see mean concentration-time curve on page 41).
The rationale for obtaining a “4-hour” sample versus a “peak” is to determine the serum
concentration after the distribution phase. A prolonged distribution phase has been described in
trauma patients (Jennings HR, et al. Pharmacotherapy. 2000;20(10):1265) and healthy volunteers
(McNamara DR, et al. J Clin Pharmacol 2001 Apr;41(4):374-7) who received 7 mg/kg. Post-
distribution concentrations provide a more accurate calculation of elimination rate and the
estimation of the 24-hour concentration.
2) 2nd concentration will be drawn ~12 hours after completion of the 1st dose.
NOTE: The concentration at 12 hours post-infusion will vary depending on renal function. The
12-hour concentration may be <1 mg/L in patients with normal renal function.
Patients with normal renal function should have a prolonged “drug-free” period. ODA
therapy should usually NOT be used as the single antibiotic agent and patients should not
receive a dose of 7mg/kg more frequently than once every 24 hours until more studies are
available. Some patients may warrant conventional dosing to maintain concentrations.
Please consult the Clinical Pharmacokinetic Service (257-8403) or ID service regarding any
concerns about ODA therapy or patient eligibility.
Subsequent Doses: The goal of the initial concentrations after the 1st dose is to verify that the
drug is eliminated appropriately before the 2nd dose and to establish the dosing interval.
Subsequent doses will be the same as the initial dose, but the dosing intervals will be adjusted
to achieve troughs < 1 mg/L. Appropriate dosing intervals include every 24, 36, or 48 hours.
Scr/BUN should be measured at baseline and 2X/week thereafter.
• Patients with normal renal function will usually have a “drug-free” period with an undetectable
trough concentration < 0.3 mg/L.
• For patients with trough concentration > 0.3 mg/L, renal function should be monitored closely
and risks of nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity evaluated carefully.
• If the serum concentration following a 7mg/kg dose requires > 48 hours to decline to <1mg/L,
then 3mg/kg or conventional dosing may be warranted.
• Patients should not receive a single dose of 7mg/kg more frequently than every 24 hours until
more studies are available.
Follow-up monitoring: If ODA therapy is continued for > 7days, a trough concentration should
be obtained weekly to check for drug accumulation and assess risk of nephrotoxicity. Scr/BUN
should also be monitored at least 2X/week to assess any changes in renal function and risk of
nephrotoxicity. Concomitant nephrotoxic drugs should be avoided if possible.
Ototoxicity should be monitored closely. Ototoxicity results from damage to the vestibular and
cochlear portions of the eighth cranial nerve. Auditory symptoms include tinnitus, roaring,
ringing, or “buzzing” in the ears, and varying degrees of hearing impairment. Loss of
high-frequency perception is only detectable by audiometric testing and usually occurs before
clinical hearing loss. Vestibular symptoms include nausea, vomiting, dizziness, vertigo,
nystagmus, oscillopsia, and ataxia. A feeling of fullness in the ears and tinnitus are early
signs of ototoxicity. Symptoms are exacerbated in the dark. Hearing loss may be
irreversible, but patients usually retain normal conversational hearing. Other ototoxic drugs
(e.g., lasix) should be avoided if possible.
CALCULATE PARAMETERS:
1) Calculate K:
C1random = 1st random ~4hrs after dose
ln  random 
C1 C2random = 2nd random ~12 hrs after dose
 C2random  T’ = time between C1random and C2random
K=
T'
2) Calculate Cpk at 0.5hr after 1st dose (30-min infusion):
0.5hr C1random 0.5hr

T' = time between C1random and Cpk
Cpk =
e-KT'
3) Calculate Ctr at 24 hours:
C=
24hr
tr
0.5hr
Cpk ∗ e-K∗23 If 24hr Ctr ≤ 1 mg/L continue q24hr dosing
If 24hr Ctr > 1 mg/L extend dosing interval
4) Calculate V using Cmax

pk (peak extrapolated to the END of infusion)
0.5hr
max
Cpk t = 0.5hr (time between Cmax 0.5hr
and Cpk )
C pk = pk
e-Kt
K o (1 − e−Kt )
V= t = infusion time
K(Cmaxpk )
If assistance is required in selecting patients or determining the proper dose or dosage interval, contact
the pharmacist rounding with the service, the Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service (257-3378, UK beeper
#1740), the Pharm.D. Resident on call (UK beeper #1875), or the Infectious Disease Service.
35
Gentamicin 7mg/kg-DBW
Mean±StdDev Serum Concentrations
30 Trauma Patients (n=13)
University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center
25
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time Post 30-minute Infusion (hrs)
Jennings HR, Coyle EA, Kearney PA, Davis GA. . Characterization of once-daily aminoglycoside (ODA)
pharmacokinetics (PKS) in the critically ill: Suggestions for clinical monitoring. Pharmacotherapy.
2000;20(10): 1265.
SUGGESTED REFERENCES:
J Infect Dis 1987; 155:93-9
J Infect Dis 1990; 162:414-20
Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 3:650-5
Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28:757-66
Pharmacotherapy 1995; 15:297-316
Pharmacotherapy 1995; 15:201-9
Ther Drug Monit 1996; 18:263-6
Ann Intern Med 1996; 124:717-25
J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39:677-686
J Burn Care Rehab 1997; 18:116-24.
Ann Pharmacother 1998; 32:417-21.
J Clin Pharmacol 2001;41(4):374-377.
HDEI in Pediatrics:
J Pediatr 1997;131:76-80.
J Antimicrob Chemo 1997; 39:431-33. (cystic fibrosis patients)
J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998 Jul;42(1):103-6. (cystic fibrosis patients)
J Pediatr Surg. 1998 Jul;33(7):1104-7.
Pediatrics. 1999 Jun;103(6 Pt 1):1228-34.
Ther Drug Monit. 2001 Oct;23(5):506-13.
Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001 Dec;20(12):1169-73.
HDEI Dosing for Adult Cystic Fibrosis Patients:
Inclusion criteria:
 Adult patients 18-35 years of age
 Estimated Clcr > 60ml/min
 Must obtain baseline Scr in patients at increased risk of renal insufficiency
o History of renal dysfunction
o Diabetes mellitus
 Must consider if CF patient is post-lung transplant and the time since transplant due
to altered pharmacokinetics:
o Tobramycin pharmacokinetics have been shown to be altered in patients with CF
after bilateral lung transplantation (Walsh KA et al. Transplant Infect Dis 2011).
 Concentrations were evaluated at 0-3 weeks and ≥6 weeks post-transplant.
 Elimination rate constant decreased 38% from 0.26±0.1 to 0.16±0.1/h (P<0.001), with
a related increase of 200% in half-life from 2.8±0.8 to 8.4±8.7 h (P<0.001).
Clearance decreased 25% post-transplant from 67.3±32.3 to 50.2±15.9 mL/min
(P=0.04).
 Dosage requirements after transplantation were significantly lower, 10.7±2.5 and
7.6±1.6 mg/kg/day, pre- and post-transplant, respectively (P<0.001).
 Cl and Vd ≥6 weeks post-transplant did not significantly differ from pre-transplant
values (P=0.28 and 0.54, respectively), suggesting that changes may be temporary.
 PK parameters should be reassessed during each treatment course post-transplant
to determine appropriate dosage.
o CF patients post-lung transplant may require a lower initial dose and extended
dosing interval. Subsequent doses should be determined based on indication,
risk of nephrotoxicity, concentrations, and individual PK parameters.
Dosing and monitoring recommendations (Tobramycin):

 12 mg/kg (DBW) IV q24 hours
 Obtain 4 and 10 hour concentrations following infusion of third dose
o Goal Ctr < 0.5 mg/L
o If 12 hour concentration is <1 mg/L, consider increasing dose to 15
mg/kg/day or shorten dosing interval (i.e. 7-8 mg/kg IV q12h).
o If estimated (calculated) trough level prior to next dose (Ctr) is >0.5 mg/L,
calculate new dose to achieve Ctr <0.5mg/L
 Repeat trough concentrations indicated if significant changes in dose occur or if
therapy is to continue an additional 7 days
o Draw trough concentration once weekly, goal Ctr ≤0.5mg/L
o If patient on other nephrotoxic medications (e.g., vancomycin), more
frequent monitored may be warranted
o Assess renal function at least 2x weekly while patient on therapy
SUGGESTED REFERENCES:
1. Smyth A, Tan, KH, Knox A et al. Once versus three-times daily regimens of tobramycin treatment for pulmonary
exacerbations of cystic fibrosis – TOPIC study. Lancet 2005; 573-78
2. Aminimanizani A, Beringer PM, Shapiro BJ et al. Distribution and elimination of tobramycin administered in
single or multiple daily doses in adult patients with cystic fibrosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 50:553-9.
3. Beringer PM, Vinks AA, Shapiro BJ et al. Pharmacokinetics in adults with cystic fibrosis: Implications for once-
daily administration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44(4):809-13.
4. Bates RD, Nahata MC, Barson WJ et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of tobramycin after once-daily
administration in patients with cystic fibrosis. Chest 1997; 112:1208-13.
5. Walsh KA, Davis GA, Hayes Jr. D, Kuhn BJ, Flynn JD. Tobramycin pharmacokinetics in patients with cystic
fibrosis before and after bilateral lung transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 2011.
ODA Dosing for Postpartum Endometritis
(Revised July 2014)
Indications:
• Postpartum endometritis
• Postpartum treatment of chorioamnionitis
o Prior to delivery, use conventional gentamicin dosing (e.g., 1-2 mg/kg/dose ABW IV
q8hrs); start once daily dosing 8 hours after conventional dose. Some practitioners may
also utilize high dose extended interval dosing using 5mg/kg of antepartum actual body
weight q24hrs for treatment of chorioamnionitis prior to delivery. Literature suggests that
many patients will have resolution of symptoms with short course therapy (stop after 1
dose post -delivery) compared with standard treatment of 24-48hrs after symptom
resolution.
Inclusion criteria:
• Current postpartum weight
• Age ≥ 18 years old, or if deemed medically appropriate in younger patients
• Normal renal function (serum creatinine < 1.4mg/dL)
o Obtain baseline serum creatinine in patients with increased risk for renal insufficiency
prior to receiving once daily gentamicin including:
Exclusion criteria:
• History of renal dysfunction
• Diabetes mellitus
• Preeclampsia
• Toxemia
Dosing Recommendation:
1. Identify patient weight

a. Obtain a postpartum actual body weight per nursing
b. If patient cannot be weighed, a postpartum actual body weight (PPABW) can be
calculated by subtracting ~5.5kg from actual body weight at time of delivery of a term
gestation. If needed, may adjust the calculation if neonatal weight significant varies from
3kg. Approximately 2.5kg is attributed to placental weight and fluids. At 1 week post-
delivery weight loss is ~8kg.
2. Use ACTUAL postpartum body weight (PPABW):

a. GENTAMICIN DOSAGE = 5mg/kg X PPABW IV q24hrs
b. Maximum dose of 500mg
Follow-up Monitoring:
1. SERUM GENTAMICIN CONCENTRATIONS are NOT warranted unless the patient meets at
least one of the following criteria:
a. Increased risk for renal insufficiency (risk factors listed above)
b. Duration of gentamicin therapy is continued for > 3 days
c. Patient is not responding to antibiotic therapy
2. If serum gentamicin concentrations are warranted (refer to list above):

a. TWO GENTAMICIN CONCENTRATIONS should be obtained 4 AND 12 hours after the
dose (order as “4 and 12 random gentamicin concentrations”)
b. A pharmacist will assess the concentrations and calculate the gentamicin trough (goal:
<1mg/L) and recommend a new dosage if necessary.
c. A pharmacy resident on-call (#330-7400) is also available after 5pm and weekends if
necessary.
3. Additional monitoring:
a. If duration of aminoglycoside therapy continues > 3 days, suggest checking a serum
creatinine
b. If duration of aminoglycoside therapy continues > 7 days, suggest checking follow-up
gentamicin TROUGH CONCENTRATION to assess for potential accumulation
References
• Locksmith, et al. High Compared with Standard Gentamicin Dosing for Chorioamnionitis: A
comparison of Maternal and Fetal Serum Drug Levels. J Obstet Gynecol 2005 Mar; 105(3):473-9.
• Mitra A et al. A Randomized, Prospective Study Comparing Once-Daily Gentamicin versus
Thrice-Daily Gentamicin in the Treatment of Puerperal Infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;
177:786-92.
• Black LP, Hinson L, Duff P. Limited course of antibiotic treatment for chorioamnionitis. Obstet
Gynecol. 2012 Jun;119(6):1102-5.
• Lyell, D et al. Daily Compared with 8-hour Gentamicin for the Treatment of Intrapartum
Chorioamnionitis. Obstet Gyncelo. 2010 Feb; 115(2 ):344-9.
• Ward K and Theiler R. Once-daily Dosing of Gentamicin in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Clin
Obstet and Gynecol 2008; 51(3):498-506
• Del Priore G, Jackson-Stone M, Shim E, et al. A comparison of once-daily and 8-hour gentamicin
dosing in the treatment of postpartum endometritis. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:994–1000.
• Livingston J, Llata E, Rinehart E, et al. Gentamicin and clindamycin therapy in postpartum
endometritis: the efficacy of daily dosing versus dosing every 8 hours. Am J Obstet Gynecol
2003;188:149–152.
• Sunyecz J, Wiesenfeld H, Heine R. The pharmacokinetics of once-daily dosing with gentamicin in
women with postpartum endometritis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 1998;6:160–162.
Other methods used for ODA dosing (NOTE: This information is provided for
comparison only, please refer to UKCMC approved protocol):
Hartford Hospital Nomogram (Nicolau et al Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39.)

• Dose = 7mg/kg IV q24hrs for Clcr > 60ml/min (also refer to table below)
• Interval based on nomogram using SINGLE random concentration between 6-14 hours
– Computer simulated dosing nomogram
• Designed to achieve Cpk ~20 mg/L
• Tested with PK parameters of patients on conventional dosing regimens
• Confirmed in patients (n=20) receiving 7 mg/kg
• Assumes one-compartment model
• Assumes 60 min distribution phase
• May not be accurate for doses less than 7mg/kg (e.g., 5mg/kg)
Comparison of different methods:
Nomogram Gentamicin Dosing Interval (hrs)

Dose
Clcr ≥ 60 ml/min Clcr 40-59 ml/min Clcr 20-39 ml/min
(mg/kg)
Hartford Hospital* 7 24 36 48
Barnes-Jewish 5 24 36 48
Hospital*
University of 5 24 36 48
Rochester*
UKCMC 7 24 24 Use 3mg/kg IV
q24hrs
*Source: Pharmacotherapy. 2002 Sep;22(9):1077-83.
Sanford Guide 2004 – Recommended Gentamicin/Tobramycin Dosing Regimen
Clcr (ml/min) Dose (mg/kg) Interval (hrs)

≥ 80 5.1 (7 if critically ill) 24
60-79 4.0 24
40-59 3.5 24
30-39 2.5 24
20-29 4.0 48
10-19 3.0 48
<10 2.0 48
AUC Method (Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1995 Jun;39(6):605-9.):
Clcr (ml/min) Starting Dose Target AUC Time of Second

(mg/kg) Sample
>66 5, 6, or 7 72, 86, 101 6-14 hr
54-66 5 or 6 86, 101 8-16 hr
42-53 5 101 10-18 hr
30-41 4 101 12-20 hr
21-29 3 101 14-22 hr
<21 Seek specialist
advice
• Administer dose over 30 minutes

• Take blood sample 30 minutes after end of infusion (Cpk)
• Take second blood sample within time frame indicated in table
• Calculate the patient’s aminoglycoside AUC using:
Cend of infusion - C24
AUC (0-24hrs) = 1.065 ( )
K
AUCtarget
• nd
Calculate 2 dose: Dose 2 = X Dose 1
AUCobserved
• Administer 2nd dose 24hrs after the first dose

• Monitor as above every 48hrs or according to the patient’s clinical condition
Carbamazepine 41
CARBAMAZEPINE
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 trough within 1 hour prior to dose

 at ss
a. Initially after reaching steady-state (2 to 10 days of chronic dosing); "true"

steady-state may not be reached for several weeks, due to autoinduction,
which results in increasing clearance. Induction begins within 3 to 4 days of
therapy and is maximal after 3 to 4 weeks.
b. After each dosage adjustment at ss.
3. Therapeutic Range
4 – 12 µg/ml (8-12 µg/ml reported by UKCMC TDM Lab)
1.4 – 3.5 µg/ml (saliva)
Note: Carbamazepine used as single anticonvulsant therapy may require higher

serum concentrations than when used in a multiple anticonvulsant regimen.
a. Initial Dosing
Empiric - epilepsy 200 mg PO BID

- trigeminal neuralgia 100 mg PO BID
b. Maintenance Dose
 Increase dose by 100-200 mg/day every week

 Based on initial level and response to therapy, dosage may have to
be gradually increased during the first few weeks, due to
autoinduction.
 Final maintenance dose is usually:
- epilepsy 10-20 mg/kg/day
- trigeminal neuralgia 3-20 mg/kg/day
 Best to give in divided doses, usually q 12o (or q 8o), rather than in a
single daily dose.
 Dosing best at mealtime.
 Maximum dose - usually 1200 mg/day
Carbamazepine 42
c. Dosage Adjustment
The c equation may be used once "true" steady-state is achieved.
S × F × Xo
c= S = 1; F = 0.7-1.0 (Tegretol)
Cls × τ
d. Available products at UK Hospital
Tegretol® 200mg tablets, 100mg chew tabs, 100mg/5ml suspension
5. Pediatric Guidelines
 Initial dose - 10 mg/kg/day

 Maintenance dose - 20-35 mg/kg/day (gradually increase
weekly from initial dose)
 Also see #9 - Miscellaneous
6. Other Monitoring Guidelines
 Baseline CBC
 CBC every month (x 2), then every 6 months after stabilized
7. Drug Interactions
 CBZ induces its own metabolism (P450 3A4) during prolonged

treatment, and is complete 3 to 5 weeks with a fixed dosing
regimen (Prod Info Tegretol(R), 1998).
 Active metabolite: carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide
 Since CBZ is an enzyme inducer of many P450 enzymes (3A4,
2D6, 2C), it may enhance the elimination of other drugs (e.g.
ethosuximide, warfarin, and benzodiazepines that undergo
hydroxylation).
 Enzyme inhibitors may increase CBZ levels (e.g. cimetidine,
erythromycin, isoniazid, propoxyphene, and verapamil)
 Phenytoin - CBZ interaction is variable. Phenytoin levels may
increase, decrease, or stay the same. CBZ levels usually
decrease.
8. Adult Pharmacokinetic Parameters

 Vd = 1.4 ± 0.4 L/kg
 Cl = 1.3 ± 0.5 ml/min/kg (multiple dosing)
= 0.4 ± 0.1 ml/min/kg (single dose)
 t½ = 15 ± 5 hours (multiple dosing)
= 36 ± 5 hours (single dose)
Carbamazepine 43
9. Miscellaneous
 Absorption is variable, depending on factors such as age, nutritional

status, presence of food, and product formulation.
 Protein binding is approximately 70% (binds to both albumin and α-1

AGP).
10. Suggested References
General:
Bertilson (1978) Clin Pharmacokin 3:128.

Battino D et al. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1995 Nov;29(5):341-69.
Drug Interactions:
Phenytoin Zielinski (1985) Ther Drug Monit 7:51.

Zielinski (1987) Ther Drug Monit 9:21.
Verapamil Macphee (1986) Lancet 1:700.

