Assignment On Management Process and Organization Behavior
Assignment On Management Process and Organization Behavior
Assignment On Management Process and Organization Behavior
ASSIGNMENT ON
MANAGEMENT
PROCESS AND
ORGANIZATION
BEHAVIOR
BY RAHUL GUPTA
know how to manage the workers than to know how to do their work well. A manager
may have the power to hire or fire employees or to promote them. In larger companies, a
manager may only recommend such action to the next level of management. The
manager has the authority to change the work assignments of team members. A
manager's title reflects what he/she is responsible for. An Accounting Manager supervises
the Accounting function. An Operations Manager is responsible for the operations of the
company. The Manager of Design Engineering supervises engineers and support staff
engaged in design of a product or service. A Night Manager is responsible for the
activities that take place at night. There are many management functions in business and,
therefore, many manager titles. Regardless of title, the manager is responsible for
planning, directing, monitoring and controlling the people and their work.
Functions of Managers:
Managers just don't go out and haphazardly perform their responsibilities. Good
managers discover how to master five basic functions: planning, organizing, staffing,
leading, and controlling.
Organizing: After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize her team and
materials according to her plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two
important elements of organizing.
Staffing: After a manager discerns his area's needs, he may decide to beef up his
staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees. A manager in a
large organization often works with the company's human resources department to
accomplish this goal.
Leading: A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to
achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating,
guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and problem solve
with employees.
Controlling: After the other elements are in place, a manager's job is not finished.
He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any corrective actions
necessary to make sure that his area's plans remain on track.
All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the
amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of
management and the specific organization.
A manager wears many hats. Not only is a manager a team leader, but he or she is
also a planner, organizer, cheerleader, coach, problem solver, and decision maker —
all rolled into one. And these are just a few of a manager's roles.
In addition, managers' schedules are usually jam-packed. Whether they're busy with
employee meetings, unexpected problems, or strategy sessions, managers often find
little spare time on their calendars. (And that doesn't even include responding to e-
mail!)
In his classic book, The Nature of Managerial Work, Henry Mintzberg describes a set
of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories:
Although all three categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative
importance tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility.
Top management sets the goals of the organization, evaluates the overall
performance of various departments involved in selection of key personnel
and consults subordinate managers on subjects or problems of general scope.
Middle level management is responsible for developing departmental goals and
initiate actions that are required to achieve organizational objectives.
Supervisory management takes charge of day-to-day operations at the floor
level and is involved in preparing detailed short-range plans.
Planner
A Manager has to take a long-term view; indeed, the higher you rise, the further you will
have to look. While a team member will be working towards known and established
goals, the manager must look further ahead so that these goals are selected wisely. By
thinking about the eventual consequences of different plans, the manager selects the
optimal plan for the team and implements it. By taking account of the needs not only of
the next project but the project after that, the manager ensures that work is not repeated
nor problems tackled too late, and that the necessary resources are allocated and
arranged.
Provider
The Manager has access to information and materials which the team needs. Often he/she
has the authority or influence to acquire things which no one else in the team could. This
role for the manager is important simply because no one else can do the job; there is
some authority which the manager holds uniquely within the team, and the manager must
exercise this to help the team to work.
Protector
The team needs security from the vagaries of less enlightened managers. In any
company, there are short-term excitements which can deflect the work-force from the
important issues. The manager should be there to guard against these and to protect the
team. If a new project emerges which is to be given to your team, you are responsible for
costing it (especially in terms of time) so that your team is not given an impossible
deadline. If someone in your team brings forward a good plan, you must ensure that it
receives a fair hearing and that your team knows and understands the outcome. If
someone is in your team has a problem at work, you have to deal with it. I believe
anyone can be a good manager. It is as much trainable skill as it is inherent ability; as
much science as art. Here are some things that make you a better manager:
As a person:
You have confidence in yourself and your abilities. You are happy with whom
you are, but you are still learning and getting better.
You are something of an extrovert. You don’t have to be the life of the party, but
you can’t be a wallflower. Management is a people skill - it’s not the job for someone
who doesn’t enjoy people.
You are honest and straight forward. Your success depends heavily on the trust of
others.