Digoxin 44
DIGOXIN
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 Drug concs should be drawn during the post-absorptive, post-

distributive phase of drug elimination, ie, during the 6 to 24 hour
interval following the previous dose
 Prefer trough within 1h prior to dose
 At ss (usually 5-7 days; if normal renal/hepatic fx: t½ = 36 ± 8hrs,
adults)
a. Routine Use in "Uncomplicated" Patients
 Initial level at ss
b. Use in Unstable Patients
 Initial level at ss
 Repeat level every 5 to 7 days, or as dictated by a change in

concurrent disease state/drug therapy, lack of adequate response to
a previously adequate dose, or occurrence of adverse effects
attributable to digoxin.
3. Therapeutic Range**
UK: 0.8-2.0 ng/ml (conversion note: 1ng/ml = 1µg/L)
CHF: 0.5-1.0 ng/ml

Pharmacotherapy.1999 Oct; 19(10): 1123-6.
Arrhythmias: may require higher concs for atrial fibrillation

** Establishment of a true therapeutic range is complicated by effects of
electrolyte imbalances and of assay interference by digoxin-like
immunoreactive substances (DLIS) and digoxin metabolites. (see 4b.
Dosing Adjustments)
Digoxin 45

a. Loading Dose
Rapid digitalization can typically be achieved utilizing loading doses of 8-12
mcg/kg LBW (normal renal function). Use LBW, since digoxin does not
distribute appreciably into body fat.
C×V S =1
X* = F = 0.7 (tablet)
o S×F = 0.8 - 0.85 (elixir; capsule)
V = 7.3 L/Kg in normal renal function**
** For patients with compromised renal function:
298 ∗ Clcr (stdz to 1.73m2 )

=
V(L/1.73m 226 +
29.1 + Clcr (stdz to 1.73m2 )
2
)
1.73m2
=
e.g. std Clcr Clcr ∗
actual BSA
V(L/70 Kg) = 269 + 3.12 ∗ Clcr (stdz to 70 Kg)

70 Kg
=
e.g. std Clcr Clcr ∗
actual LBW (Kg)
The loading dose should be given in divided doses so that the patient can be
evaluated for toxicity and efficacy prior to receiving total load. (e.g. usually give 1/2
of the calculated load initially, followed by 1/4 in 6h and the remaining 1/4 in 6h after
the second dose, making sure to monitor the patient after each dose).
b. Maintenance Dose:
c ⋅ Cls ⋅ τ
Xo (mcg) =
F⋅S
(Helpful hint: use mcg/L for c, 24hrs for τ , and L/hr for Cl )
**For patients without HF:
Cls = 1.303 (Clcr, std to 1.73 m2) + 40 ml/min/1.73 m2 (ml/min/1.73m2)
**Patients with uncompensated HF (e.g. pitting edema, hepatic congestion):
Cls = 1.303 (Clcr, std to 1.73m2) + 20 ml/min/1.73m2 (ml/min/1.73m2)

** To calculate estimated Cls for specific patient, need to unstandardize, i.e., multiply Cls
calculated above by “actual BSA/1.73m2”
Digoxin 46
Dosing Adjustments
Calculate actual Cls, based on c(level, usually obtained at τ), F, and Xo (dose
administered).
S ⋅ F ⋅ Xo
Cls =
c ⋅τ
Calculate new maintenance dose.
c ⋅ Cls ⋅ τ
Xo =
F⋅S
One should check if the therapeutic response to digoxin correlates well with the level(s)
obtained, prior to making dosage adjustment(s). The failure of digoxin levels to correlate
with therapeutic/toxic response is often due to aberrations in serum and tissue
concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. Patients with low
potassium, magnesium, or sodium levels or high calcium levels may be more sensitive to
digoxin) or due to presence of DLIS in certain subpopulations (e.g. renal failure patients,
combined renal and hepatic failure patients, pregnant women, neonates, infants).
Chart note
Monitoring parameters should include heart rate, ECG, serum electrolytes (K,
Mg, Na, Ca), Scr, Clcr, interacting medications and monitoring for signs and
symptoms of toxicity. PK parameters should include digoxin Cls in ml/min.
5. Factors Influencing Digoxin Pharmacokinetics/Pharmacodynamics
 Renal dysfunction, obesity, CHF (see 4a.)

 Hypothyroidism: ↓ digoxin Cls
 Hyperthyroidism: ↑ digoxin Cls
 Hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hypercalcemia: ↑ digoxin cardiac effects
 Drug interactions:
 Drugs associated with ↓ digoxin absorption include: antacids,
cholestyramine, colestipol, kaolin-pectin, metoclopramide, neomycin,
sulfasalazine; ↑absorption include: propantheline.
 Quinidine - ↓ digoxin Cls; multiply digoxin Cls by 0.5
 Verapamil - ↓ digoxin Cls; multiply digoxin Cls by 0.7
 Spironolactone - ↓ digoxin Cls; multiply digoxin Cls by 0.5
 Amiodarone - ↓ digoxin Cls; multiply digoxin Cls by 0.7
Digoxin 47
Dosage Recommendations for Digoxin1, 2

Total Digitalizing Dose* Daily Maintenance Dose#
AGE (mcg/kg) (mcg/kg)
Oral Intravenous Oral Intravenous
Preterm 20-30 15-25 5-7.5 4-6
neonate
Full-term 25-35 20-30 8-10 5-8
neonate
1 mo - 2 yrs 35-60 30-50 10-15 7.5-12
2 - 5 yrs 30-45 25-35 8-10 6-9
5 - 10 yrs 20-35 15-30 5-10 4-8
>10 yrs 10-15 8-12 2.5-5 2-3
Average Dosage Recommendations for Adults (mg)

Adults 0.75-1.5mg 0.5-1mg 0.125-0.5mg 0.1-0.4mg
1. Bendayan R, McKenzie MW. Digoxin Pharmacokinetics and dosage requirements in
pediatric patients. Clin Pharm 1983;2(3):224-35.
2. Park MK. Use of digoxin in infants and children with specific emphasis on dosage. J
Pediatr 1986; (6): 871-7.
* Administer ½ of the total digitalizing dose in the initial dose, then ¼ of the total dose
in each of two subsequent doses at 6-8 hour intervals. The doses are divided to
allow sufficient time for distribution and maximum effect to assess for therapeutic
response and potential toxicity after each dose.
# Divided every 12 hours in infants and children ≤ 10 years of age. Administered

once daily for children > 10 years of age and adults.
7. Other Considerations
Vd: 6-20 L/kg (caution: wide patient variability may be secondary to design
problems in initial studies)
• DLIS (digoxin-like immunoreactive substance): very common in newborn

infants.
• Serum concentrations may not be warranted in every patient.
• Digoxin therapy should first be evaluated based on response and toxicity
versus measuring drug concentrations.
Digoxin 48
8. Dosage forms on UK formulary
Digoxin tablets 0.125mg, 0.125mg

Digoxin injection 500 mcg AMP/2ML; 250mcg TUBEX
Digoxin elixir 50 mcg/ml 60ml BTL; 250mcg 5ml TUB; 125mcg 2.5ml TUB
Digoxin injection (PEDIATRIC STRENGTH): 100 mcg/ml (1ml AMP);

Also 10mcg/ml *DILUTED*
9. Suggested References for Factors Influencing Digoxin Disposition
Applied Pharmacokinetics (2006), 4th ed., p. 410-439.

Renal dysfunction: Jusko (1974) J Clin Pharmacol 14:525-535.
Obesity: Ewy (1971) Circulation 44:810-814.
CHF: Koup (1975) Clin Pharmacol Ther 18:9-21.
Thyroid diseases: Ochs (1982) Clin Pharmacokinet 7:434-451.
Drug interactions:
Waldorff (1978) Clin Pharmacol Ther 24:162-167.

Klein (1980) New Engl J Med 303:160.
Pedersen (1981) Clin Pharmacol Ther 30:311-316.
Bigger (1981) Int J Cardiol 1:109-116.
Pedersen (1983) Eur J Clin Pharmacol 24:41-47.
Nademanee (1984) J Am Coll Cardiol 4:111-116.
Digoxin 49
 
Digoxin Immune Fab (DIGIBIND , DIGIFAB )
1. Indications
a. Manifestations of severe toxicity: ventricular arrhythmias, progressive

bradyarrhythmias, 2nd or 3rd degree heart block not responsive to atropine,
refractory hypotension.
b. Potassium concentration >5 mEq/L in patients with manifestations of severe
cardiac glycoside toxicity
c. Significant risk of cardiac arrest: ingestion of >10 mg in an adult, >4 mg in a child,
level >10 ng/mL post-distribution (generally 6-8 hours postingestion), progressive
increase in potassium level postingestion.
d. Unresponsiveness to immediately available conventional therapy.
e. Digoxin serum levels of >10 ng/mL by 6 hours after the overdose, even in
asymptomatic patients, is considered an indication for digoxin immune FAB by
some authors (Bailey et al, 1997).
2. Recommended dosing for adults
a. Acute ingestion of known amount: Each vial of Digoxin Immune Fab will bind
approximately 0.5mg of digoxin. Can calculate the total number of vials required
by dividing the total digitalis body load by 0.5mg/vial:
Total body load (mg) = 0.8 x [amount (mg) digoxin tablets or elixir ingested]
Total digitalis body load in mg
Dose (in # of vials)=
0.5 mg of digitalis bound/vial
b. Based on steady-state digoxin concentrations Pediatric and Adult dose

estimate of Digoxin Immune Fab (in mg for pediatrics and # of vials for adults) is
represented in the table below or can be estimated using the following equation:
(Serum digoxin concentration in ng/ml)(weight in kg)
Dose (in # of vials)=
100
Patient Serum Digoxin Concentration @ Steady State (ng/ml)
Weight
(kg) 1 2 4 8 12 16 20
1 0.4mgA mgA
1 mgA
1.5 3 mg 5 mg 6.5 mg 8 mg
3 1 mgA 2.5 mgA 5 mg 10 mg 14 mg 19 mg 24 mg
5 2 mgA 4 mg 8 mg 16 mg 24 mg 32 mg 40 mg
10 4 mg 8 mg 16 mg 32 mg 48 mg 64 mg 80 mg
20 8 mg 16 mg 32 mg 64 mg 96 mg 128 mg 160 mg
40 0.5V 1V 2V 3V 5V 7V 8V
60 0.5V 1V 3V 5V 7V 10V 12V
70 1V 2V 3V 6V 9V 11V 14V
80 1V 2V 3V 7V 10V 13V 16V
100 1V 2V 4V 8V 12V 16V 20V
V = vials; ADilution of reconstituted vial to 1 mg/mL may be desirable
Digoxin 50
3. Total Serum Digoxin Levels After Digoxin Immune Fab Administration:
Purpose:
Total serum digoxin levels obtained immediately after administration are unreliable.
The Fab fragments bind to free digoxin, causing tissue-bound digoxin to be
released from receptors and subsequently bind to the Digoxin Immune Fab.
Digoxin levels drawn within 72 hours (for patients with normal renal function) or 7
days (in patients with renal failure) of administration will be falsely elevated.
Policy regarding total serum digoxin levels:
a. The pharmacist will alert TDM lab when Digoxin Immune Fab is ordered for any
patient in the hospital.
b. TDM lab will not measure total serum digoxin levels for a period of at least 72
hours following administration for patients with normal renal function.
c. TDM lab will not measure total serum digoxin levels for a period of at least 7
days following administration for patients with severely impaired renal function.
d. If a digoxin level is ordered within the above times.
References
1. Allen NM., Dunham GD. Treatment of digitalis intoxication with emphasis

on the clinical use of digoxin immune Fab. DICP The Annals of
Pharmacotherapy; 24: 991-998, 1990.
2. Antman EM., Wenger TL Butler VP., Haber E, Smith TW. Treatment of 150
cases of life threatening digitalis intoxication with digoxin specific Fab
antibody fragments. Circulation; 81: 6: 1744-1752, 1990.
3. Schaumann W., Neubert P., Smolarz A., Kinetics of the Fab fragments of
digoxin antibodies and of bound digoxin in patients with severe digoxin
intoxication. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology; 30: 527-533,
1986.
4. Ujhelyi MR., Colucci RD., Cummings DM., Green PJ., Robert S, Vlasses
PH, Zarowitz BJ., Monitoring serum digoxin immune Fab therapy. DICP,
The Annals of Pharmacotherapy; 25: 1047-1049, 1991.
Lidocaine 51
LIDOCAINE
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 2h after load or 6-12h after initiation of therapy without load (ie @ ss)
 Send out lab, may take 2-3 days for results to be reported
 when toxicity is suspected

 when ventricular arrhythmias occur (or recur) despite lidocaine
administration
 patients with suspected cardiac or hepatic insufficiency may require
intensive serum concentration monitoring
1.5 - 6.0 mcg/ml
a. Initial Dosing*
 Load
MULTIPLE-BOLUS REGIMEN:
Initial 75-100 mg (1 mg/kg) bolus, followed by 50 mg in 5-10 min.

One to two additional 50 mg bolus doses may be given in 5-10 min
intervals thereafter if necessary.
or
RAPID-INFUSION METHOD:
Initial 75-100 mg bolus (over 2 min) and loading infusion of 150-200

mg (over 20 to 25 min).
Lidocaine 52
Maintenance Dose:
1-4 mg/min (15-50 µg/min/kg, recommended for patient of lighter bodyweight)
Mean Systemic Clearance and Recommended Infusion

Rates for Selected Patient Populations
Systemic Infusion rate
clearance (µg/kg/min) to Infusion rate (mg/min/70kg)
Population (ml/min/kg) achieve 3 µg/ml
Mean ± SD Mean (Range) Mean (Range)
Normal 15.6±4.6 47 3.3

(33-61) (2.3-4.3)
Congestive heart failure 5.5±1.7 17 1.2

(11-22) (0.8-1.5)
Acute myocardial infarction** 9.1±2.0 27 1.9

(21-33) (1.5-2.3)
Congestive heart failure plus acute 6.3±1.4 19 1.3

myocardial infarction (15-23) (1.1-1.6)
Chronic liver disease 6.0±3.2 18 1.3

(8-27) (0.6-1.9)
Renal disease 13.2±3.2 40 2.8

(30-49) (2.1-3.4)
Propranolol 9.4±3.1 28 2.0

co-administration (19-38) (1.3-2.7)
Applied Pharmacokinetics (1986), 2nd ed., p. 662.
* For obese patients, it has been suggested that loading doses be based on TBW and
maintenance infusions be based on IBW. [Abernathy (1984) Am J Cardiol 53: 1183)].
** α-1 acid glycoprotein (AAG) concs are elevated in AMI patients. Plasma protein
binding of lidocaine is also conc-dependent. Consequently, free concentrations may
be more useful for monitoring therapy.
Ko
Dosing Adjustments: c=
Cl
5. Other Factors Which Influence Lidocaine Disposition (See Table above)
Cimetidine co-administration:
Empirically ↓ usual infusion rate by 25%. Feely (1982) Ann Intern Med 96:592.
Elderly patients:
Empirically ↓ usual infusion rate by 20-30%. Abernethy (1984) J Cardiovas
Pharmacol 5:1093.
Lithium 53
LITHIUM
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 At least 12 hours after the previous evening's dose (obtain

concentration at same time of day).
 At steady state ~ 5 days; t½ ~24hrs with normal renal function.
a. Routine Use in Stable Patients
 Initial level (at steady-state)
 Initial level (at estimated steady-state)
 Subsequent levels are appropriate with changes in renal function, to

assess compliance, addition of concurrent medications that may
affect lithium disposition or to assess toxicity.
 0.6 to 1.2 mmol/L (Flame Photometry at UKMC)

(1 mmol/L Lithium equals 1 mEq/L; 300 mg lithium carbonate = 8.12
mEq Li)
 Concentrations from 1.2 to 2.0 mmol/L may be warranted in patients

with acute mania.
 Greater than 2.0 mmol/L are considered toxic.
4. General Guideline for Monitoring
a. Initial Dosing
Use population parameters with C-bar equation using

Cls ≈ 0.25 * ClCr [L/hr]
Vd ≈ 0.8 L/kg; t½ ≈ 18 - 24 hours

Lithium 54
b. Empiric Dosing
Usually 600 to 1200 mg/day in 3 to 4 divided doses for immediate release

dosage forms (once or twice a day for sustained release formulations).
Initial dose for acute mania: 900-1800 mg/day
Single Point Methods

Cooper Nomogram
 600mg test dose of lithium carbonate
 One lithium serum concentration 24 hours later
 Converts observed lithium concentration to dosage required to
achieve a steady-state concentration of 0.6 – 1.2 mmol/L
 Lithium serum concentration must be zero before test dose
administration
LITHIUM SERUM LITHIUM CARBONATE

CONCENTRATION 24 HOURS DOSAGE REQUIREMENT
AFTER TEST (mmol/L)
< 0.05 1200mg TID (3600mg/d)
0.05 – 0.09 900mg TID (2700mg/d)
0.10 – 0.14 600mg TID (1800mg/d)
0.15 – 0.19 300mg QID (1200mg/d)
0.20 – 0.23 300mg TID (900mg/d)
0.24 – 0.30 300mg BID (600mg/d)
> 0.30 300mg QD (300mg/d)
Perry Nomogram
 1200mg test dose of lithium carbonate
 One lithium serum concentration 24 hours later
 Converts observed lithium concentration to maintenance dosage for
desired steady-state concentration
 If using in acutely manic patient, anticipate a decrease in lithium
maintenance dose once patient starts sleeping due to decrease in
lithium clearance
Lithium 55
Multiple-Point Method
Perry Method
• 600 – 1500mg test dose
• Two lithium serum concentrations 12 and 36 hours after the test dose
• Calculate elimination rate, half-life, accumulation factor, and so on
• Lithium serum concentration must be zero prior to test dose administration
c. Dosing Adjustments using steady-state concentration:

S ⋅ F ⋅ Xo
Calculate Lithium Clearance: Cls = C ⋅ τ F= ~1.0; S = 1.0
ss
Recalculate Lithium dosing regimen: Css ∗ Cls ∗ τ

Xo =
S ∗F
5. Factors affecting Lithium concentration
Decrease Variable or no effect Increase
Acetazolamide Amelioride ACE Inhibitors

Aminophylline Aspirin Ibuprofen
Caffeine Furosemide Indomethacin
Osmotic diuretics Sulindac Chronic lithium therapy
Pregnancy* Phenylbutazone
Sodium supplements Thiazides
Dehydration
Renal Impairment
Sodium Loss
Increasing age
* Lithium clearance and serum concentrations return to pre-pregnant values after
delivery.
Lithium 56
Patient Monitoring
MONITORING BASELINE 12 COMMENTS