You are an include not an excluder. You bring others into what you do. You don’t
exclude other because they lack certain attributes.
You have a ‘presence’. Managers must lead. Effective leaders have a quality
about them that makes people notice when they enter a room.
On the job:
You are consistent, but not rigid; dependable, but can change your mind. You
make decisions, but easily accept input from others.
You are a little bit crazy. You think out-of-the box. You try new things and if they
fail, you admit the mistake, but don’t apologize for having tried.
You are not afraid to “do the math”. You make plans and schedules and work
toward them.
You are nimble and can change plans quickly, but you are not flighty.
You see information as a tool to be used, not as power to be hoarded.
RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 6
MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Below is a list of the types of activities that managers undertake with regard to the job.
Read through the list and for each activity try to think of a specific example related to
your experience as a manager.
A manager:
Makes forecasts.
Analyses.
Thinks creatively and logically.
Calculates and weighs risks.
Makes decisions.
Determines goals.
Sets priorities.
Prepares plans.
Schedules activities.
Establishes control systems.
Sets and agrees budgets.
Monitors progress.
Exercises control.
Determines information needs.
Establishes and uses management information systems.
Manages his or her time.
Copes with stress.
Adjusts to change.
Develops his or her skills and knowledge.
Having looked at the manager with regard to the job you can now consider activities that
a manager may carry out with regard to the team. Read through the list and for each
activity try to think of a specific example related to your experience as a manager.
A manager:
Builds and maintains the team.
Selects staff.
Sets performance standards.
Designs jobs.
Improves the quality of working life.
Identifies team needs.
Provides opportunities for training and development.
Monitors and appraises performance.
Resolves conflicting objectives.
Adopts appropriate management styles.
Communicates effectively.
Negotiates, persuades and influences.
Makes presentations.
Conducts and participates in meetings.
Writes reports and correspondence.
Interviews.
Counsels and advises.
Appraises staff.
Develops team members.
Now turn your attention to activities that a manager may carry out with regard to the
organization. Again read through the list and for each activity try to think of a specific
example related to your experience as a manager.
Many of these activities are attributed to senior managers. Don't worry if you are unable
to relate some of these to your current role.
A manager:
Identifies organizational opportunities.
Sets organizational goals.
Identifies organizational problems.
Creates conditions for change.
Implements, manages and copes with change.
Designs new organization and team structures.
Establishes reporting lines.
Develops internal communication systems.
Takes account of environmental factors affecting the organization (economic,
technological, social, and political).
A. Technical Skills:
Technical skills include knowledge of and proficiency in certain specialized field, such
as engineering, computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more
important at lower level management since these managers are dealing directly with
employees doing the organizational work. Solid technical skills are becoming
increasingly important, and I don’t see that changing any time soon. While computers
have become easier to use in many ways, the leading edge is more complicated than
ever. This complexity scares many people away from developing their technical skills,
but let’s considers some of the reasons you may want to go beyond the basics. This
skill requires the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise to perform
particular tasks. Accountants, engineers, market researchers, and computer
scientists, as examples, possess technical skills. Managers acquire these skills
initially through formal education and then further develop them through training
and job experience. Technical skills are most important at lower levels of
management. These skills include the knowledge of and proficiency in activities
involving methods, processes and procedures. This includes the abilities of a manager
in using the knowledge, tools, and techniques of a specific discipline or field such as
accounting, engineering, manufacturing etc. Examples of such skills also include the
preparation of financial statements, the ability to develop a new code for the computer
program. These skills are needed for the first line managers, since they are responsible
for delivering the actual performance. First line managers also spend a considerable
amount of their time in training their subordinates.
Whether you’re employed or self-employed, strong technical skills allow you to leverage
technology to the hilt, and that leverage pays. The better you understand the technology
you use, the more value you can efficiently extract from it. People gladly open their
wallets to pay those with in-demand technical skills.
2. Save money.
You’ll save money every time you can solve a technical problem on your own instead of
having to hire someone at a high hourly rate. This can add up to substantial savings over
time. You can also save money by taking advantage of low-cost, high-tech solutions. For
example, using VOIP Internet phone service will save you a bundle over traditional
phone service, and it only takes a minor amount of technical skill to install. I actually
disconnected my whole house from the telephone company’s lines, so I could use all the
inside jacks for VOIP.