PARAMETERS MONTHS
Cardiac Patients older than 50 or those with preexisting
ECG * cardiovascular disease; measure at baseline and
Pulse and Blood Pressure * every 6-12 months as indicated
Hematologic
CBC with differential * *
Metabolic/Endocrine TSH is a better indicator of hypothyroidism and
Weight * * should be obtained every 3-6 months during
Serum electrolytes (Na, * * maintenance therapy if thyroid function tests
K, Ca, Phos) * * change, if TSH >4mIU/mL, or if symptoms of
T3, T4, free thyroxine hypothyroidism occur.
index, TSH
Renal function Measure Scr in patients with impaired renal
Scr * * function; 24-hour Clcr indicated at baseline with
Urinalysis/osmolatity/specific * * hx of renal disease or abnormally high Scr or
gravity significant increases in Scr
Pregnancy Test In women of
childbearing age *
Plasma lithium concentrations Measure every 1-3 months during maintenance
therapy; every 5-7 days after any dosage change
or possible drug interactions; less frequent
monitoring in stable patients (every 6-12 months)
6. Products on UK Formulary
Lithium carbonate SR TAB 450MG
Lithium carbonate CAP 300MG
Lithium carbonate SR TAB 300MG
Lithium carbonate 300MG TAB
Lithium citrate LIQ 8MEQ/5ML 500ML
7. References
• Applied Pharmacokinetics: Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: © 1992 Third

edition by Applied Therapeutics, Inc.
• Winter ME. Basic Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 1994 Third edition by Applied
Therapeutics, Inc.
• Ward ME, Musa MN, Bailey Ll J Clin Pharmacol. 1994 Apr;34(4):280-5. Review.
Methotrexate 57
METHOTREXATE
Rationale for kinetic monitoring
• Clinically relevant concentration-toxicity response
• Administration of an antidote
– MTX is unique in that the administration of reduced folate compounds (leucovorin) will
bypass the biochemical blockade and reverse the cellular damage
Absorption
• Incomplete & erratic absorption from GI tract
– Highly variable absorption
• n = 12 pediatric ALL F = 13-76%, DR=13-120mg/m2)
– Dose-dependent absorption (Michaelis-Menten pharmacokinetics)
• ↑DOSE = ↓F
– Generally at lower doses (≤ 25mg/m2) F ~100% but still variable
• Tmax = 1-5hrs, Cmax = 0.25-1.25µM
– Rate/extent of absorption affected by:
• Food, oral nonabsorbable antibiotics, shortened intestinal time
• IM injection
– Less variable, possible alternative if oral route problem
Distribution
• Very polar, requires active transport mechanisms to enter mammalian cells.
• Drug displays a bi or tri-exponential elimination curve resulting in a 2 or 3 compartment
model
• Initial Vd ~ 0.2 L/kg
• Apparent Vd ~ 0.7 L/kg (variable, incr. w/higher concs. due to saturation of active transport
system)
• Third spacing (e.g. by ascites or pleural effusion) creates a site of storage and “sustained
release” of drug
– Results in prolonged elevation of plasma concentrations and more severe toxicity and
additional doses of antidote
• 50% bound to plasma proteins (albumin)
– Potential drug interactions:
• Sulfonamides
• Salicylate
• Chloramphenicol
• Phenytoin
• CSF relatively impermeable, CSF concentrations 3% of plasma concentration; intrathecal
administration is usually required
Metabolism
• Metabolism is minimal; 3 metabolic pathways
– Intracellular polyglutamylation
• Important pathway for selective retention of folates
• Addition of up to 5 additional glutamate residues by the enzyme folyl polyglutamate
synthetase (FPGS)
• ACTIVE metabolite, contributes to cytotoxicity
• Polyglutamylated MTX is potent DHFR inhibitor as MTX
Methotrexate 58
– Hydroxylation
• 7-hydroxy metabolite (low H2O solubility) can accumulate leading to nephrotoxicity
• 1/100th the affinity for DHFR (inactive)
– Removal of glutamate residue (DAMPA)
• Conversion performed by intestinal bacteria
• Low levels in plasma may interact with MTX assay but NOT clinical significant
Excretion
• Excreted unchanged in the urine with minor biliary secretion
• Bi or tri-exponentional elimination (see figure below)
– α t½ ~ 3 hrs
– β t½ ~ 10 hrs - not apparent until concentrations < 5X10-7 molar
• Primarily renal eliminated
– Combination of GFR & TS
• At low concentrations correlates with GFR
– MTX Cl(ml/min) ~ 1.6 X Clcr(ml/min)
– Normal MTX Cl = 40-400ml/min
• High concentrations saturation of TS which ↓ net renal Cl
– RENAL FUNCTION MOST IMPORTANT DETERMINANT OF MTX
PHARMACOKINETICS
• Hydration status and urine pH
– More acidic pH = decreased Cl
• Drug interactions:
– Reduce renal blood flow (e.g. NSAIDs)
– Inhibit renal transport of MTX (e.g. sulfisoxazole, weak acids)
– Nephrotoxic (e.g. cisplatin)
Methotrexate 36-Hour Infusion

α t1/2 = 3 hours
1 X 10-5
MTX Concentration
MTX concentrations
requiring increased
rescue factor doses
1 X 10-6
β t1/2 = 10 hours
“Rescue Concentration”
1X 10-7
MTX infusion Leucovorin rescue schedule
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
Time (Hours)
Adapted from Winters ME. Basic Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 3rd Edition.

Methotrexate 59
MTX is usually administered in mg or gm doses

• PLEASE NOTE: THERE MAY BE PATIENT-SPECIFIC DOSING PROTOCOLS THAT NEED TO
BE CONSIDERED WITH MTX DOSING AND MONITORING. Please refer to patient-specific
protocol when applicable.
• Pediatric MTX serum levels and Leucovorin rescue dosing are based on COG protocols. Any
change in leucovorin dosing requires approval by attending.
• Low dose 15-20mg/m2 twice weekly up to high dose 1-12 g/m2 every 1-3 weeks
• Plasma concentrations are reported in units of mg/L, µg/mL, and molar or micromolar units (usual
range 10-8 to 10-6). MW = 454gm/mole
• 1 micromolar would be equivalent to the following:
• 1µM (micromolar)
• 0.01 X 10-4 molar
• 0.1 X 10-5molar
• 1.0 X 10-6 molar
• 10 X 10-7 molar
• 0.454 mg/L
Therapeutic/toxic plasma concentrations
• Normal therapeutic range – variable
• Toxic plasma range (increased risk)
>10 X 10-6 molar (10 µM) at 24 hrs
>1 X 10-6 molar (1µM) at 48 hrs
>0.1 X 10-6 (0.1µM) or 1 X 10-7 at 72 hrs
• NOTE: This is time after beginning of MTX infusion
Toxicities
• Cytotoxic effects due to inhibition of DHFR
– Function of both concentration & duration of exposure
• Pancytopenia (sometimes irreversible)
• Severe mucositis
• GI and skin desquamation
• Renal and hepatic dysfunction
Leucovorin rescue
• To ensure that MTX toxicities do not occur, rescue factor (citrovorin factor or leucovorin) is
administered every 4-6 hours in doses that range from 10 to 500 mg/m2.
• Usual course is 12 to 72 hours until the plasma concentration of MTX falls below the critical value of 1
X 10-7 molar.
• If MTX conc. > 1X10-6 molar at 48 hours, leucovorin rescue dose is usually increased to 50 to
100mg/m2 every 3-6 hours until concentration < 1 X 10-7 molar; also see alternative dosing below:
MTX serum concentration ≥42 hr from Approximate leucovorin dose required
beginning of infusion
20-50 µmol 500 mg/m2 IV q6hr
1-5 µmol 30 mg/m2 IV or PO q6hr
0.6-1 µmol 15 mg/m2 PO q6hr
0.1-0.5 µmol 15 mg/m2 PO q12hrs
0.05-0.1 µmol 5-10 mg/m2 PO q 12hrs
Adapted from Crom WR, Evans WE. Methotrexate. In: Evans WE, et al., eds. Applied Pharmacokinetics: Principles
of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 3rd ed.
Pentobarbital 60
PENTOBARBITAL
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
2-3h after load (not recommended)

12 and 24h after maintenance infusion begins (not recommended)
Dose is based on pharmacologic response (intracranial pressure (ICP) control

and electrical burst suppression on EEG), therefore concentrations are usually
not warranted to assess efficacy or toxicity.
Serum concentrations may be helpful in determining the persistence of a drug-

induced coma after the pentobarbital infusion has been discontinued.
For example, a severe traumatic brain injury patient recently taken off of pentobarbital,
but still not demonstrating any neurologic motor function. A serum concentration
approximately 24-72 hours after discontinuation of the infusion should provide some idea
as to if the persistent lack of neurologic function is due to the patient’s injury or due to
continued neurologic suppression from pentobarbital.
3. Therapeutic Range*
20-40 mcg/ml (therapeutic coma)
*Variable. Titration to individual patient response (based on neurologic and

hemodynamic factors) is required. Therapeutic benefits at levels > 50 mg/ml are
yet unproven.
Initial Dose and Infusion (Modified from Eisenberg protocol):
Dose New way

Initial Loading dose 10 mg/kg IV x1 slow IVP or slow infusion
Secondary loading dose 6 mg/kg/hr x3 hrs
Infusion Reduce rate to 1-2 mg/kg/hr after initial 3hrs of
6 mg/kg/hr
This is a modified version of the Eisenberg protocol that combines the secondary
loading doses with the infusion rate to give the secondary load slower to avoid
hypotension & make the dosing easier & less error prone.
Pentobarbital 61
5. Dosage Adjustments
Mini-boosts of 1-5 mg/kg may be given for breakthrough ICP increases.

Typically 1-5 mg/kg bolus will lead to an increase in the serum
concentration by 1-5 mcg/ml.
Titrate maintenance infusion rate according to clinical response (typically

ICP control or cessation of seizure activity).
The following conditions must be met prior to pharmacist involvement in

pentobarbital monitoring:
a. Patient must be on a ventilator.
b. An ICP monitor must be in place with an initial pressure reading

recorded (goal ICP typically < 20)
c. A CVP line and arterial line should be in place. Cardiac output

monitoring should also be considered in some patients. Some
patients may not require invasive hemodynamic monitoring. It is recommended
to have a vasopressor such as norepinephrine or dopamine on-hand during
loading in case of hypotension.
d. A urinary catheter must be in place.
e. Monitoring of cerebral electrical activity via continuous EEG (or BIS

monitor as temporary substitute) is recommended.
6. Factors Altering Pentobarbital Disposition
Renal failure and dialysis - no specific dosage adjustment appears

necessary.
Reidenberg (1976) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 20:67.
Wermeling (1985) Ther Drug Monit. 7:485.
No specific guidelines or recommendations are available for other patient

subpopulations.
Pentobarbital induces the metabolism of other oxidatively metabolized

drugs (e.g., phenytoin, corticosteroids). Enzyme inhibitors (e.g.
cimetidine) may decrease pentobarbital Cls. Prolonged pentobarbital
infusions (typically > 6-7 days) may result in auto-induction & increased
dose requirement.
Patients with traumatic brain injury may have an elevated dose

requirement due to disease-induced enzyme induction (therefore, typically
the Eisenberg protocol is used).
Pentobarbital 62
7. Pediatric Considerations
Same as adults
8. Other Suggested References

Cormio (1999) J Neurotrauma 16:927.
Boucher (1998) Clin Pharmacokinetics 35:209.
Woster (1990) Clin Pharm 9:762.
Eisenberg (1988) J Neurosurgery 69:15.
Wermeling (1987) Drug Intell Clin Pharm 21:459.
Heinemeyer (1986) Ther Drug Monit 8:145.
Bayliff (1985) Clin Pharmacol Ther 38:457.
Quandt (1984) Drug Intell Clin Pharm 18:105.
Schaible (1982) Pediatrics 100:655.
Phenobarbital 63
PHENOBARBITAL
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 Trough within 1h prior to dose; any consistent time within dosing

interval is acceptable due to long t½ ~ 5 days.
 at ss ~ 3 – 5 weeks
 initial level
b. Use in Unstable Patients*
 initial level
 repeat level, as dictated by changes in concurrent disease state/drug
therapy or the lack of adequate response to previously adequate
doses, or signs/symptoms of toxicity. Patients in status epilepticus
require more intensive monitoring.
Note: Since at least 15 to 20 days are required to achieve steady state, a

loading dose is usually given to rapidly place the patient in the
therapeutic range. Levels obtained prior to steady state may be
useful in verifying if actual level is close to predicted level (e.g. if 20
mcg/ml is the predicted steady state value, it will take one t 1/2 to
reach a level of 10 mcg/ml).
10 – 40 µg/ml
5 – 15 µg/ml (saliva)
a. Initial Dosing
C⋅V
Load: Xo* = V = 0.7 L/Kg (adults)
S ⋅F S = 0.9 (sodium salt)
F = 1.0
or
20 mg/kg Infusion rate should not exceed 65 mg/min.
Respiratory status should be closely monitored.
Phenobarbital 64
b. Maintenance Dose:
Usual adult dose: 1-3mg/kg/day in divided doses
S = 0.9 (sodium salt)

c ⋅ Cls ⋅ τ
Xo = F = 1.0
S ⋅F Cls = 0.096 L/Kg/D (adults with normal
hepatic function)
It is common practice to give 25% of the total maintenance dose for one week, ↑ to
50% the second week, ↑ to 75% the third week, and ↑ to the full dose the fourth
week to minimize toxicity.
c (at ss) produced by any given maintenance dose is approximately 10 times the
daily dose in mg/kg (e.g. 2 mg/kg - 20 mcg/ml).
For patients with liver disease, empirically decrease maintenance dose of

phenobarbital by 30%.
c. Dosing Adjustments
S ⋅ F ⋅ Xo Calculate actual Cls, based on c (level,

Cls =
c ⋅τ usually obtained at trough), τ, S,F, and Xo
(dose administered).
c ⋅ Cls ⋅ τ
Xo = Calculate new maintenance dose.
S ⋅F
5. Factors Influencing Phenobarbital Disposition
Liver disease: [Alvin (1975) J Pharmacol Exp Ther 192:224].
Pharmacokinetic interactions: PB induces metabolism of other oxidatively metabolized

drugs (e.g. carbamazepine, phenytoin, warfarin, steroids, theophylline) but PB itself
does not require dosage adjustment. Exceptions include: valproic Acid and
chloramphenicol which inhibit PB metabolism and require an empiric PB dosage
adjustment downward by 50%.
Pregnancy: ↑ PB Cls
6. Pediatric Guidelines:
Neonates
Loading Dose (Status epilepticus, neonatal seizures): 15-20 mg/kg/dose; Vd =
0.7-1.2 L/Kg – some patients may require additional bolus doses of 5-10
mg/kg/dose based on clinical response (max loading dose 40 mg/kg)
Maintenance Dose (Seizures): 3-5 mg/kg/day

Phenobarbital 65
Infants and Children
Loading dose (Status epilepticus):
• Infants, Children, and Adolescents: IV: Initial: 15-20 mg/kg; maximum dose:
1000 mg; may require additional bolus dose based on clinical response (after
10-15 minutes if needed; maximum total dose: 40 mg/kg;
• Vd = 0.6-0.9 L/Kg (Vd in older children approaches that of adults)
• Repeat doses administered sooner than 10-15 minutes may not allow
adequate time for peak CNS concentrations to be achieved and may
lead to CNS depression (Brophy, 2012; Hegenbarth, 2008).
• Additional respiratory monitoring and support may be required particularly
when maximizing loading dose or if concurrent sedative therapy.
Maintenance Dose (Seizures):

• Maintenance dose usually starts 12 hours after loading dose:
• Usual dosing range: 3-8 mg/kg/day (Lexicomp – Pediatric Dosing)
• Infants 5-6 mg/kg/day in 1-2 divided doses
• 1-5 years: 6-8 mg/kg/day in 1-2 divided doses
• 5-12 years: 4-6 mg/kg/day in 1-2 divided doses
• Adolescents: 1-3 mg/kg/day in 1-2 divided doses
• Dosage should be individualized based upon clinical response and
serum concentration
Other Considerations
Infusion rate should not exceed 1 mg/kg/min (30 mg/min maximum for
infants/children and 60 mg/min maximum for ≥ 60kg). Normal loading doses should
be administered over 15-20 min. Respiratory depression is more commonly seen in
patients who have recently received chloral hydrate or parenteral benzodiazepines
prior to initiation of phenobarbital therapy.
Tablet and elixir dosage forms are interchangeable.
Dosage forms available:
Elixir: 4mg/ml, 30mg/7.5ml, 20mg/5ml, 15mg/3.75ml

Injection: 10mg/ml
Tablets: 15mg, 30mg, 60mg, 100mg
Phenytoin 66
PHENYTOIN
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 ~ 2 hours after IV loading dose

 Trough within 1 hr prior to a scheduled maintenance dose
 At steady state (The time to achieve steady state is variable, ranging
from 3 to 50 days, due to saturation kinetics).
− After oral administration of Kapseals: average half-life ~ 22 hrs
(Prod Info Kapseals® Dilantin®, 2000) but can range from 7 to 42
hrs; value is variable due to the saturation kinetics
− After intravenous administration, half-life ranges from 10 to 15 hrs
(Prod Info Phenytoin Sodium Injection, USP, 2000).
 One steady-state concentration

 Repeat concentration at steady-state after each dosage adjustment
 After a loading dose, an initial level may be drawn to assess

attainment of therapeutic concentrations. (Recommended to be
drawn ~2 hours after IV LD and 6-8 h after oral LD).
 Trough in 3 to 4 days
 Weekly thereafter
 The frequency of sampling is also dictated by:
 Changes in concurrent disease states or drug therapy

 Lack of adequate response to previously adequate doses
 Signs/symptoms of toxicity
 Patients with recurrent status epilepticus require more intensive

monitoring
Total: 10-20 µg/mL (assuming normal albumin)
Free: 1-2 µg/mL (normal; at body temperature)

0.8 – 1.6 µg/mL* (therapeutic range reported by UKCMC Clinical Lab)
* The reported free concentration at UKCMC is adjusted since the assay is
performed at room temperature which alters protein binding.
Saliva: 1-2 µg/mL

Phenytoin 67
a. Loading Dose
Use TBW unless patient is obese (>125% IBW).

If obese: adjusted weight = IBW + (1.33)(TBW-IBW).
NOTE: Phenytoin is lipophilic and has a larger Vd in obese patients. The

above equation calculates a phenytoin dosing weight greater than ABW.
Use the equation to calculate the dose, and then administer a dose that is
comfortable based on experience and condition of the patient.
Sometimes the calculated dose may need to be reduced initially (i.e. ½ the
dose). Administer the dose, and then reassess the patient based on
clinical response or serum concentrations for subsequent doses.
C⋅V
Xo* = V= 0.7 L/kg
S ⋅F S= 0.92 (sodium salt; caps, inject)
1.0 (acid; chewtabs, suspension)
F= 1.0 (oral - only if given in divided doses);
OR variable with suspension
Xo* = 18-20 mg/kg
 NOTE that fosphenytoin is preferred dosage form for intravenous

administration
 May be administered as one dose, or in 3 divided doses given q 4 h

(IV or PO); Suggested max single oral dose = 400mg due to
delayed absorption with higher doses.
 IV phenytoin infusion rate is usually 10-25 mg/min, although some

patients may tolerate up to 50 mg/min (MAXIMUM
RECOMMENDED RATE). Blood pressure should be checked q 5
min x 3, then q 15 min until 1 hr after the end of the infusion.
Fosphenytoin infusion rate is up to 150mg/min.
 When administered on a floor, please refer to floor policy on infusion

rate. Some nursing areas may limit max infusion to 10mg/min due to
potential for hypotension as result of propylene glycol diluent. Blood
pressure should be checked q 15 - 20 min.
Phenytoin 68
b. Maintenance Dose
1. Initial
 Empirically based on body weight: 5-7 mg/kg/day

For obese patients, the maintenance dose should be based on IBW.
 Alternative: Ludden Method and estimate both Km and Vm from

Appendix 1.
(Vm ) ⋅ (Css ) ⋅ (τ )
Dose = F = 1.0
(K m + Css ) ⋅ (S) ⋅ (F) S = 0.92
If hypoalbuminemia, use the ADJUSTED CONCENTRATION (see 6A)
2. Dosage Adjustment using Ludden Method [Ludden (1976). Lancet 1:307].

Assumptions:
1. Steady state
2. Patient compliance
3. Normal renal and hepatic function
4. Normal albumin
On basis of a single concentration at steady state with the same dose:
Dose ( V ) ⋅ (Css ) Css = measured concentration

(S) ⋅ (F) ⋅ =m Dose = present dose
τ (K m + Css )
Usually assume Km (less variable) and rearrange the above equation to

estimate Vm using the single steady-state concentration:
Dose
(S) ⋅ (F) ⋅ ( ) ⋅ (K m + Css )
Vm = τ
(Css )
Then calculate a new dosage using the equation below by using the
assumed Km, the calculated Vm and the desired concentration and Tau.
( Vm ) ⋅ (Css ) ⋅ (τ ) Css = desired concentration

Dose = Dose = new dose
(K m + Css ) ⋅ (S) ⋅ (F)
Recalculate Css after rounding dose:
 Dose 

τ 
(S)(F)(K m )
Css = 
 Dose  
(Vmax ) -   (S)(F) 
 τ  
Phenytoin 69
3. Mini-loading
Used when patient has sub-therapeutic concentration, to immediately put patient in

the therapeutic range before starting new maintenance dose.
(Vd ) (Css desired - Css measured)
Mini-loading dose =
S ⋅F
4. Toxic levels
Used when concentration is too high, to determine how long (t) until patient
achieves concentration in therapeutic range (C); Co = measured concentration.
Co
[K m x (ln )] + (Co − C)
t = C
(days)
Vmax
Vd
(integrated form of Michaelis-Menten equation)
 Vd – 1-1.2 L/kg (neonates)

0.8-0.9 L/kg (term)
0.7 L/Kg (infants/children)
 Km = 3-9mg/L; Vm = 5-20mg/kg (infants/children)
 Loading dose: 18-20mg/kg
 Maintenance dose: Initial 5 mg/kg/day; titrated to usual range 6-10

mg/kg/day based on patient age
• Maintenance dose should be administered in 2-3 divided doses (some

pediatric patients may require q8hr dosing due to increased clearance; once-
daily dosing is usually not possible)
 Infusion rate: 1-3 mg/kg/min (50 mg/min maximum)
 REMEMBER TO SHAKE THE PHENYTOIN SUSPENSION BOTTLE

WELL TO PROVIDE CONSISTENT DOSE!
 Stagger dosing (at least one hour) with feedings - if on formula (decreases
absorption - similar to enteral feeding products)
 Avoid phenytoin in neonates with indirect hyperbilirubinemia requiring
phototherapy
Phenytoin 70
6. Other Factors That May Influence Phenytoin Disposition
a) Hypoalbuminemia (normal albumin = 3.2 – 4.6 g/dL):
↓ Protein binding sites

↑ Free fraction (ff)
↓ Total concentration (will not be reflective of free concentration of 1-2
mcg/ml since free fraction is increased)
The total phenytoin concentration*,** can be adjusted to account for the

decrease in albumin using the following equation:
Cobserved Cpredicted = Ctotal adjusted for ↓ albumin

Cpredicted =
(0.25 × alb) + 0.1
Cobserved = observed phenytoin concentration
*Based on protein binding when determined at room temperature (25º C).

**Note this equation is not applicable when other factors affecting protein
binding are present such as concomitant valproic acid
Anderson GD, Pak C, Doane KW et al. Revised Winter-Tozer equation for normalized
phenytoin concentrations in trauma and elderly patients with hypoalbuminemia. Ann
Pharmacother. 1997 Mar;31(3):279-84.
The free fraction can also be adjusted using the following equation:
1
fub =
1 + (2.1 × alb)
Winter MG, Tozer TN. Phenytoin. In: Evans WE, Schentag JJ, Jusko WJ, eds. Applied
Pharmacokinetics. Principles of therapeutic drug monitoring. 2nd ed. Spokane: Applied
Therapeutics Inc.;1986.
b) Uremia - displacement from protein binding sites
↑ free fraction
↓ total concentration needed to achieve free phenytoin concentration
of 1-2 mcg/ml
↑ Vd (Adjust Vd for low albumin): 6.5

Vd (L/kg) =
1 + alb
Winter and Tozer in Applied Pharmacokinetics. 2nd Ed. p. 501.

Boobis (1977) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 22:147.
Hooper (1974) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 15:276.
Phenytoin 71
c) Obesity
↑ Vd (Use 0.7 L/kg)

↔ Free fraction unchanged
↔ Clearance unchanged
Abernathy (1985) Arch Neurol. 42:468.
d) Elderly
↓ Vm (about 21% less phenytoin per day is required to maintain Css of

15 mcg/ml)
↑ free fraction
↓ total concentration needed to achieve free phenytoin concentration
of 1-2 mcg/ml
Bauer (1982) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 31:301.
e) Critically ill
↔ Vd unchanged
↔ Km unchanged
↑ Vmax increases over time in patients with brain injury, other critical
illness
↑ free fraction may increase with time (even when albumin is
unchanged)
↓ total and free conc. may decrease with time, warranting higher
maintenance doses.
Boucher (1987) Clin Pharm. 6:881.
f) Drug interactions - several types (phenytoin substrate for CYP 2C9/2C19).
 Displacement from protein binding sites results in ↓ total conc. needed

to achieve free conc. of 1-2 mcg/ml. ex. -valproic acid, phenylbutazone,
aspirin and sulfa drugs.
 Enzyme Inducers - increase phenytoin Cl ex. -phenobarbital,
carbamazepine and folic acid
 Enzyme Inhibitors - decrease phenytoin Cl ex. -cimetidine,
chloramphenicol, valproic acid, disulfiram and isoniazid
 Phenytoin is also a potent enzyme inducer and increases Cl of many
drugs including theophylline, oral anticoagulants and steroids.
 HOLD TUBE FEEDS 1 HR BEFORE AND 1 HR AFTER PHENYTOIN
SUSPENSION DOSE PER FEEDING TUBE. ADJUST TUBE FEED
RATE ACCORDINGLY.
Phenytoin 72
7. Other Selected References
 oral loading - Jung (1980) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 28:479.
 utility of Ludden method - Ludden (1976) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 21:287.
8. Population Parameters Appendix I.
APPENDIX 1
PHENYTOIN PHARMACOKINETICS
PARAMETERS
AGE Vmax Km Vd
(years) (mg/kg/day) (mg/L) (L/kg)
Adult
20-39 7.5 5.7 0.7

40-59 6.6 5.4 0.7
60-79 6.0 5.8 0.7
Pediatric
0.5-3 14.0 6.6 0.7

4-6 10.9 6.8 0.7
7-9 10.1 6.5 0.7
10-16 8.3 5.7 0.7
Dosage forms available:

Capsule 30mg, 100mg
Chewtab 50mg
Suspension 125mg/5ml (5mg/ml)
Injection 100mg/2ml (50mg/ml)
Phenytoin 73
FOSPHENYTOIN
Introduction
- Water soluble prodrug intended for parenteral administration
- Active metabolite is phenytoin
- Dose should be expressed, labeled, and ordered in phenytoin equivalents
(PE). 1.5mg fosphenytoin = 1mg phenytoin sodium but on vial FOSPHENYTOIN is
written as PE/ml, not mg/ml.
- Costs of fosphenytoin and intravenous phenytoin are similar
- Potential advantages:
1. Less phlebitis & local tissue damage at injection site (fewer return visits, lower
tx costs, & fewer lawsuits)
2. Less risk of hypotension with rapid IV loading
3. Less frequent need to restart IV lines due to local irritation
4. Elimination of need of filter in IV line
5. IM administration possible
6. Greater patient satisfaction due to less morbidity
Absorption/Bioavailability
- IV: max concentrations achieved after at the end of infusion but
- IM: peak concs ~ 30min post dose
Distribution
- 95 – 99% protein bound, primarily albumin
- increases with dose/rate, ranges from 4.3 to 10.8L
Metabolism/Elimination
- phenytoin cleaved from the prodrug by phosphatase enzymes
- conversion t½ ~ 8-15 minutes
- complete conversion IV ~ 2hrs; IM ~ 4hrs
- NO drugs are known to interfere with the conversion
Dosing Guidelines & Monitoring
- Dosage similar to phenytoin BUT use PHENYTOIN EQUIVALENTS
- Because of risk of hypotension, NOT recommended to exceed 150 PE/min
and for pediatrics rate should not exceed 3 PE/kg/min (max 150 PE/min)
- Need to wait at least 2 hours after IV dose and 4 hours after IM dose for
complete conversion to measure serum concentrations
Suggested patient criteria for administration of fosphenytoin*:
1. Age: <7yo or >60yo
2. History of underlying cardiovascular problems or preexisting hypotension)
3. Chronic or acute debilitating illness, emaciation, hyponatremia, peripheral
vascular disease, hemodynamic instability, or sepsis
4. Poor intravenous access qualified by one of the following: size smaller than
the antecubital fossa vein, catheter size < 20 gauge, no preexisting central
venous catheter
5. Pain intolerance with phenytoin sodium recognized.
*Guidelines for Fosphenytion Use (Meek PD, et al. Arch Intern Med. 1999; 159:2639-2644)
Phenytoin, Free 74
FREE PHENYTOIN
Appendix II.
Free phenytoin concentrations should be reserved for the situations described below. For
example, a "normal" patient with normal albumin and normal renal function who is not on
concurrent medications that alter phenytoin protein binding or clearance would not
warrant a free phenytoin concentration.
A free phenytoin concentration is warranted when:
1. The total phenytoin dosage is >7 mg/kg/day and the total concentration is <10
mcg/ml.
or
2. A patient is seizure-free at a total level of <10 mcg/ml and you need to determine
whether a dosage increase is necessary.
or
3. A patient is exhibiting signs of toxicity at a dosage of <7 mg/kg/day and has a total
concentration of <20 mcg/ml.
or
4. A patient is in a unique subpopulation (e.g. a pregnant female, a patient on

multiple anticonvulsant therapy, pediatric patients < 6 months)
Phenytoin, Free 75
Modified Michaelis – Menten Equation for adjusting phenytoin dosage based
on steady-state free concentration.
free Css
free
- Use a steady-state free concentration ( C ss ) to calculate free fraction (fub) = ss .
Ctotal
free
- Use Css , fub, Ko, and population Km to calculate Vm (mg/day) with equation #4.
free
- Use the desired Css (UKCMC range: 0.8-1.6mg/L), fub, Vm, and Km to calculate for
a new dosage, Ko (mg/day) with equation #3.
______________________________________________________
Derivation of the Modified Michaelis - Menten Equation:
Ko Vm ⋅ Css total
Vm ⋅ Csstotal
1.) = =
fub fub ⋅ (K m +Css total
) (fub ⋅ K m )+ (fub ⋅ Css
total
)
Multiply both sides by fub :

Vm ⋅ (Css
total
⋅ fub)
2.) K o =
fub ⋅ (K m + Css total
)
Substitute Cssfree for (Csstotal × fub) :

Vm ⋅ Css free
3.) ∴ K o =
(fub ⋅ K m ) + Cssfree
_____________________________________________________________
Equation rearranged to solve for Vm :

K o ⋅ [(fub ⋅ K m ) + Css
free
]
4.) Vm = free
Css
Rhoney DH, Leader WG, Chandler MHH. Modified Michaelis-Menten Equation for Estimating Unbound-
Phenytoin Concentrations. Clin Pharm. 1993:12:913-917.
Theophylline 76
THEOPHYLLINE
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 Oral (tablet, liquid, S-R preps with duration of absorption < τ,

e.g. Slo-Phyllin Gyrocaps).
 trough within 1h prior to dose
 S-R preps or continuous infusion with duration of absorption > τ

e.g. Theodur
S-R preps:
 tr within 1h prior to dose; any consistent time within dosing
interval is acceptable if S-R preparation.
Continuous infusion:
 Single level
> 24h after dosage adjustment made during continuous

infusion (w/o bolus).
 Multiple levels (for use with Chiou equation):
Continuous infusion (w/o bolus): anytime during true

zero-order infusion with 2 levels separated optimally by
one t½.
Continuous infusion (with bolus): > 1 hour after bolus as

1st sampling time and one t½ later as 2nd sampling time.
 Intermittent injection
 trough within 1h prior to dose
b. Relative to Steady State
After at least 4-5 half-lives (normal t½ ~8-9hrs)

Theophylline 77
 initial level
b. Use in Unstable Patients*
 initial level
 repeat level every 2 to 3 days
*The frequency of sampling is dictated by changes in concurrent disease state/drug therapy
or the lack of adequate response to previously adequate doses, or signs/symptoms of
toxicity. Patients in acute respiratory distress require more intensive monitoring.
 5-15 mcg/ml for asthma
 6-12 mcg/ml for apnea of prematurity
a. Initial Dosing
Loading Dose Maintenance Dose

Age mg/kg mg/kg/hr (IBW)*
(IBW)*
Infants (6 weeks – 12 months) 5.7 (4.6) [(0.008Xage in weeks) +

0.21]/0.79
Children (1 year – < 9 years) 5.7 (4.6) 1.01 (0.8)
Children (9 – < 12 years) & young adult 5.7 (4.6) 0.89 (0.71)
smokers
Children (12 - < 16 years) 5.7 (4.6) 0.63 (0.5)
Otherwise healthy nonsmoking adults 5.7 (4.6) 0.51 (0.4)
Cardiac decompensation, cor

pulmonale, hepatic dysfunction, sepsis 5.7 (4.6) 0.25 (0.2)
with multiorgan failure, shock
*Equivalent anhydrous theophylline dose in parenthesis
Theophylline 78
Theophylline maintenance dosage guidelines for patients not currently receiving
theophylline products. (Hendeles L, Jenkins J, Temple. Revised FDA labeling guideline
for theophylline oral dosage forms. Pharmacotherapy 1995;15(4):409-427.)
Initial Final
Age
Dosagea Dosagea
Premature neonates:
<24 days postnatal

1 mg/kg every 12 hrs
Dosage should be adjusted based
on serum theophylline
≥24 days postnatal 1.5 mg/kg every 12 hrs
concentrations to obtain peak
steady-state serum theophylline
Total daily dosage (mg) = concentrations of 5-10 mg/L for
[(0.2 X age in weeks) + 5] x (body weight kg) neonates and 10-15 mg/L for
Full term infants up to infants and older children.
1yr
≤26 weeks; divided q8hrs
>26 weeks; divided q6hrs
After 3 days, if tolerated:

16 mg/kg/day divided q4-6hrs
12 – 14 mg/kg/day divided q4-6hrs (Maximum: 400 mg/day)
Children 1 – 15 yrsc
(Maximum: 300 mg/day)
< 45kg
After 3 more days, if tolerated:
20 mg/kg/day divided q4-6hrs
(Maximum: 600 mg/day)
Children 1 – 15 yrsc After 3 days, if tolerated:

> 45kg 400 mg/day divided q6-8hrs
300 mg/day divided q6-8hrs
and
After 3 more days, if tolerated:
Adults (16 – 60 yrs)d 600 mg/day divided q6-8hrs
a. If trough concentrations are low before the next dose, then slow-release products may
decrease the fluctuation and permit longer dosing intervals.
b. Products containing an aminophylline salt should divide the listed dose by 0.8.
c. Children 1 – 15 years of age, the initial theophylline dose should not exceed 16 mg/kg/day
up to a maximum of 400mg/day in the presence of risk factors for reduced theophylline
clearance or if not feasible to monitor serum theophylline concentrations.
d. In adolescents ≥ 16 years, the initial theophylline dose should not exceed 400mg/day in the
presence of risk factors for reduced theophylline clearance or if not feasible to monitor
serum theophylline concentrations.
Initial dosing using volume of distribution:
 Load dose: X o* = C × Vd Assume V = 0.5 L/kg

Theophylline 79
b. Concentration Predictions/Dosage Adjustments
S-R (e.g. Theodur)
F ⋅ S⋅ X o
c=
Cl s ⋅ τ S = 1; F = 1
Continuous infusion
S • Ko
c=
Cls
(
1-e-Kt ) S = 0.8, if aminophylline
K = Cls/V
S • Ko
c= at ss
Cls
The Chiou equation may be used to calculate Cls, prior to reaching ss. Basic
assumptions: (1) known V; (2) true zero-order infusion between 2 sampling points
(C1 and C2). Obtain two levels at 1 and 9h after starting infusion (optimally, one t
1/2 apart).
2 ⋅ K o ⋅ 0.8 2 ⋅ V ⋅ (C 1 − C 2 )
Cl s = +
C1 + C 2 (C 1 + C 2 ) ⋅ ( t 2 − t 1 )
Oral (rapidly absorbed product)
-Kτ S ⋅ F ⋅ Xo -Kτ  1 
tr = Cpk ⋅ e
Css = ⋅e ⋅
ss
-Kτ 
V  1-e 
Changing from iv to oral S-R prep (e.g. Theodur)
Administer oral S-R prep; d/c IV 1 to 2 h later.

Theophylline 80
5. Selected factors altering theophylline clearance
Subpopulation V Cl Cls* t½ Maintenance Dose (mg/kg/h)

L/kg (L/kg/h) Factor (h)
Amino- Theo-
phylline phylline
AGE
Nonsmoking adult 0.5 0.040 1.0 8.7 0.5 0.4

Premature infant (3-15 days) 0.7 0.018 0.4 12-48 0.2 0.16
Premature infant (25-57 days) 0.039 0.6 - 0.3 0.24
Infant (4-18 months) 0.56 0.089 2.0 4.8 1.0 0.8
Children (1-4 yrs) 0.48 0.100 2.0 3.4 1.0 0.8
Children (6-17 yrs) 0.46 0.087 1.6-2.0 3.7 0.8-1.0 0.64-0.8
Elderly (>65 yrs) 0.4-0.5 0.036- 0.87-1.0 7.9- 0.4-0.5 0.32-0.4
0.040 8.7
SMOKING
cigarettes 0.5 0.064 1.6 5.4 0.8 0.64

marijuana 0.5 0.072 1.8 4.8 0.9 0.72
cigarettes / marijuana 0.5 0.090 2.2 3.8 1.1 0.88
DRUG
cimetidine 0.5 0.025 0.6 13.9 0.3 0.24

erythromycin 0.5 0.028 0.7 12.4 0.35 0.28
phenobarbital 0.5 0.053 1.2 6.5 0.6 0.48
propranolol 0.5 0.030 0.6-0.8 10.8 0.3-0.4 0.24-0.32
DISEASE STATE
cirrhosis (bilirubin <1.5) 0.6 0.033 0.8 13-17 0.35-0.4 0.28-0.32

cirrhosis (bilirubin >1.5) 0.6 0.011 0.25 41-55 0.13 0.1
congestive heart failure 0.5 0.016 0.4 12-24 0.2 0.16
cor pulmonale 0.5 0.016 0.4 22 0.2 0.16
pulmonary edema 0.56 0.017 0.4 22.9 0.2 0.16
viral respiratory illness with 0.5 0.015 0.4 23 0.2 0.16
COPD, Pneumonia
severe obstructive pulmonary 0.6-0.9 0.032 0.8 13-19 0.4 0.32
disease
0.032
WEIGHT
obesity 0.5 0.04 1.0 8.7 0.5 0.4

Use IBW Use IBW Use IBW Use IBW
*The product of all the factors that are present should be multiplied by the average
clearance value (0.04 L/kg/h).
Theophylline 81
See dosing guidelines.
7. Suggested References for Influences of Pathophysiological States on Theophylline

Kinetics
Age:
adults Hendeles (1978) Am Rev Resp Dis 118:97.

Powell (1978) Am Rev Resp Dis 118:229.
Hendeles (1995) Pharmacotherapy 15(4):409-427
premature infants Aranda (1976) NEJM 295:413.

Giacoia (1976) J Pediatr 89:829.
infants Rosen (1979) Pediatrics 64:248.
children Loughnan (1976) J Pediatr 88:874.

Ellis (1976) Pediatrics 58:542
elderly Chandler (1988) J Geriatric Drug Ther (3:23)
Smoking:
Powell (1977) Am Rev Resp Dis 116:17
Jusko (1978) Clin Pharmacol Ther 24:400.
Drug:
cimetidine Weinberger (1981) N Engl J Med 295:413.

Jackson (1981) Am Rev Resp Dis 123:615.
Reitberg (1981) Ann Intern Med 95:582.
erythromycin Cummins (1977) Pediatrics 59:144.

Prince (1981) J Allergy Clin Immunol 68:427.
May (1982) J Clin Pharmacol 22:125.
propranolol Conrad (1980) Clin Pharmacol Ther 28:463.
phenobarbital Landay (1978) J Allergy Clin Immunol 62:27.

Theophylline 82
Disease State:
cirrhosis Piafsky (1977) N Engl J Med 296:1495.