3. Save time.
You’ll save time by solving technical problems quickly instead of scratching your head in
confusion. There are many technical problems that baffle novices but which require only
a quick fix from someone with adequate technical skills.
4. Prevent problems.
5. Reduce frustration.
I don’t know many geeks who buy their computers at retail stores. It’s a lot smarter to
buy online if you know what to look for. You’ll get better value, higher quality
components, and more control over the final product.
A fun project I did in 2004 was to build my own PC from scratch. I handpicked each
component and ordered everything online. I built the equivalent of a $2000 retail PC for
about $900. I used Price Watch to find great deals on all the components, and I followed
the step-by-step assembly instructions from My Super PC. I’ve been very pleased with
its performance over the past couple years.
Since technology depreciates so rapidly, and since component quality can vary widely,
knowing how to buy great value at a great price is a very practical skill. With most
rapidly advancing components like CPUs, hard drives, and video cards, there’s a fairly
narrow price-performance sweet spot. Spend too little, and you’re throwing money away
on obsolescent goods. Spend too much, and you’re overpaying for imperceptible
performance gains. Decent technical knowledge can help you target those sweet spots
with all your technology purchases, so you get the best bang per buck.
7. Empower yourself.
I remember thinking how great it was in high school when I began using a decent word
processor while many other students were still using typewriters. Editing was certainly
much easier, so I got more done in less time.
Whenever you want to know something now, you can go online and get the information
in seconds. Sites like Google, Wikipedia, and Wiki How truly place information at your
fingertips, but it still takes a bit of technical skill to craft intelligent queries when you’re
searching for something obscure.
Need to buy a new suit? Want to see what movies are playing near you? Want to
become an early riser? If someone has figured it out, it’s probably online. With an
internet connection at hand, we all become walking Wikipedia’s.
This is one of the coolest benefits of technical know-how. With the right technical skills,
you can build your own income-generating web site. Your computer (or some online
server) will work tirelessly to make you money 24/7. Even if it just pays for your coffee,
that’s still better than buying your own coffee, isn’t it? If it fails, at least you learned
something, and you can certainly try again. But what if it really works? You might not
need a job for the rest of your life. That seems like a pretty good reason to go for it.
Given how disgustingly cheap technology is, I think it’s silly not to devote at least one of
the millions of machines on this planet to the task of paying your bills. Most computers
are just sitting there idle waiting for something to do, so put some of those resources to
good use. I’m not talking about getting VC money and trying to make the next Google.
My suggestion is to start a simple web business you can run by yourself in your spare
time with no expenses except web hosting (no more than $20/month).
I’ve been earning income online since 1995, and I love it. It does require some technical
skill to build an income-generating web site, but those skills are highly learnable, and it’s
a lot easier today than it was 10 years ago. (For example, see How to Make Money from
Your Blog). Sure I can write well enough, but without the technical skills to build traffic,
this site would be a ghost town. I do the creative work, technology handles the grunt
work, and visitors benefit from the value provided. It’s a pretty nice system.
Competence builds confidence. As you develop your technical skills, you’ll feel more
comfortable with all forms of technology. This will encourage you to branch out and
leverage technology even more. You can listen to audio books on your portable MP3
player, take pictures with your digital camera, and so on. You’ll feel in control of
technology instead of intimidated by it.
The more technical experience you gain, the faster you’ll adapt to new technology. You
may fall behind the curve at some point, but you’ll quickly catch up with a few days’
research.
B. Human Skills:
Human skills also referred to as human relation skills or interpersonal skills are one’s
ability to work effectively with others on a person-to-person basis and to build up
cooperative group relations to achieve specified objectives. In the group discussion
situation, your human skills will be reflected in your following actions. includes
his/her ability to understand other people and interact effectively with them.
Examples of such skills include leading, motivating and communicating, with
subordinates, peers and outsiders. Possession of these skills is essential for managers,
working in all levels. The human skills are also important in creation of an
environment in which people feel secure and free to express their opinions.
A. The basic tenets of human skills are that treat everyone in the group as equal, not
inferior, to you. This must be reflected by your words as well as body language.