Mangione (1978) Chest 73:616.
CHF/cor pulmonale Jenne (1977) Am J Hosp pharm 34:408.

Vicuna (1979) Br J Clin Pharmacol 7:33.
pulmonary edema Piafsky (1977) Clin Pharmacol Ther 21:310.
viral illness Chang (1978) Lancet 1:1132.

Clark (1979) Lancet 1:492.
severe airway Powell (1978) Am Rev Respir Dis 118:229.

obstruction
Weight:
Obesity Gal (1978) Clin Pharmacol Ther 23:438.

Blouin (1980) Clin Pharmacol Ther 28:619.
Valproic Acid 83
VALPROIC ACID
1. Time of Sampling
a. Relative to Dose
 trough within 30 min prior to dose

 at steady state
 Initially after reaching steady-state (usually 2-4 days)

 After each dosage adjustment at steady state
 Sampling should always be done at the same time before a dose and
before the same dose each day. (Preferably before AM dose, due to effects
of diurnal variation on clearance).
Bauer (1985) Clin Pharmacol Ther 37:697.
 50-100 mcg/ml
 At times higher concentrations may be recommended by Neurology Service
 Utility of serum concentration monitoring for valproic acid (VPA) has not
been fully determined. This is partially due to concentration-dependent
protein binding. It also may take several weeks to achieve a therapeutic
effect even after the patient has achieved ss within the therapeutic range.
Continued anticonvulsant effects are also seen even after VPA is
undetectable in the blood. Studies are controversial in determining an exact
relationship between serum concentration and therapeutic effect or toxicity.
a. Initial Dosing
 IV loading (see next page)

 Empiric - 5-10 mg/kg/day
 Should be given in divided doses, usually TID - due to short t 1/2 and
to minimize GI side effects.
 Utility of QD dosing has been documented, although many patients
cannot tolerate the associated GI discomfort.
 Baseline and follow-up LFTs should be obtained to assess liver
toxicity. Hyperammonemia and hyperammonemic encephalopathy;
measure ammonia level if unexplained lethargy and vomiting or
changes in mental status, and also with concomitant topiramate use;
consider discontinuation of valproate therapy
Valproic Acid 84
Loading Doses for IV Valproic Acid (Depacon®)
IV Valproic Acid has been used in Europe since the 1980s; approved in USA in 1997.
Indicated as an intravenous alternative when oral administration of maintenance doses

are temporarily not feasible. Not systemically studied as initial therapy. There are no
established guidelines for the use of IV valproic acid as a loading dose.
Recommended doses from package insert: Complex partial seizures: 10-15 mg/kg/day,
incr. 5 – 10 mg/kg/week with usually max ~ 60 mg/kg/day. Simple and complex absence
seizures 15 mg/kg/day, increase 5 – 10 mg/kg/week.
Recommended infusion rate: Per package insert, no faster than 20mg/min. However,
infusion rate appears safe as high as 6mg/kg/min.
Studies describing IV loading doses:
Wheless, 1998 Loading doses of 15-45mg/kg (1050 – 3150mg/70kg) infused over 1 hour (max
rate ~ 50mg/min) in epilepsy patients (n=25, ages 4-39 yrs) without active
seizures. Average Cpk 10min post infusion: 71-277 (mean, 135.3±59.5ug/ml).
No significant adverse effects observed except 1 patient with Cpk > 200ug/ml had
mild sedation.
Venkataraman, 1999 Loading doses of ~25mg/kg infused at 3-6mg/kg per min (82-319 mg/min) in
epilepsy patients (n=21, ages 2-54 yrs). Cpk 20min post infusion= 64-204.1ug/ml
(mean 132.6ug/ml). Five patients had pain at site of injection due to high
concentration of VPA in infusion fluid. Recommended minimal dilution 1:1 with
D5W, NS or LR.
Hovinga, 1999 Three pediatric patients. Pt#1: 10yo, LD: 20mg/kg followed by 2mg/kg/h infusion;
Cpk 1hr post = 69.2ug/ml; 4 hrs later = 40ug/ml. Pt#2: 8yo, LD 13.4mg/kg; Cpk
3hrs post = 33.3ug/ml. Pt#3: 34 months, LD = 20mg/kg over 30min; Cpk 7hrs
post = 49ug/ml.
Chez, 1999 Three pediatric patients with status epilepticus. Pt#1: 22 months, 30mg/kg over
60min (no side effects); Cpk = 74.9ug/ml. Pt#2: 13 months, 30mg/kg; Cpk 1hr
post = 33.9ug/ml additional 30mg/kg given; Cpk = 102.6ug/ml. Pt#3: 8yo: LD =
30mg/kg & MD = 30mg/kg IV q6; Cpk = 100ug/ml, then 2 hours post = 40ug/ml.
White, 1999 Case report in 11yo. LD = 30mg/kg (960mg) over 1hr. BP decr. (130/80 to
70/55) ~39min after start of infusion, respiratory depression, required intubation.
Cpk 5hrs post = 104 ug/ml. BP stabilized 14 hrs later after pressor therapy.
Naritoku, 1999 Loading doses ~19.4±5.4mg/kg (range 10.6-27.8), ~1420±540mg (range 700-
2800mg) at rates of 20-50mg/min in epilepsy patients (n=20, 52.8±23.5yrs).
Reported N/V in 2 patients; decr. BP in one patient. Recommended 0.23L/kg
(16.1L/70kg) for LD calculation.
Cloyd, 2003 Loading doses ~ 15mg/kg infused over 5 min (3mg/kg/min) or 10 min
(6mg/kg/min) in 112 patients with epilepsy (mean age = 36±16 yrs; wt = 76.6±25
kg). Mean Vd ~ 0.2 L/kg (range 0.12 – 0.30 L/kg, ~20% CV) but determined with
limited sampling strategy (6hrs post dose). Mean (%CV) Cmax at 1hr: Ctotal =
73.5 (22%) mg/L, Cfree = 8.3 (46%) mg/L. Authors recommend using
Vd = 0.2 L/kg to estimate loading dose.
b. Dosage Adjustments
 Increase dose by 5-10 mg/kg/day every 5-7 days until reach

therapeutic effect
 usual maintenance dose: 15 mg/kg/day
 max dose: 60 mg/kg/day
Valproic Acid 85
 dose: 10-60 mg/kg/day (avg. 30 mg/kg/d)
 t½ : 10-67 hours in neonates

7-13 hours in children
 dosing interval: syrup q 6-8 h

dr tablet q 12 h
sprinkle cap q 12 h
IV q6h
 90% will have transient increase in LFTs (usually no more than 2x

normal) - returns to normal with chronic dosing
6. Drug Interactions
 Anticonvulsant polytherapy makes achievement of therapeutic serum

concentrations of valproic acid very difficult. Carbamazepine,
phenytoin, and phenobarbital all induce the metabolism of VPA
(↑ Cl). Sackellares. (1981) Epilepsia 22:437.
 VPA ↓ s clearance of phenobarbital. Kapetanovic. (1981) Clin

Pharmacol Ther 29:480.
 VPA displaces phenytoin from protein binding sites

- initially, see ↑ f, ↓ CT.
 VPA also inhibits phenytoin metabolism - with chronic dosing, see ↓

ClI and a rise in CT to approximate CT prior to VPA therapy. Monks.
(1980) Clin Pharmacol Ther. 27:89. Bruni. (1980) Neurology
30:1233.
 Cimetidine inhibits the metabolism of VPA (i.e. up to 20% ↓ in Cl of

VPA).
 Webster (1984) Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 27:341.
7. Dosage Forms
Syrup - sodium valproate (Depakene) 250mg/5ml

Capsules - valproic acid (Depakene) 250mg
Enteric coated tablets - divalproex sodium (Depakote) 125,250,500mg
Divalproex sprinkle capsules 125mg
Valproate sodium injection - (Depacon®) 100mg/ml (5ml vial)
Divalproex sodium extended release (ER) 250, 500mg
Valproic Acid 86
 No difference in bioavailability (as measured by AUC) between the three

products. Only difference is in the time to peak for each product.
syrup 2 hours
capsules 3-4 hours
tablets 3-8 hours
 Food delays the absorption of all three products.
8. Miscellaneous
 t½ 8-17 h (↑ in hepatic disease, but questionable clinical

significance).
 Vd 0.15 L/Kg (range 0.13-0.23 L/Kg)
 f variable; concentration-dependent (with ↑ conc, see ↑ f)

clinical significance of variability unknown
at 50 mcg/ml, f ≅ 0.05-0.1
at 70 mcg/ml, f ≅ 0.2
also affected by disease states (decreased protein binding)
renal failure - f = 0.18.
Gugler. (1978) Br J Clin Pharmacol. 5:44l.

liver failure - f = 0.29
Klotz (1978) Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 13:55

hypoalbuminemia - f increased depending on severity
 elderly ↑f
↓ Cl
Perucca. (1984) Brit J Clin Pharmacol. 17:665.
9. Other Suggested References
Applied Pharmacokinetics. (1986), 2nd ed., p. 540-69
Rectal Admin: Thorpy. (1980) Neurology. 30:1113.

Cloyd. (1981) Neurology. 31:1348.
General Review: Rimmer. (1985) Pharmacotherapy. 5:171.

Valproic Acid 87
Valproic Acid Continuous Intravenous Infusion Protocol
Aaron Cook, PharmD; Last updated 3/5/13
Valproic acid is an anticonvulsant commonly used for the acute treatment of seizures or migraine
headache. Intravenous valproate sodium is available for use, but the typical pharmacokinetics of this
formulation are somewhat problematic. The pharmacokinetic elimination half‐life of valproate is relatively
short and does not permit a constant serum concentration during intermittent dosing, particularly in
children or other acutely ill individuals who may have elevated metabolic capacity. Rather, due to rapid
elimination, there tends to be a peak and trough phenomenon. This phenomenon has the potential to
cause difficulty in establishing a safe and effective dose for an individual patient (peak concentrations
may be supratherapeutic when targeting goal trough concentrations).
The introduction of delivering valproate via continuous infusion has the potential to address this clinical
problem by providing a consistent serum concentration throughout the dosing interval and avoiding serum
concentration fluctuation. Thus, patients receiving continuous infusion valproate would be less likely to
have serum concentrations that are temporarily above or below the therapeutic range (50‐100 mcg/ml).
The area under the concentration‐time curve required to maintain concentrations in the recommended
therapeutic range should be less with continuous infusion. Administering valproate by continuous infusion
may diminish the dose requirement in some individuals because of the lack of frequent peak
concentrations that occur after intermittent bolus infusions. To this point, clinical experience with this new
dosing strategy thus far has indicated that normal daily doses are needed to achieve target
concentrations.[1] A more consistent serum concentration may also aid in transitioning patients from
intravenous to oral therapy, where an extended‐release formulation may be used to mimic continuous
delivery of drug. The current dosing of valproate typically includes a loading dose ranging from
20‐40mg/kg (infused no faster than 6mg/kg/min). The typical initial maintenance dose ranges from 10‐30
mg/kg/day.
UK Protocol
Loading Dose Maintenance Dose
20‐40mg/kg IV (< 6mg/kg/min infusion rate) Begin IV infusion at 0.5‐1mg/kg/hr (12‐24mg/kg/day)*
*Initial maintenance dose requirements may vary due to concomitant disease states or medications that may displace
valproate from albumin binding sites and/or alter metabolic clearance
Ordering Procedure
Prescriber Pharmacy Nurse
Enter COM‐valproic acid continuous Verify as 1000mg VPA in To run as continuous infusion
infusion 250ml NS (based on mg/kg/hr rate)
Dose (enter as mg/kg/hr)
Frequency = continuous infusion
Monitoring
• Obtain serum valproic acid concentration after loading dose (2 hours, for patients with active
seizures to ensure rapid achievement of target concentration)
• Obtain total serum valproic acid concentration approximately 24 hours after infusion
initiation
• Utilize continuous infusion equation to determine clearance rate and infusion rate required to
achieve desired concentration (Css = Xo/Cls)**
**where Css = steady state concentration (mg/L), Xo = infusion rate (mg/hr); Cls = systemic clearance (L/hr)
References
1. Taylor, L.M., et al., Clinical utility of a continuous intravenous infusion of valproic acid in pediatric patients.
Pharmacotherapy, 2007. 27(4): p. 519‐525.
Valproic Acid 88
FREE VALPROIC ACID
NOTE: Free valproic acid concentrations are sent to an outside laboratory;

allow 2-3 business days for reporting.
Policy:
1. The pharmacist should make sure that a total concentration, as well as the
free valproic acid concentration, is ordered.
2. The therapeutic range of free valproic acid concentrations will be reported

as 2.5 to 11.0 mcg/ml.*
Appendix I
Free valproic acid concentrations should be reserved for the situations described below.
For example, a "normal" patient with normal albumin and normal renal function who is not
on concurrent medications (that alter valproic acid protein binding or clearance) would not
warrant a free valproic acid concentration.
A free valproic acid concentration is warranted when:
5. The total valproic acid dosage is >60 mg/kg/day.
OR
6. A patient is seizure-free at a total level of <50 mcg/ml and you need to determine
whether a dosage increase is necessary.
OR
1. A patient is exhibiting signs of toxicity at a dosage of <60 mg/kg/day.
OR
7. A patient is in a unique subpopulation (e.g. a pregnant female, a patient on multiple

anticonvulsant therapy, etc.)
Vancomycin 89
VANCOMYCIN
1. Time of Sampling
Relative to Dose
- Trough within 30 min prior to dose
- Trough should be at steady-state (24 to 30 hours after initiation of therapy
with normal renal function; approximately after the fourth dose in adults)
- Peak at 1 h after end of 1h infusion (Note that peak concentrations have not
been shown to correlate well with toxicity or efficacy and not recommended
by 2009 ASHP/IDSA guidelines).
Patients in whom vancomycin serum drug concentrations should NOT be

obtained:
- Adult patients < 60yo with normal body weight, stable renal function with
Clcr > 40 ml/min, and short course of therapy (e.g., <3 days)
Patients in whom TROUGH vancomycin serum concentrations should be
obtained at steady-state:
- Patients on vancomycin ≥ 3 days
- Renal impairment – estimated Clcr < 40ml/min
- Changing renal function defined by increase in serum creatinine by 0.5
mg/dL or 50% from baseline
- Special patient populations with altered volume distribution or renal
clearance including:
o Elderly: ≥ 60 years old
o Burn
o Cancer
o Obesity > 125% ideal body weight
o Pediatric
- Concomitant nephrotoxic drugs including:
o Aminoglycosides
o Amphotericin B
o Acyclovir (IV)
o Loop diuretics
o Vasopressor agents
o Others (IV contrast dye, ACE inhibitors)
- Patients who may require more frequent monitoring to achieve goal

concentrations and prevent toxicity:
- Higher doses of vancomycin required to penetrate site of infection;
treatment of serious life-threatening infections; extended duration of
therapy:
o Meningitis, Endocarditis, Osteomyelitis, Pneumonia, Sepsis
Vancomycin 90
3. Therapeutic Range*
 Trough: 10 – 20 µg/mL
Vancomycin troughs of 15-20 mg/L may be warranted for life-
threatening infections, organisms with high MICs (e.g., MRSA, MIC =
1), or to ensure vancomycin concentration at the site of infection.
Assuming 50% protein binding, target trough concentrations of 8 to
10x MIC for total vancomycin may be warranted.
 Peak: 20 – 40 µg/mL (at 1hr after end of 1hr infusion)
4. General Guidelines for Dosing and Monitoring

a. Initial Loading Dose
- In order to achieve rapid attainment of the target concentration for
seriously ill patients, a loading dose may be considered.
- 20-25 mg/kg based on ABW
o 40-60kg = 1000 – 1500mg IV X 1
o 61-80kg = 1500 – 2000mg IV X 1
o 81-100kg = 2000mg IV X 1
o >100kg (see morbidly obese guidelines below)
b. Initial Maintenance Dose
• Modified Matzke Nomogram: Dose = 15 - 20 mg/kg using ABW and
Dosing Interval (τ) should maintain serum trough concentrations of
15 mcg/ml. Each dose should be infused over at least 1 hour.
Nomogram* for vancomycin in patients with various

degrees of renal function
Creatinine Dosing interval Dosing interval (τ)
Clearance (τ) HOURS
(mL/min) DAYS
≥120 0.35 8-12
100 0.5 12
80 0.5 12
60 0.75 18
40 1.0 24
30 1.5 36
20 2.0 48
≤10 ≥4.0 Determined by concentrations
Hemodialysis Not significantly removed by conventional
hemodialysis. Initial dose = 20-25 mg/kg then
suggest checking “random” serum concentration in
3-4 days. Redose with 15mg/kg when concentration
is 15mg/L.
*Adapted from Matzke GR, et al. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1984 Apr;25(4):433-7.
Vancomycin 91
• Young adults <30yo who have estimated Clcr ≥120 may warrant every 8
hour dosing to maintain therapeutic trough concentrations in certain
indications (e.g., endocarditis).
• For morbidly obese patients (> 90% over their IBW) with normal renal
function: 15-20 mg/kg/dose X ABW every 12 hours. Consider
maximum initial dose of 2000mg and assess concentrations to
determine dosing interval.
NOTE: Obese patients may require larger total daily doses at less frequent
intervals (i.e., q8hrs) in order to avoid low trough concentrations for
prolonged periods.
*Bauer LA; Black DJ; Lill JS. Vancomycin dosing in morbidly obese patients. Eur J
Clin Pharmacol 1998 Oct;54(8):621-5
• For morbidly obese patients with renal insufficiency (estimated Clcr

using the Salazar-Corcoran equation): Use 15mg/kg X ABW every τ
determined from the table above (Matzke nomogram). Consider maximum
initial dose of 2000mg and assess concentrations to determine
dosing interval.
Alternative dosing method using estimated pharmacokinetic

parameters (Vd and K) and Sawchuk-Zaske Method (refer to
aminoglycoside section for equations):
Normal Vd range: 0.5 – 0.9 L/kg (use average 0.7 L/kg)
Estimate K using Clcr: K (hr-1) = 0.00083 (Clcr) + 0.0044 (Matzke)
c. Dosage Adjustment with trough concentration only:

Assumptions: Concentration obtained at steady-state; 1-compartment
model; principle of superposition; linear elimination
1. Verify administration and sampling times. When documenting a vancomycin

concentration, include the time before the dose, the time after last dose, and
the assessment whether the concentration represents a steady-state
condition.
2. If the concentration is above target, consider holding the subsequent dose if
not already given or administer the new dosage at a time the concentration
is estimated to be within the therapeutic range.
3. Adjust either dose (e.g., decrease dose by % to achieve target
concentration) and/or adjust interval (e.g. extend interval).
Vancomycin 92
d. Dosage Adjustments Using Sawchuk-Zaske Method:
Assumptions: 2 concentrations obtained at steady-state; 1-compartment
model; principle of superposition; linear elimination.
1. Verify administration and sampling times.