B. Have positive attitudes towards fellow candidates. Your positive attitude will not
only be appreciated by other candidates but by evaluators too as people with positive
attitudes are appreciated by everyone. Though each of the candidates is your
competitor, do not treat them as your competitors but treat them as your colleagues and
have respect for them and their views.
C. When you listen to views of anyone, evaluate these empathetically, that is, putting
yourself in his position so that you can understand why he has those views. If you look
at the views from this perspective, you can appreciate the views in a better way though
it is not necessary that you agree with others’ views either totally or partially.
D. Show emotional maturity while interacting with others. If someone criticizes yours
views, do not take it on personal basis but take it on professional basis and keep
yourself cool and do not lose your temper.
E. If someone’s view seems to be absurd or irrelevant to the topic, do not let him down
by saying such words which are not in accordance to the etiquette of gentlemen.
C. Conceptual Skills:
Conceptual skills refer to the ability to form concepts. These are various levels of
cognitive (mainly verbal) abstractions beginning with the exercise of detonating simple
physical objects (e.g. a cat) to higher level abstractions which go beyond the physically
visible (e.g. truth). In everyday use, we also say someone has conceptual skills that are
able to look at patterns of objects and events and label them (with a concept word),
which identifies, organizes and makes sense of the pattern, trend, or configuration of
objects or events, with a putative explanatory intent.
Conceptual Skills are the skills managers must have to think and to conceptualize about
abstract and complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to see the
organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various subunits, and
visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment. These skills are most
important at the top level management. This refers to the ability to think and
conceptualize abstract situations. These abilities are required for making complex
decisions. Such skills are inclusive of the diagnostic skill, which enables an
understanding of the `cause-effect' relationship. Further, it helps to see the situation as a
whole, as well as in parts. (i.e., individually). These skills are essential for the top
management as they have to understand how the various parts of the organization relate
to one another and associate the organization with the external environment.
D. Design Skills:
It enables a manager to handle and solve any kind of unforeseen problems that may
crop up in the organization. Top management should posses design skills, in plenty. It is
basically their job to handle/tackle any unforeseen consequences that may occur in the
organization. Such problems could arise due to internal factors or external factors
and/or both.
B) Approaches to negotiation:
Negotiation typically manifests itself with trained negotiator acting on behalf of a
particular organization or position. It can be compared to mediation where a disinterested
third party listens to each side’s arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement
between the parties. It is also related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding,
both sides make an argument as to the merits of their "case" and then the arbitrator
decides the outcome for both parties.
2. Commercial Negotiations:
Such types of negotiations are conducted with external parties. The driving forces
behind such negotiations are usually financial gains. They are based on a give-and-take
relationship. Commercial negotiations successfully end up into contracts. It relates to
foregoing of one resource to get the other.
3. Legal Negotiations
These negotiations are usually formal and legally binding. Disputes over
precedents can become as significant as the main issue. They are also contractual in
nature and relate to gaining legal ground.
IS NEGOTIATION NECESSARY?
1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s problems and
preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the emotional
states, body language, and verbal signals of the other parties. They can, however,
feel taken advantage of in situations when the other party places little emphasis
on the relationship.
2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless
warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the
confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as tactful
and diplomatic.
3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough
problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using negotiations to
understand the concerns and interests of the other parties. They can, however,
create problems by transforming simple situations into more complex ones.
4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an
opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong instincts for
all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their style can dominate
the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often neglect the importance of
relationships.
5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair
and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers can be useful
when there is limited time to complete the deal; however, compromisers often
unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make concessions too quickly.
E) Process of Negotiation:
There are eight stages in the process of negotiation.
This is a unique combination framework that puts together the best of many other
approaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-value and
slower negotiations.
Note also that in practice, you may find variations on these, for example there may be
loops back to previous stages, stages overlapping, stages running parallel and even out
of order.
The bottom line is to use what works. This process is intended to help you negotiate,
but do not use it blindly. It is not magic and is not a substitute for thinking. If
something does not seem to be working, try to figure out why and either fix the
problem or try something else. Although there are commonalities across negotiations,
each one is different and the greatest skill is to be able to read the situation in the
moment and adapt as appropriate.