2. Calculate K:
ss T’ is determined by subtracting the time difference
Cpk
ln ( ) between Cpk and Ctr from the Tau. For example, if the time
Css difference between Cpk and Ctr was 1.5hrs and the Tau =
K= tr
T' q8hrs, then T’ = (8 - 1.5) = 6.5hrs.
0.693
3. Calculate t½: t½ =
K
4. IF peak concentration is drawn late, calculate if drawn at correct time:

ss
Cpk
Cpk =
e-Kt'
ss
where Cpk = peak concentration drawn at appropriate time;
ss
Cpk = peak concentration drawn late; t' = time between late Cpk and Cpk
5. IF trough concentration is drawn early (e.g., >30min prior to dose), calculate if

drawn at correct time:
-Kt'
tr = C tr ∗ e
Css
where Css
tr = trough concentration drawn at appropriate time
(e.g., suggest use dose administration time)

Ctr = trough concentration drawn early; t' = time between early Ctr and Css
tr
6. Calculate Vd:
If doses have reached steady state (e.g., previous doses on time, concentrations
drawn appropriately), use:
K o (1 − e −Kt ) e-KT t = infusion time (e.g., 1hr)

Vd =
⋅ K (1 − e −Kτ )
ss
ss T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 1hr)
Cpk
If doses have NOT reached steady state AND there are at least 3 concentrations
after a multiple dose (e.g., trough, peak, & random) or 2 concentrations after the 1st
dose (e.g., peak and random or 2 random concentrations) use:
Vancomycin 93
K o (1-e-Kt ) Cmax
pk = peak extrapolated to END of infusion
Vd = t = time of infusion
K (Cmax
pk - Ctr e-Kt' ) t' = time between Ctr and Cpkmax
To use above equation, calculate peak at end of infusion:

Cpk
Cmax
pk = -KT T = time between Cpk and Cpk
max
7. IF measured Ctr is high, calculate time required to achieve desired Ctr:
ln  1 
Ctr Ctr1 = high Ctr; Ctr2 = desired Ctr

t' =  Ctr2 
t' = time required from Ctr1 to Ctr2
K
8. Calculate new dosing interval (τ):
ln(Cpk /Ctr ) t = infusion time (e.g., 1hr)

τ= +t+T
K T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 1hr)
9. Calculate new dosing rate:

ss
Cpk Vd K(1-e-Kτ ) t = infusion time (e.g., 1hr)
Ko = T = time between end of infusion & Cpk (e.g., 1hr)
(1-e-Kt ) e-KT
10. Round dose (FOR ADULTS: round dose to nearest 250mg) then recalculate the
actual Cpk:

calculated dose
11. Estimate trough to be obtained with above Ko and τ:
ss -KT'
tr = Cpk e
Css
12. Document the pharmacokinetic assessment in the medical records.
WRITE A CHART NOTE. Document pertinent clinical monitoring parameters, dose

recommendations and estimated and/or calculated pharmacokinetic parameters in
the medical record. (Also refer to Department of Pharmacy Guidelines for Writing
Notes in Patient Charts, PH-02-04)
- Briefly describe the rationale of the drug and determine if warranted based on clinical and
patient information. Refer to UK Hospital guidelines for appropriate use of vancomycin.
Vancomycin 94
- Document the current day of therapy and goal length of therapy (e.g., Day #2/14
vancomycin), and any concomitant antibiotics.
- Document the collect times of the reported concentrations and note if the samples were
obtained appropriately. For example, if actual Cpk was drawn late, also document the
estimated Cpk if drawn correctly.
- Include the calculate PK parameters: K (hr-1), t½ (hrs), Vd (L) and Vd (L/kg – DBW).
- Write a new dosage in mg and mg/kg-DBW/dose (e.g., vancomycin 1000 mg IV q12hrs,
15mg/kg/dose).
- When changing a dosage, include the start time of new dosing regimen with the order
(very helpful for the pharmacist entering the order and the nurse administering the drug).
- Include a range for the predicted concentrations with the new dosage recommendation:
(e.g., Cpk = 8-10mg/L; Ctr <2mg/L, ~1mg/L).
- Include other pertinent information used to assess the patient: weight (ABW, IBW, DBW),
height, BSA, Scr, Clcr, BUN, urine output, I/Os, cultures, Tmax, WBC, differential,
allergies, and other nephrotoxic medications (e.g., furosemide, amphotericin,
aminoglycosides).
- Refer to the sample note on the next page.
Vancomycin 95
Sample Note
PHYSICAL/HISTORY/ Patient Name:

PROGRESS NOTES Medical Record:
Date of Birth:
Date Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service RE: Vancomycin Day #2/14
9/2/20XX Patient is 40yo WM being treated with vancomycin 1000mg IV q12hrs (12.5 mg/kg/dose)
14:30 for staphylococcal bacteremia based on positive blood cultures (9/1, both bottles) for
Staphylococcus aureus. Current Tmax 102.5, WBC = 15K. Vancomycin therapy meets
ABW = 80kg approval criteria. ID service is following patient and recommends Cpk ~ 35-40mg/L and
Ht = 6’0” Ctr = 10-15 mg/L (discussed with ID resident).
IBW = 77.6kg
Scr = 1.2 (today) Vancomycin concs drawn around 3rd dose on 9/2:
Clcr = 93ml/min Trough = 8.7 mg/L C: 07:30
Dose = 1200 mg IV infused from 08:00 – 09:00
Peak = 22 mg/L C: 11:00
Assessment of concs: Previous doses administered on time & represent steady-state;

Ctr drawn appropriately; Cpk drawn 1hr late & if drawn correctly @ 10:00 = 24.6 mg/L;
Cpk and Ctr below recommended range. Renal function stable.
PK parameters: K = 0.11hr-1; t½ = 6.3 hrs; Vd = 47.1L (0.6 L/kg)
Recommendations:
1. Suggest changing vancomycin to 1500mg IV q12hrs (18.75 mg/kg/dose) to yield

a Cpk ~35-40 mg/L & Ctr ~ 12mg/L; begin next dose at scheduled time (9/2 @
20:00); discussed with ID resident and primary team.
2. Not necessary to recheck Cpk & Ctr unless change in clinical status or renal
function; if continue therapy > 7 days, would suggest checking Ctr each week to
assess for drug accumulation.
3. Suggest checking Scr/BUN at least 2X/week to assess renal function.
XXXXXX, PharmD
Pager #
Vancomycin 96
1. Pediatric Recommendations
Neonatal Empiric Vancomycin Dosing (Assuming normal renal function)

Gestational Age* Postnatal Age# Dose
≤ 28 wks ≤ 2 wks old 15 mg/kg q24 hr
≤ 28 wks > 2 wks old 15 mg/kg q18 hr
29-32 wks ≤ 2 wks old 15 mg/kg q18 hr
29-32 wks > 2 wks old 15 mg/kg q12 hr
≥ 33 wks ≤ 2 wks old 15 mg/kg q12 hr
≥ 33 wks > 2 wks old 15 mg/kg q8 hr
Infants and Children Empiric Vancomycin Dosing (Assuming normal renal function)1,2,3
Based on Goal
For 10-15 mg/L For 15-20 mg/L
Trough and Age
1mo – 12 yrs 70 mg/kg/day divided q6hr 90 mg/kg/day divided q6hr
13 – 16 yrs 60 mg/kg/day divided q8hr 70 mg/kg/day divided q6hr
> 16 yrs 15 – 20 mg/kg q8-12 hr (Similar to adult dose)
Dosing Pearls
Goal Trough 10-15 mcg/mL (uncomplicated infections)
15-20 mcg/mL (serious infections: endocarditis,
sepsis, osteomyelitis, CNS infections, S.
aureus pneumonia)
Renal Impairment Dosing interval should be extended
Creatinine Clearance Calculate with Bedside Schwartz equation
(refer to pg 18)
Obesity BMI >95th percentile, use actual body weight4,5
Consider obtaining peak and trough
concentrations
Infusion Time Infuse all doses over at least 1 hour
Administration Final concentration must be <5 mg/mL; may
use 10mg/mL through central line if fluid
restricted
Monitoring Renal function, UOP, strict ins/outs, infusion
reactions (i.e. Redmans requiring prolonged
infusion ±pre-medication), clinical status (fever
curve, WBC, culture results), drug interactions
*Gestational Age = weeks of pregnancy when patient is born
#Postnatal Age = Age after birth
Parenteral administration of vancomycin should be administered over at least 60 minutes at a final

concentration <5mg/mL (10mg/mL per central line for fluid restriction patients); CNS = central nervous
system
1 Rainkie D, Ensom MH, Carr R. Pediatric assessment of vancomycin empiric dosing (PAVED): a retrospective
review. Paediatric Drugs 2015;17:245-53.
2 Eiland LS, English TM, Eilant EH. 3rd Assessment of vancomycin dosing and subsequent serum concentrations in
pediatric patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(5):582-9.

3 Madigan T. Sieve RM, Graner KK, Banerjee R. The effect of age and weight on vancomycin serum trough
concentrations in pediatric patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2013;33(12):1264-72.

4 Moffett BS, Kim S, Edwards MS. Vancomycin dosing in obese pediatric patients. Clinical Pediatrics 2011;50:442-6.
5 Eiland LS, Sonawane KB. Vancomycin dosing in healthy-weight, overweight, and obese pediatric patients. JPPT
2014;19:182-8.
Vancomycin 97
2. Vancomycin- Hemodialysis
Dose
1. Loading dose of 15-20 mg/kg based on ABW
2. Enter “intermittent” vancomycin order as an active order between doses
Effect of hemodialysis at UK Chandler Hospital

3. With full hemodialysis session (e.g., 3-4 hours with dialysate flow rate
4. Elimination primarily due to residual kidney function of patient. Limited extrarenal
mechanisms of elimination.
5. Average half-life in ESRD patients is 4-5 days depending on residual kidney function.
Concentrations
1. Usually drawn 3-5 days post-dose ordered as a random level.
2. Redose when level is expected to be < 15 mg/L.
3. Levels drawn 10-12 hours following high-flux hemodialysis may be misleading.
Obtaining level prior to hemodialysis is preferred.
References (Drug dosing in renal failure/dialysis):

1. National Kidney Foundation, Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative; Clinical
Practice Guideline for Chronic Kidney Disease. www.KDOQI.org.
2. Bauer LA. Applied Clinical Pharmacokinetics. United States: McGraw Hill; 2001.
3. Aronoff GR, Berns JS, Brier ME, et al. Drug Prescribing in Renal Failure: Dosing
Guidelines for Adults. 10th ed. Philidelphia, PA:American College of
Physicians:1999.
3. Suggested References for Influences of Pathophysiologic States on Vancomycin

Kinetics
Infants and Children: Schaad (1980) J Pediatrics 96:119-126.
Elderly: Cutler (1984) Clin Pharmacol Ther 36:803-810.
Obesity: Blouin (1982) Antimicr Ag Chemother 21:575-580.
Burn Patients: Brater (1986) Clin Pharmacol Ther 39:631-634.
Critically Ill Patients: Garaud (1984) J Antimicrob Chemother 14 (Suppl D):53-57.
4. Other Suggested Readings
1. Rybak M., Lomaestro B., et al. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin in adult patients: A
consensus review of the American Health-System Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases
Society of America, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Am J Health-Sys
Pharm 66; 2009:82-98.
2. Karam C., McKinnon P., et al. Outcome assessment of minimizing vancomycin monitoring
& dosing adjustment. Pharmacotherapy 9(3);1999:257-66.
3. Cohen E., Dadasher A., Drucker M., et al. Once daily vs. twice daily IV administration of
Vancomycin for infections in hospitalized patients. J. Antimicobial Chemotherapy 49;
2002:155-60.
Vancomycin 98
4. Zimmerman A., Katona B., Plaisance K. Association of vancomycin serum concentrations
with outcomes in patients with gram-positive bacteremia. Pharmacotherapy 15(1);1995:85-
91.
5. Cantu T., Yamanaka-Yuen N., Lietman P. Serum vancomycin concentration: reappraisal of
their clinical value. Clin Infect Dis 18;1994:533-43.
6. Moellering Robert Jr. Editorial: Monitoring serum vancomycin levels: Climbing the
mountain because it is there? Clin Infect Dis 18;1994:544-6.
7. Leader W., Chandler M., Castiglia M. Pharmacokinetic Optimisation of Vancomycin
Therapy. Clin Pharmacokinetics 28(4);1995:327-342.
8. Hammett-Stabler C., Johns T. Laboratory guidelines for monitoring of antimicrobial drugs.
Clin Chem 44;1998:1129-1140.
9. Palmer-Toy D. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin. Arch Pathol Lab Med
124;Feb2002:322-3.
10. Matzke GR, McGory RW, Halstenson CE, Keane WF. Pharmacokinetics of vancomycin in
patients with various degrees of renal function. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1984
Apr;25(4):433-7.
Guidelines to Anticoagulation 99
UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY HOSPITAL POLICY NUMBER: PH-02-12
Department of Pharmacy Policy CURRENT AS OF: 6/10
SUBJECT: Anticoagulation Management Service Policy/Procedures
SEE ALSO: PH02-04 Guidelines for Writing Notes in Patient’s Chart; PH02-05 Clinical
Pharmacokinetics Service Policy/Procedures; PH02-08 Patient
Education-Inpatients; PH02-11 Prescribing Guidelines; HP-2-14
Discharge Medication Planning, Education, and Procurement, PH02-17
Role of the Pharmacist in the Electronic record, CN-08-01E Drug-Nutrient
Interactions
PURPOSE: To establish a standard approach to the management of inpatients

receiving medications used for anticoagulation at the University of
Kentucky Chandler Medical Center.
STAFF
AFFECTED: Clinical Pharmacist Specialists, Clinical Staff Pharmacists, Staff
Pharmacists, Pharmacy Residents, and Pharmacy Students under the
supervision of a licensed pharmacist.
GENERAL: The Anticoagulation Management Service (AMS) Policy/Procedures were

developed to ensure the safe and efficacious use of medications used for
anticoagulation. The policy/procedure manual outlines recommended
guidelines which should be followed when providing clinical monitoring of
the following drugs: warfarin, heparin, low molecular weight heparins
(LMWH), and direct thrombin inhibitors.
Monitoring Responsibility
Within the pharmaceutical care process, the primary pharmacist/resident who attends rounds or
precepts pharmacy students on the primary medical team is responsible for providing
appropriate and cost-effective monitoring and provision of clinical anticoagulation evaluations.
Patients on a service without a rounding service will be identified and followed according to the
pharmacy monthly service coverage list. The pharmacist is available on a consultant basis as
well for assistance with anticoagulation issues via pager 330-4325 M-F 0800-1700 or pager
330-7400 (PharmD on-call) after-hours and weekends.
Ordering
Pharmacists consulted via pharmacist to dose orders within SCM are authorized to order lab
tests pertinent to the management of a patient’s anticoagulation. These orders must state “Per
Protocol”. Lab tests will be limited to those pertinent to the monitoring of the medication (i.e. PT,
INR, aPTT, anti-factor Xa concentrations, SCr, BUN, CBC, and Albumin). In addition,
pharmacists are able to order dosage adjustments for heparin, LMWH, direct thrombin
inhibitors, and warfarin in consultation with the prescribing physician.
Order Verification
Pharmacists involved in the order verification process will evaluate the following when verifying
a warfarin order:
1. Ensure that a recent INR is available for evaluation prior to order verification (INR within
72 hours prior to order)
2. Review the INR and ordered warfarin dose to ensure appropriateness of therapy
according to known previous dosing for that patient. For warfarin naïve patients, dosing
recommendation are available in the University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center
Anticoagulation Guideline.
Documentation in the Patient Medical Record

When a pharmacist is providing a consult on a patient on anticoagulation therapy, the
pharmacist should write a “Pharmacy Anticoagulation Note” in the patient’s medical record to
indicate recommendations in dosage or monitoring and to indicate changes in these
recommendations. Alternatively, this note may be included as a component of the daily
physician progress note. For laboratory values or dosages that are supratherapeutic, the
medical team should be notified immediately if clinically warranted and appropriate
recommendations should be documented. Patients receiving warfarin should receive an
anticoagulation note within 72 hours of admission or restart of their warfarin therapy. The
pharmacist managing the patient should also document dosage change recommendations and
patient education prior to discharge.
Education
The nurse and/or pharmacist will provide patient education for patients receiving anticoagulant
therapy prior to discharge. In addition, pharmacist provided patient counseling will be available
through consultation. This education will consist of the Krames warfarin education packet and
will include such items as importance of compliance with taking the medication and being
adherent with laboratory monitoring, drug-drug and drug-nutrient interactions, as well as
potential adverse reactions and increased risk for bleeding.
Anticoagulation Management Guideline

See the University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center Anticoagulation Guide. This guideline will
be used by healthcare practitioners to assist in dosing of warfarin, heparin, direct thrombin inhibitor
and LMWH regimens.
Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI)

The AMS will report annually to the P&T Committee. Areas included in this review are
appropriate indications for anticoagulation, appropriate dosing, appropriate laboratory
monitoring, evaluation of excessive INRs, and adverse drug reactions. These results will be
included in Pharmacy Services annual CQI activities.
Warfarin
Mechanism of Action:
- Inhibits reduction of vitamin K epoxide, thereby limiting activation of vitamin K
dependent clotting factors: II (prothrombin), VII, IX, X. Antithrombotic effect primarily
due to reduction in prothrombin.
- Inhibits synthesis of anticoagulant proteins C and S (potential procoagulant effects).
Pharmacokinetics:
Warfarin is a racemic mixture of two active isomers, R and S. The S-isomer is approximately
five times more potent than the R-isomer.
Oral Administration
Absorption: rapidly and completely absorbed
Distribution: primarily intravascular, highly protein bound
Half-life: 36-42 hours
- Time to steady state = approximately 10 days
Half-lives of Clotting Factors:
Factor II = 60 hrs
Factor VII =6 hrs
Factor IX = 24 hrs
Factor X = 40 hrs
Anticoagulation may be seen within 24 hours due to inhibition of

Factor VII, but peak anticoagulant activity is delayed for 72-96 hours
due to Factor II inhibition (2-3 days after 1st therapeutic INR)
Metabolism: Hepatic microsomal enzymes to inactive metabolites

- S-isomer is metabolized primarily by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9
- R-isomer is metabolized by CYP 1A2 and CYP 3A4
- Reduce dose with hepatic dysfunction and with hypermetabolic states (increased
catabolism of vitamin-K dependent factors)
- Not significantly affected by dialysis
Dosing and Monitoring:

Dose that is required is variable and dependent on a number of patient-specific and
environmental factors. Refer to dosing guidelines on following page.
Baseline INR within 72 hours of warfarin initiation should be reviewed to assess sensitivity.
If an INR is not present, the pharmacist will contact the physician or enter an order to obtain
an INR prior to verification of the order. Collect INR daily in hospitalized patients being
initiated on warfarin until INR is within the desired therapeutic range, then two or three times
weekly.
- Consider holding warfarin therapy if INR > 4
Warfarin Anticoagulation Initiation Dosing for Warfarin Naïve Patients
Warfarin Warfarin Warfarin
High Moderate Low
Day INR Sensitivity* Sensitivity** Sensitivity***
1 Baseline INR 2.5-5 mg 5-7.5 mg 7.5-10 mg
2 <1.5 2.5-5 mg 5-7.5 mg 7.5-10 mg

1.5-1.9 2.5 mg 2.5 mg 2.5 mg
2-2.5 1-2.5 mg 1-2.5 mg 1-2.5 mg
>2.5 0 0 0
____________________________________________________________________
Continue for all patients

____________________________________________________________________
Day INR Dose

3 <1.5 5-10 mg
1.5-1.9 2.5-5 mg
2-2.5 0-2.5 mg
2.6-3 0-2.5 mg
>3 0
4 <1.5 10 mg
1.5-1.9 5-7.5 mg
2-3 2.5-5 mg
>3 0-2.5 mg
5 <1.5 10 mg
1.5-1.9 7.5-10 mg
2-3 2.5-5 mg
>3 0-2.5 mg
6 <1.5 7.5-12.5 mg
1.5-1.9 5-10 mg
2-3 2.5-5 mg
>3 0-2.5 mg
7 Make adjustment based on total weekly dose

(Increase or decrease dose by 5-20% depending
on current INR and target INR)
*High **Moderate ***Low

Sensitivity Sensitivity Sensitivity
Baseline INR >1.5 Baseline INR 1.2-1.5 Baseline INR <1.2
>65 years of age 50-65 years of age <50 years of age and no
Significant hepatic disease Concurrent CYP-450 other risk factors
Decompensated CHF hepatic enzyme inhibitor
Malnourished (see table for details)
Malabsorption syndrome/
chronic diarrhea
Cancer
Hypoalbuminemia (esp<2)
Thyrotoxicosis
Genetic polymorphism of
CYP-450 2C9
Adverse reactions
Warfarin:
- Over Anticoagulation / Bleeding
Guidelines on Vitamin K1 Administration for Reversal of Warfarin
INR Action/Recommendation
Greater than therapeutic but < 5 Continue with lower warfarin dose, OR omit a dose and
with no significant bleeding resume therapy at a lower dose.
5-9 (No significant bleeding) Omit 1 or 2 doses (monitoring INR more frequently), and
resume therapy at a lower dose when INR therapeutic,
OR
If patient is at risk of bleeding omit a dose and administer vitamin K1 1.25 to 2.5 mg PO
5-9 (Rapid reversal required for Administer vitamin K1 2.5 mg PO (INR to normalize in
urgent surgery)* 24 hours); if INR still high, administer additional 1.25 to
2.5mg of vitamin K1 PO.
>9 (No significant bleeding) Hold warfarin therapy AND administer vitamin K1 2.5-5
mg PO, administer additional vitamin K1 in 24-48 hours if
necessary; resume therapy at a lower dose when INR
therapeutic.
Significant bleeding at any INR value Hold warfarin therapy AND administer vitamin K1 10 mg
by slow IV infusion (1mg/min) diluted in D5W or NS; may
repeat every 12 hours if needed. (Supplement with fresh
frozen plasma, depending on urgency)
Life threatening bleeding Hold warfarin therapy AND administer fresh frozen
plasma AND administer vitamin K1 10 mg by slow IV
infusion (1mg/min) diluted in D5W or NS.
*For patients with INR >1.5 but <5 requiring reversal for urgent surgery administer
vitamin K1 2.5 to 5 mg PO, or for patients NPO, 1 mg IV. Reduction in INR may take 24hrs.
In general oral route is preferred over subcutaneous

Selected Factors Altering Warfarin Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Increased Warfarin effect Decrease Warfarin effect

Acetaminophen (high doses) Alcohol (chronic ingestion)
Alcohol (acute ingestion) Aminoglutethimide
Aminosalicylic acid Barbiturates
Allopurinol Carbamazepine
Amiodarone Cholestyramine
Aspirin Dicloxacillin
Cimetidine Griseofulvin
Ciprofloxacin Nafcillin
Clarithromycin Phenytoin
Dexamethasone ( >20 mg) Rifampin
Disulfiram Sucralfate
Erythromycin Vitamin K
Fluconazole
Flu vaccine
Itraconazole
Isoniazid (600 mg/day)
Levothyroxine Increased Bleeding
Metronidazole Aspirin
Omeprazole NSAIDs
Phenytoin (long term)
Propoxyphene Ticlopidine
Quinidine Clopidogrel
Sulfonylurea
Tamoxifen Thrombocytopenia
Tetracycline
TMP/SMX
Optimal Therapeutic Range for Oral Anticoagulation
Indication INR
Atrial Fibrillation
Atrial Fibrillation with high risk factors 2-3 (chronic)
(age >75 years, history of TIA or stroke, hypertension,
history systemic embolus, mitral stenosis, bioprosthetic
cardiac valve, thyrotoxicosis, left ventricular dysfunction, CHF,
rheumatic mitral valve disease)
Atrial Fibrillation with > 2 moderate risk factors 2-3 (chronic)
(Age 65-75 years, diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease)
Pre-cardioversion (for Afib >48 hours) 2-3 (3 weeks)
Post-cardioversion 2-3 (4 weeks)
Cardioembolic Stoke 2-3 (chronic)
Left Ventricular Dysfunction

Ejection Fraction < 30% 2-3 (chronic)
Following embolic event despite anticoagulation 2-3 (chronic)
plus ASA 81 mg
Myocardial Infarction (MI)

Following anterior MI 2-3 (1-3 months)
Following MI with continued risk factors 2-3 (chronic)
(Afib, LV dysfunction, CHF, mural thrombosis, history of embolism)
Thromboembolism (DVT, PE)

Treatment/prevention of recurrence 2-3 (3 months)
(reversible or time-limited risk factors)
Treatment/prevention of recurrence 2-3 (6 months)
(first episode of idiopathic thrombus)
Continued presence of risk factors 2-3 (12 months-
(AT-III, protein C or S deficiency, malignancy) chronic)
Symptomatic calf vein thrombosis 2-3 (6-12 weeks)
Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis (high risk surgery) 2-3
Optimal Therapeutic Range for Oral Anticoagulation
Indication INR
Valvular Disease
Aortic valve disease
with concurrent mitral valve disease 2-3 (chronic)
with associated atrial fibrillation 2-3 (chronic)
Mitral annular calcification
with history of systemic embolization 2-3 (chronic)
Mitral valve prolapse
with history of TIA despite Aspirin therapy 2-3 (chronic)
s/p embolic event despite anticoagulation 2-3 (chronic)
plus ASA 325 mg
Patent foramen ovale/atrial septal anuerysm
with history of TIA 2-3 (chronic)
Rheumatic mitral valve disease
with left atrial diameter > 5.5 cm 2-3 (chronic)
s/p embolic event despite anticoagulation 2.5-3.5 (chronic) or
2-3 (chronic) plus
ASA 81 mg or
clopidogrel 75mg
Valve Replacement
Mechanical valve prosthesis 2.5-3.5 (chronic)
(tilting disk valves, bileaflet mechanical valves in the
mitral position or aortic position with atrial fibrillation)
Bileaftet aortic mechanical valve 2-3 (chronic)
(provided normal sinus rhythm, normal ejection fraction,
and normal sized atrium)
Mechanical valve following systemic embolization or risk factors 2.5-3.5(chronic)
(Concurrent atrial fibrillation, history of systemic plus ASA 81 mg
embolization left atrial thrombus,
severe left ventricular dysfunction)
Tissue valve prosthesis 2-3 (3 months)
Tissue valve with history of systemic embolization 2.5-3 (3-12 months)
Tissue valve with atrial fibrillation or pacemaker 2-3 (chronic)
Unfractionated Heparin
Mechanism of Action
- Binds to and causes conformational change in anti-thrombin III thereby accelerating
inactivation of activated clotting factors IIa (thrombin), IXa, Xa, XIa and XIIa,
subsequently halting coagulation.
- Low dose predominantly affects factor Xa (prophylaxis)
- Full-dose predominantly affects factor IIa (thrombin) (established clot)
Pharmacokinetics
Unfractionated Heparin (IV or SQ):
Absorption (SQ): completely absorbed (at treatment doses); peak concentrations at 2-4 hrs
Distribution: primarily intravascular
Half-life: 90 minutes (range 0.5-2 hours)
- Mean time to steady state = 6 hours (3-5 half-lives)
- Increases with larger doses (non-linear)
- Decreases with PE, massive thrombus, or new clot (increased clearance)
Metabolism: degraded by reticuloendothelial system
- No dose adjustment necessary for hepatic or renal dysfunction
- Not significantly affected by dialysis
Prophylaxis Dosing
General Surgery / Medicine Patients
- Unfractionated enoxaparin 40mg SQ q24hrs (preferable if eGFR > 30 mL/min) or heparin
(UFH) 5000 units sq q8h or q12h
Overlapping with Oral Anticoagulation:

Oral anticoagulation (e.g. warfarin) should typically be started on Day 1 of enoxaparin or heparin
treatment and should be continued along with warfarin for a minimum of five days and until the
INR is within the desired therapeutic range on 2 consecutive occasions at least 24 hours apart.
Therapeutics Unfractionated Heparin Protocols using Anti-Xa Monitoring:

- Refer to UK CareWeb Anticoagulation Stewardship Site link in the OrderSets/Protocols
section for current heparin protocol information since may have been updated since this
was updated.
Heparin Reversal Recommendations

Protamine
- Binds to heparin forming a stable complex devoid of anticoagulant activity.
- Reserved for patients with clinically significant bleeding episodes while receiving heparin
therapy. The drug is not indicated in cases of minor bleeding as withdrawal of heparin
will generally result in correction of bleeding within several hours.
- Use with supportive care of the patient and possible transfusion therapy.
- Dosing
o 1 mg of protamine will reverse approximately 100 units of heparin
o Initial doses rarely exceed 50mg
- Infusion related adverse effects including hypotension and bradycardia can be
minimized by extending the infusion time (10 minutes)
- Follow-up anti-Xa should be drawn 15 min post-dose to assess response
Enoxaparin
Mechanism of Action
- Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) derived from porcine heparin with an average
molecular weight of 4500 daltons.
- Both heparin and LMWH binds to and causes a conformational change in anti-thrombin
III thereby accelerating inactivation of activated clotting factors. Due to its smaller size,
enoxaparin preferentially inhibits factor Xa, with an anti-Xa:anti-IIa ratio of 3.6:1.
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption (SQ)
- 90% absorbed by subcutaneous route
- Peak anti-factor Xa activity 3-5 hours after injection
Distribution
- Similar to intravascular volume
Elimination
- Primarily renal, follows linear, first order kinetics
Half-Life (based on anti-factor Xa activity)
- 6 hours (multiple doses)
- Prolonged in patients with renal insufficiency due to decreased clearance
Prophylaxis Dosing
40 mg SQ every 24 hours
- General Surgery / Medicine patients
- Orthopedic hip replacement
30 mg SQ every 12 hours
- Orthopedic Trauma patients
- Orthopedic knee replacement
Treatment Dosing
1 mg/kg SQ every 12 hours (Actual body weight)

- DVT/PE treatment
- Unstable angina and NSTEMI
- Bridge therapy to warfarin
- 1mg/kg SQ bid preferred in following patients
o Proximal DVT
o Obesity
o Hypercoagulable state
o Increased bleeding risk
1.5 mg/kg SQ every 24 hours
- DVT/PE treatment
Monitoring
Not generally necessary
- May be considered in special populations. Those at extremes of body weight or with
renal insufficiency (defined as Clcr < 30 ml/min).
- Limited data are available that correlate a specific anti-factor Xa range to antithrombotic
activity or bleeding risk. Appropriate surrogate marker of antithrombotic effect when the
clinical situation dictates monitoring.
Anti-factor Xa levels
- Concentrations measured by the clinical lab daily
- Collect peak concentration 3-5 hours after the subcutaneous dose
- Enoxaparin should be at steady state to account for accumulation, typically prior to third
dose
- Therapeutic Range (peak concentration):
o 0.6-1.2 Unit/ml (1mg/kg dosing)
Dosage adjustment
- Changes in dose can be calculated by using a ratio of dose and anti-factor Xa level
o Assumes current Xa level is at steady state
o Goal Xa level for treatment doses in therapeutic range
New Dose = (Current Dose) · (Goal anti-factor Xa level)

Current anti-factor Xa level
Renal Insufficiency
 Enoxaparin is primarily eliminated renally. Its use in patients with severe renal dysfunction
will prolong the elimination half-life and may increase bleeding risk.
 Inverse correlation exists between Clcr and anti-factor Xa levels. Patients with severe renal
impairment (Clcr < 30 ml/min) require dosage adjustment due to reduced clearance.
- Prophylaxis dosing: Enoxaparin 30mg SQ daily
- Treatment dosing: Enoxaparin 1mg/kg SQ daily
 UFH is recommended for dialysis patients or patients with renal insufficiency at high risk of
bleeding.
Extremes of Body Weight
Underweight (<45 kg): Consider monitoring anti-factor Xa levels

Obesity: No dosage adjustment is necessary in patients with a BMI < 40 kg/m2. Data on the
use and monitoring of enoxaparin in patients >150 kg is limited. Capping the enoxaparin dose
at 150 mg for patients > 150 kg should NOT be done.
- Peak concentrations may be delayed in this population (4-6 hours)
- When compared to non-obese patients, overall exposure at steady state was 16%
higher in obese population receiving the same weight-based dose (1.5mg/kg daily).
Use with caution in patients > 150kg
- Consider treatment with UFH in these patients
- If LMWH used, consider dose adjustment with anti-factor Xa monitoring.
Enoxaparin Reversal Recommendations
Protamine
- Reverses the antithrombin activity of enoxaparin but ≤ 60% of the anti-Xa activity.
o No accepted method available to neutralize all effects of enoxaparin
- Reserved for patients with clinically significant bleeding episodes while receiving
enoxaparin therapy. Reversal may be incomplete due to lack of anti-factor Xa
neutralization. Use with supportive care of the patient and possible transfusion therapy.
- Dosing (within 8 hours of SQ dose)
o 1 mg of protamine will reverse approximately 100 anti-factor Xa units (1 mg of
enoxaparin = 100 anti-factor Xa units).
o Repeat dose of protamine 0.5 mg per 100 anti-factor Xa units may be given if
bleeding continues.
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors (Intravenous Therapy)
Argatroban
Mechanism of Action
- A direct, selective thrombin inhibitor. Reversibly binds to the active thrombin site of free
and clot-associated thrombin. Inhibits fibrin formation; activation of coagulation factors V,
VIII, and XIII; protein C; and platelet aggregation.
Pharmacokinetics
Immediate onset with IV infusion
Metabolism
- Hepatic
- requires initial dosage adjustment in patients with moderate to severe hepatic
dysfunction
Half-Life
- 40 minutes
- Prolonged in patients with hepatic insufficiency due to decreased clearance
Treatment (initial dosing)

General Considerations
- Initial doses based on using actual body weight
- See argatroban protocol for additional dosing adjustment and monitoring
recommendations
Management of Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT)
- Initial Infusion rate - Standard
o 2 mcg/kg/min
- Initial Infusion rate - Critically ill patient
o 0.5-1 mcg/kg/min
- Initial Infusion rate – moderate-severe hepatic insufficiency (Child-Pugh score >6)
o 0.5 mcg/kg/min
Monitoring
Baseline LFTs and PT/INR

- assess hepatic function prior to initiation
- Patients with hepatic dysfunction may exhibit prolonged half-lives
Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)
- Collect 2 hours after initiationthen every 4 hours (after rate changeor if in range) until two
consecutively in range, and then daily with AM labs. Adjust per protocol
Argatroban Interaction with INR

Argatroban can cause an elevation in INR beyond that seen with warfarin alone (reversal with
vitamin K and/or Fresh Froze Plasma is not necessary)
 Collect baseline INR prior to initiation of infusion and again once on argatroban
prior to initiation of warfarin
 Accurate INR can be obtained by holding argatroban infusion for approx 4 hours
prior to checking INR (Refer to argatroban to warfarin conversion guidelines)
Bivalirudin
Mechanism of Action
Specific and reversible direct thrombin inhibitor; it binds to the catalytic and anionic exosite of
both circulating and clot-bound thrombin. Inhibits coagulant effects by preventing thrombin-
mediated cleavage of fibrinogen to fibrin monomers, and activation of factors V, VIII, and XIII.
Pharmacokinetics
Immediate onset with IV infusion
Elimination
- Proteolytic cleavage
- Renal - requires initial dosage adjustment in patients with severe renal dysfunction, CrCl
< 30 ml/min
Half-Life
- 25 minutes
- Prolonged in patients with severe renal insufficiency
Treatment (initial dosing)

General Considerations
- Initial doses based on using actual body weight
- See bivalirudin protocol for dosing adjustment and monitoring recommendations
Management of Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT)
- Initial Infusion rate - Standard
o 0.2 mg/kg/hr
- Initial Infusion rate - Critically ill patient
o 0.1 mg/kg/hr
- Renal insufficiency
o 0.08–0.12 mg/kg/hour (CrCl 30–60 ml/min)
o 0.05–0.08 mg/kg/hour (CrCl below 30 ml/min, also consider argatroban
Kiser et. al. Safety, efficacy, and dosing requirements of bivalirudin in patients with heparin-induced
thrombocytopenia. Pharmacotherapy Vol. 28 (9), 2008 1115-1124
Management of Acute Coronary Syndrome

- Prior to PCI (management on the floor)
o Initial Bolus: 0.1 mg/kg followed by 0.25 mg/kg/hr infusion until PCI
o No aPTT/ACT monitoring necessary if < 48hrs
o Should not be used for this indication if CrCl < 30 ml/min
- Management of PCI (For use IN CATH LAB ONLY)
o Larger initial bolus (0.75 mg/kg) followed by CI (>1.7 mg/kg/hr) for duration of
catheterization and up to 4 hours post procedure.
Monitoring
Baseline serum creatinine
- assess creatinine clearance prior to initiation
Management of HIT or prolonged infusion: Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)
- Collect 2 hours after initiationthen every 4 hours (after rate change or if in range) until
two consecutively in range, and then daily with AM labs. Adjust per protocol
DTI Reversal
No antidote or reversal agent is available for direct thrombin inhibitors
- Bivalirudin and dabigatran are removed via hemodialysis/filtration and can be
considered in patients actively bleeding with elevated aPTT (Argatroban is not
significantly removed)
- Consider fresh frozen plasma (FFP), FEIBA, or Factor VII for refractory/life threatening
bleeding
Adult Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) Guidelines
HIT should be considered in patients exhibiting a decrease in platelet count after 5 days of
receiving a heparin/LMWH product (may be seen much sooner if previous exposure to heparin),
and one of the following:
o Platelet count of less than 150000/μL OR 50% drop in baseline platelet count
o Development of a new arterial or venous thrombus
o Inflammation or necrosis at heparin injection site
o Patient with previous documented HIT or heparin induced thrombocytopenia
thrombotic syndrome (HITTS) requiring treatment
Initial Assessment and labs:

o Discontinue all heparin/LMWH products (IV, SC, flushes, and coated catheters
o Collect HIT assay (ELISA), preferably >4 hrs after heparin discontinued.
o May collect earlier if lab turnaround time will be significantly improved.
o Collect baseline CMP (renal and hepatic function) and CBC
o Collect baseline aPTT, INR/PT
o Consider initiation of treatment for suspected HIT/HITTS (see below)
The decision to administer DTI therapy for HIT is based on a clinical-pathologic diagnosis
Clinical probability can be assessed using the 4T scoring system below:
• Consider HIT in patients with intermediate to high probability
The “4 Ts” Estimation of pretest probability of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

Points*
2 1 0
Thrombocytopenia > 50% platelet fall to 30-50% platelet fall, or <30% platelet fall, or
nadir >20 nadir 10-19 nadir <10
Timing of onset of Days 5-10, or < 1 day > 10 days or timing < Day 4 (no recent
platelet fall with recent heparin unclear, or < 1 day with heparin)
(past 30 days) recent heparin (past 31-
100 days)
Thrombosis Proven new Progressive or recurrent None
thrombosis, skin thrombosis,
necrosis, or acute erythematous skin
systemic reaction leasions, suspected
after IV UFH bolus thrombosis (unproven)
Other causes of None evident Possible Definite
platelet fall
Pretest probability scores: 6-8 indicates high; 4-5 intermediate; and 0-3 low.
Warkentin TE, Heddle NM. Laboratory Diagnosis of Immune Heparin-induced Thrombocytopenia. Curr Hematol
Rep; 2003, 2:148-157.
Laboratory tests for HIT should be interpreted within the context of the clinical probability
assessment obtained from the 4T scoring system :
o Collect HIT assay (ELISA)
o Positive – Possible HIT, consider direct thrombin inhibitor (DTI)
 If available, consider optical density value in the interpretation of positive
ELISA
• Optical density (OD) value of 0.4-1.0 are associated with a
relatively low risk of HIT and should be interpreted within the
context of the clinical estimate for the probability of HIT
• OD value of >1 demonstrate nearly a 6-fold increased risk of
thrombosis over those less than 1.
o Negative – HIT diagnosis very unlikely consider other causes for
thrombocytopenia, DTI NOT INDICATED
o Serotonin release assay (SRA) should be sent to confirm ALL positive Elisa
Guidelines for initiation of DTI
4T Score/risk for HIT ELISA Result Interpretation Action

Low Positive Evaluate OD value Discuss options
Negative Low probability DTI not indicated
Intermediate Positive Intermediate prob, Initiate DTI
Negative eval OD DTI not indicated
Low probability
High Positive High probability Initiate DTI
Negative Low probability DTI not indicated
unless thrombosis
Initial treatment for HIT/HITTS:

UKCMC Preferred agent based on indication
Argatroban Bivalirudin Fondiparinux*
HIT / HITTS X X
HIT w/ hepatic X
insufficiency
HIT w/ renal X
insufficiency
HIT and PCI X
HIT and CABG X
Subacute HIT and X
VTE prophylaxis
*Fondaparinux should not be used in acute HIT, but may be considered for management of
patients with previous HIT diagnosis requiring anticoagulation
Warfarin is not indicated as initial therapy and should be withheld until platelet count resolves.
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors (DTI):

o Argatroban continuous IV infusion, initial rate of 2 mcg/kg/min
o Requires dosage adjustment in patients with hepatic insufficiency, (Child-Pugh
score >6) initial dose 0.5 mcg/kg/min, or critically ill patients, initial dose 0.5-1
mcg/kg/min.
OR
o Bivalirudin continuous IV infusion, initial rate of 0.2 mg/kg/hr
o Requires dosage adjustment in patients with renal insufficiency (Clcr < 60
ml/min) or critically ill patients (see above)
OR
Factor Xa Inhibitor (hematology/oncology consultation required):

o Fondaparinux (Arixtra®), therapeutic weight based dosing (actual body weight)
o <50 kg: 5 mg SC once daily
o 50-100 kg: 7.5 mg SC once daily
o >100 kg: 10 mg SC once daily
o Contraindicated in patients with a Clcr < 30 ml/min
o Assess patient for appropriateness of SC route and use of agent with long half-life
o Monitor CBC to assess platelet count and evidence of bleeding
Routine labs/monitoring (direct thrombin inhibitors):

o Collect aPTT 2 hours after initiation of therapy
o Adjust direct thrombin inhibitor (DTI) dose according to nomogram to achieve a goal
aPTT of 1.5-2.5x baseline, capping the aPTT target range at 80 seconds.
o Collect aPTT 2 hours after initiation of infusion then every 4 hours.
o After 2 consecutive aPTTs in the therapeutic range, collect aPTT daily
o Monitor CBC daily to assess platelet count and evidence of bleeding
This is not intended as a nurse-managed protocol
Argatroban nomogram for HIT Bivalirudin nomogram for HIT

aPTT based on goal range of 1.5-2.5x baseline aPTT based on goal range of 1.5-2.5x baseline
(See above for initial rate) (See above for initial rate)
aPTT Dosage Adjustment aPTT Dosage Adjustment
<1.2x control increase rate by 40% <1.2x control increase rate by 40%
1.2-1.5x control increase rate by 20% 1.2-1.5x control increase rate by 20%
1.5 – 2.5x control No Change 1.5 – 2.5x control No Change
(upper limit 80) (upper limit 80)
2.5 – 4x control 2.5 – 4x control decrease rate by 20%
decrease rate by 20% (less than100)
(less than100)
Hold for 1 hour, reassess Hold for 1 hour, reassess
>4x control or >4x control or
aPTT; decrease rate by aPTT; decrease rate by
aPTT > 100 aPTT > 100
50% once aPTT < 100 50% once aPTT < 100
Initiation of warfarin:
o Should be held until platelet count returns to above 150000/μL
o Combined therapy of a DTI with warfarin should be continued for a minimum of 4 days and
until the INR is in the desired range
o Argatroban can cause an elevation in INR beyond that seen with warfarin alone (reversal
with vitamin K not necessary)
o Collect baseline INR on argatroban prior to initiation of warfarin
o Refer to argatroban to warfarin conversion guidelines
Argatroban to warfarin conversion guidelines

Patient with HIT on argatroban
titrate to aPTT of 50-80s; send baseline INR
After patient is stabilized, check platelets; if within normal limits initiate warfarin
Add warfarin therapy not exceed 5 mg;

Continue at least 4 days of combination therapy.
Collect daily INR
For INR is < 4, continue For INR is > 4,

concomitant therapy and stop argatroban infusion,
consider increasing and repeat INR with aPTT
warfarin dose in 4-6 hours
If INR and aPTT If INR is below

are in therapeutic therapeutic range*,
range*, continue resume argatroban
warfarin combination therapy
monotherapy
* Supratherapeutic aPTT may indicate Argatroban effects on INR are still present.
**Falsely elevated. Do not give Vit K for increased INR, only give if bleeding, s/s hemorrhage, etc.
DTIs directly interfere with PT/INR.
Patients with HIT/HITTS Undergoing Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI)
Bivalirudin Dosing (CATH LAB ONLY)

o Patient currently on infusion of bivalirudin
o Initial bolus of bivalirudin 0.5 mg/kg, increase infusion rate to 1.75 mg/kg/hr
o Patient not currently on infusion of bivalirudin
o Initial bolus of bivalirudin 0.75 mg/kg, initiate infusion rate of 1.75 mg/kg/hr
o Check activated clotting time (ACT) 5 minutes after bolus
o If less than 225s, give additional 0.3 mg/kg bolus
o Continue infusion for up to 4 hours post-procedure
o If additional anticoagulation is necessary for bridging to warfarin or other indication,
continue at a rate of 0.2 mg/kg/hr
o Adjust according to nomogram to achieve goal aPTT of 1.5-2.5x baseline.
Patients with HIT/HITTS Undergoing On-Pump Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery
Bivalirudin:
o 1 mg/kg IV bolus, followed by 2.5 mg/kg/hr infusion for the duration of the procedure
o In addition, bivalirudin 50 mg is added to the pump prime
o Discontinue infusion 15 min prior to expected separation from CPB
o Goal to maintain ACT > 2.5-times baseline
o Administer additional 0.1-0.5 mg/kg boluses if subtherapeutic
* Infusion rate may need to be reduced by as much as 50% in patients with renal insufficiency
(Clcr < 30 ml/min) or critically ill patients
Patients with HIT/HITTS Undergoing Off-Pump Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery

(OPCAB)
Bivalirudin:
o 0.75 mg/kg IV bolus, starting dose of 1.75 mg/kg/hr infusion for the duration of the
procedure
o Goal to maintain ACT above 300 seconds
o Adjust infusion rate by 0.25 mg/kg/hr increments to maintain ACT within desired
range
* Reduce initial infusion rate by 50% in patients with renal insufficiency (Clcr < 30
ml/min)
Patients required VTE prophylaxis with history of HIT or patients with resolved
HIT/HITTS:
Factor Xa Inhibitor:
o Fondaparinux 2.5 mg SC daily
o Caution in patients with a CrCl < 30 ml/min
o Monitor CBC daily to assess platelet count and evidence of bleeding
Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs) - (apixaban, dabigatran, edoxaban,
rivaroxaban)
Dabigatran Rivaroxaban Apixaban Edoxaban

(Pradaxa) (Xarelto) (Eliquis) (Salvaysa)
Direct Factor IIa Direct Factor Xa Direct Factor Xa Direct Factor Xa

Drug Class
Inhibitor Inhibitor Inhibitor Inhibitor
Initial US
Approval 2010 2011 2012 2015
Year
Reduce risk of
stroke in Reduce risk of Reduce risk of
Reduce risk of
NONVALVULAR stroke in stroke in
stroke in
atrial fibrillation NONVALVULAR NONVALVULAR
NONVALVULAR
(SPAF) atrial fibrillation atrial fibrillation
atrial fibrillation
Approved Reduce risk of (SPAF) (SPAF)
(SPAF)
Indication recurrence of VTE Prophylaxis DVT/PE
VTE Prophylaxis
DVT/PE for hip/knee treatment after
for hip/knee
DVT/PE treatment replacement parenteral
replacement
after parenteral DVT/PE Treatment anticoagulant for
DVT/PE treatment
anticoagulant for 5- (2014) 5-10 days
10 days
Not approved on
UK Approved for SPAF formulary except
Approved for SPAF Approved for SPAF
Formulary and continuation of for continuation
and acute and acute
Status home medication of home
treatment of VTE treatment of VTE
(June 2015) for VTE medication as
non-formulary
Need to consider indication, age, renal/liver function, body weight, and drug-drug
interactions when determining appropriate dosage.
See below for general dosing recommendation but refer to manufacturer

recommendations for specific recommendations, warnings, precautions, and drug-
Dosing drug interactions.
For any assistance with DOAC benefit/risk assessment, determination of

appropriate indication, dosing, or reversal management; please consider
consulting UK HealthCare Anticoagulation Consult Service at 330-2093.
General Dosing information per manufacturer recommendations for DOACs:
Nonvalvular Atrial VTE Prevention for VTE Treatment or
Fibrillation HIP or Knee Reduction in Risk of
Replacement Recurrence
Surgery
Dabigatran Clcr ≥ 30 ml/min: 150mg BID; Clcr≥30 mL/min: 150 mg
(Pradaxa) Clcr 15-30 ml/min or 30-50 ml/min BID after 5-10 days of
and strong P-gp inhibitor: 75mg BID parenteral anticoagulation
Clcr <50 mL/min with Clcr <30 ml/min: No
concomitant use of P-gp recommendations
inhibitors: Avoid co-administration Clcr <50 mL/min with
Clcr < 15: Avoid use concomitant use of P-gp
inhibitors: Avoid co-
administration
Rivaroxaban Clcr > 50 ml/min: 20mg daily; Clcr≥30 mL/min: Clcr≥30 mL/min: Clcr 15mg
(Xarelto) Clcr 15-50 ml/min: 15mg daily; 10mg daily BID x 21 days then 20mg
Clcr < 15 ml/min: Avoid use Clcr <30 ml/min: daily
Avoid use Clcr <30 ml/min: Avoid use
Apixaban 5mg twice BID; 2.5mg BID 10mg BID X 7 days then
(Eliquis) Dose adjusted to 2.5mg BID if the 5mg BID
patient is taking a strong dual Prevention: 2.5mg BID
inhibitor of CYP3A4 and P-gp, or has
two or more of: ≥80 years age, body
weight ≤60 kg, or Scr ≥ 1.5 mg/dL
Edoxaban 60 mg once daily in patients with N/A 60 mg once daily

(Savaysa) CrCL >50 to ≤ 95 mL/min. 30 mg once daily for
Do not use in patients with CrCL > patients with CrCL 15-50
95 mL/min mL/min or body weight less
Reduce dose to 30 mg once daily in than or equal to 60 kg or
patients with creatinine clearance 15 who use certain P-gp
to inhibitors
50 mL/min
For any assistance with DOAC benefit/risk assessment, determination of appropriate

indication, dosing, or reversal management; please consider consulting UK HealthCare
Anticoagulation Consult Service at 330-2093.
VTE PROPHYLAXIS ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
All adult patients are assessed at the point of admission for their individualized risk for
venous thromboembolism (VTE). Clinicians will be asked to utilize their judgment at
times to ensure that all patients are assessed to ensure sufficient and safe prophylaxis
orders.
Procedure:
VTE risk assessment completion
1. The physician will be prompted to complete the assessment upon patient
admission as a component of the admission order set.
2. Physician is ultimately responsible for completing initial assessment for every
patient with admission orders to the hospital.
Components of the risk assessment form: (user will be prompted to complete
each of the following)
1. VTE risk Category (See table below for risk assessment and suggested
therapies)
a. Low risk
b. Moderate Risk
c. High Risk
2. VTE chemical prophylaxis contraindications

a. Active bleeding
b. Coagulopathy / Severe Liver Disease
c. Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT)
d. Platelet Count < 20K without coagulopathy
e. LP, spinal injection or epidural catheter removal within past 2 hours
f. Multiple trauma with high bleeding risk
g. Other high risk for bleeding or active bleeding, (list:___)
3. Admission order set will preselect therapies based on defined risk and
presence of any contraindications. Prescribers have the option to override
these selections prior to submission of the order.
a. Low risk = no selection of VTE prophylaxis
b. Moderate risk = heparin 5000 units SQ q8h
c. High risk = enoxaparin 30 mg SQ q12h (q24h if eGFR < 30 ml/min)
d. Selection of a contraindication will replace chemical prophylaxis
with an order for sequential compression devices
Risk Assessment Guideline for Medical Patients:
Patients with limited mobility and at least one additional risk factor: consider VTE
prophylaxis (moderate to high risk)
UK HealthCare VTE PROPHYLAXIS GUIDELINES - ADULTS

Medical Patients VTE Risk Assessment
Risk Factors
-Acute medical illness -Myeloproliferative disorders
-Age >65 years -Nephrotic syndrome
-Cancer (active or occult) -Obesity
-Cancer therapy (hormonal, chemo- or radio- -Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
therapy, angiogenesis inhibitors) -Pregnancy and post-partum period
-Estrogen-based oral contraceptives or hormone -Previous venous thromboembolism
replacement therapy -Selective estrogen receptor modulators
-Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents -Smoking
-Immobility, lower-extremity paresis -Surgery
-Indwelling central venous catheter -Trauma (major or lower extremity)
-Inflammatory bowel disease -Venous compression (tumor, hematoma, arterial
-Inherited or acquired thrombophilia abnormality)
Contraindications
-Coagulopathy -Lumbar puncture, spinal injection, or epidural
-Severe liver disease catheter removal within past 2 hours
-Heparin induced thrombocytopenia -Multiple trauma with high bleeding risk
-Platelet count <20,000 without coagulopathy -Other (free text field)
Low Risk Moderate Risk High Risk

-Mobile medical patients -Medical patients with -Hip or knee
or minor surgery limited mobility and one arthroplasty
Population at Risk patients risk factor -Hip fracture surgery
-Perceived admit <48 -Most general surgery -Major trauma
hours patients -Spinal cord injury
-Enoxaparin 40 mg SQ -Enoxaparin 30 mg SQ
-No specific daily (preferred if eGFR q12h
recommendation > 30 mL/min
Suggested Therapy -Order for ambulation -Heparin 5,000 units SQ -Enoxaparin 40 mg SQ
-With SCDs q8h daily
-With or without SCDs -Heparin 5,000 units SQ
q8h
-With SCDs
Patients at moderate to high risk with bleeding risk should receive mechanical thromboprophylaxis.
Dosing adjustment should be considered for enoxaparin in patients with renal insufficiency (CrCl <30
mL/min) and should be considered in morbidly obese patients (BMI >40 kg/m2).
VTE=venous thromboembolism, SCDs=sequential compression devices, SQ=subcutaneously, q8h=every
8 hours, q12h=every 12 hours, CrCl=creatinine clearance, BMI=body mass index
Surgical Patient VTE Risk Assessment
References (Warfarin)
1. Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: ACCP Evidence Based
Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012
2. Hirsh J, Fuster V, Ansell J, Halperin J. American Heart Association/American College of
Cardiology foundation guide to warfarin therapy. JACC 2003;41:1633-52.
3. Harrison L, Johnson M, Massicote MP, et al. Comparison of 5 mg and 10 mg loading doses
of warfarin therapy. Ann Intern Med 1997;126:133-6.
4. Kovacs M, Rodger M, Anderson D, et al. Comparison of 10 mg and 5 mg warfarin initiation
nomograms together with low-molecular-weight heparin for outpatient treatment of acute
venous thromboembolism. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:714-719.
5. Dager W. Initiating warfarin therapy. Ann Pharmacother 2003;37:905-8.
References (Heparin/Enoxaparin)
Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012 141:2 suppl e24S-e43S
2. Brill-Edwards P, Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J et al. Establishing a therapeutic range for heparin.
Ann Intern Med. 1993; 119:104-109.
3. Weitz JI. Low-molecular-weight heparins. NEJM 1997; 337(10):688-98.
4. Fareed J, Hoppensteadt D, Sheikh T et al. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic
properties of enoxaparin. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003; 42(12):1043-57.
5. Chow SL, Zammit K, West K, et al. Correlation of antifactor Xa concentrations with renal
function in patients on enoxaparin. J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 43:586-90.
6. Kruse MW, Lee JJ. Retrospective evaluation of a pharmacokinetic program for adjusting
enoxaparin in renal impairment. Am Heart J 2004; 148:582-9.
7. Sanderink G, Liboux AL, Miro A. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of enoxaprin in
obese volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002;72:308-18.
References (Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia)

Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012;141:2 suppl e495S-e530S.
2. Warkentin TE. New approaches to the diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.
Chest 2005;127(2 Suppl):35S-45S.
3. Kelton JG. The pathophysiology of heparin induced thrombocytopenia: biological basis for
treatment. Chest 2005:127(2 Suppl):9S-20S.
4. Dyke CM, Smedira NG, Speiss BD et al. A comparison of bivalirudin to heparin with
protamine reversal in patients undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass:
EVOLUTION-ON. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2006; 131:533-9
5. Smeira NG, Dyke CM, Aronson S, et al. Anticoagulation with bivalirudin for off-pump
coronary artery bypass grafting: EVOLUTION-OFF. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2006;
131:686-92.
Additional references available upon request.

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CLINICAL

Revised January 2017

Section Editors (Edition 37-now)

Aaron M. Cook, PharmD, BCPS

Donna Burgess, PharmD

Editions 1-19 (1987-97)

UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY HOSPITAL POLICY NUMBER: PH-02-05

SUBJECT: Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service Policy/Procedures

GENERAL: The Clinical Pharmacokinetics Service (CPS) Guidelines were developed to

TDM Notification of Supratherapeutic Concentrations

Documentation in the Patient Medical Record

Pharmacy to Dose Orders

UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY HOSPITAL POLICY NUMBER:

Supratherapeutic Lower Limit of Upper Limit of

Supratherapeutic Lower Limit of Upper Limit of

Nonlinear or Michaelis-Menten pharmacokinetics:

• As dose increases, a disproportionately greater increase in plasma concentration is

• Relationship between K, Vd, and Cl:

• Renal Clearance (ClRen)

ClRen = ClGFR + ClTS - ClTR

• Elimination t½ = time required for serum concentration to decrease by ½ after

• K = fraction of the drug in the body eliminated over time:

• 1-compartment model with first-order elimination following IV bolus:

Cartesian graph paper

2. Peak concentrations are obtained post-distributional to fit a 1-cpt model so the

3. Concentrations are obtained at steady-state so accumulation must be considered using

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PHARMACOKINETIC MONITORING

I. When a patient is on a monitorable drug

B. Avoid problems with interpretation of upcoming concentrations by:

1. Obtaining the concentration at steady-state if possible.

II. When a concentration is obtained

C. Calculate the appropriate pharmacokinetic parameters and compare with

D. Write concise notes including kinetic parameters on all concentrations, whether

Remember… appropriate documentation will:

Pharmacist’s primary responsibilities in PCare:

Clinical Pharmacokinetics role in PCare:

Pharmacist’s Role in Clinical Pharmacokinetic Monitoring

• Designing patient-specific drug dosage regimens based on pharmacologic

GENERAL EQUATIONS for BSA, IBW, and Clcr

Equation for Ideal Body Weight (IBW):

IBW (male, kg) = 50 + (2.3 x ea. inch over 5 ft)

Estimation of GFR using serum creatinine (Scr)

Estimation of GFR using Cockcroft-Gault Equation:

• Most commonly used equation for estimating GFR in clinical practice

[146-Age] x [(0.287 x Wt) + (9.74 x Ht 2 )]

Estimation of GFR by calculating Clcr from 24-hour urine collection:

MDRD study equation:

Abbreviated MDRD study equation (ml/min/1.73m2 ):

Estimation of Clcr in Pediatrics:

AMINOGLYCOSIDES - CONVENTIONAL DOSING

2. Recommended Frequency of Sampling

a. Routine Use In "Uncomplicated" Patients

 initial Cpk and Ctr

b. Use in “Complicated” patients (e.g., diminished or changing hydration status

 initial Cpk and Ctr at steady state

 Scr and BUN daily

3. Therapeutic Range (Conventional Dosing)*

- Primarily used as double coverage or synergy with β-lactams for aerobic

- Can be used for synergy with some gram-positive infections (e.g.