1) Prepare:
The overall action in preparation is to be ready for every stage of the actual
negotiation. In preparation, you may walk through many scenarios and prepare for
many eventualities.
How much time should you spend in preparation? As much as is appropriate. If you are
buying a fridge, you may read a few reviews. If you are buying a house or a business,
then much more serious preparation is needed. The sections below are rather long,
especially if you follow all the links. This reflects how useful it can be to think through
the whole negotiation process before you start.
What will be your opening offer? If it is too high, you might insult the other person
or frighten then off. If it is too low, you may lose out. To do this, you may need to
consider the agreement zones that might occur. Your opening offer will be based on a
combination of the range of 'reasonable value' of the things that you want, the situation
of the other person and the dynamics that you want to cause within the negotiation
itself. In practice, if the other person makes an opening offer first, which can be a
useful action, you may revise your opening offer. Nevertheless, it is still worth deciding
where you will start.
Look at everything you have at your disposal that you can bring to bear on this
negotiation. What do you have that the other person might value? When buying
something, what extra money could you bring to the table? Do you have people you
can call on for support? Can you use time in any way? Finding variables is a key
activity that can significantly increase your options. Look to the variables in the
resources that you have. What could you increase or decrease? What could be
expanded? What could be exchanged?
When you know where to start, you can now develop the concession strategy,
whereby you will make exchanges in order to gain final agreement. This will include
the use of variables where you can made trades in many different areas.
Finally, set up the negotiation meeting itself, if this is appropriate. If you can
choose the time and the place, you can add further control over the tone of the meeting.
Choose a right time for the negotiation can be very useful. Finally, invite the other
person to join you. In a surprise negotiation, you might invite them to a 'meeting' in
which you spring the negotiation on them, hoping to gain advantage from their
confusion. Being personally prepared includes knowledge of the situation and others as
described above. It also includes mental and emotional preparation. If it is a big
negotiation, then you may want to catch up on any lost sleep or maybe take a day or
two to wind down. Preparation also includes your appearance. As necessary get your
hair styled, buy new clothes and ensure you are clean and well-groomed on the day. A
smart appearance signals a smart mind, which can make all the difference.
2) Open:
The purpose of the opening stage of negotiation is to position yourself and your needs,
letting the other person know what you want, both as a outcome and in the process of
negotiation.
The beginning of any relationship is critically important as each person sizes up the
other, categorizing them against stereotypes and other internal models. The negotiation
thus effectively starts well before the talking starts in earnest. When meeting the other
person, you should thus seek to create the desired impression right from the start. If you
want to negotiate collaboratively, then you might start with an agreeable and friendly
greeting, whilst for a competitive approach, you may take a strongly assertive or even
aggressive position in order to intimidate and dominate the other person.
Be confident
Whatever style you use, it is important to be confident and show that you know
what you are doing and where you are going. If you seek to be collaborative, then
this encourages the other person to trust you. If you intend to be competitive, it
positions you as capable of doing whatever it takes.
The context around a negotiation provides information that justifies and explains the
need. Thus, for example, when selling your car, you might start by explaining how your
wife is pregnant and will be giving up work soon, thus setting the context for your
explaining later how you cannot accept a low price. Be careful with this to legitimize
your later arguments whilst not showing that you are in a weak negotiating positions, for
example that you are desperate to sell the car. Also match the length of the story to the
negotiation -- if it is a quick exchange, and then keep it to a few words. If you are
expecting to negotiate all day, then a somewhat longer explanatory preamble may well
be appropriate.
Explain what you need as a result of the contextual situation. Show that your need is
real and legitimate. Make it clear what you want from the other person. In some
situations this is clear and simple, whilst in others you may have multiple needs, for
example if you are negotiating an employment contract then there may be many terms
and conditions to consider.
When it is your turn to listen, do so actively. Listening is not just being polite --
there are many reasons why you should listen, especially in a negotiation. Showing
respect and interest will get them to give you more information, and in negotiation
information really is power. The first stage of listening is, basically, to listen without
interruption. The only interaction you have with them is active listening methods that
encourage them to talk. You can pause them to paraphrase back what you have heard
and you can ask them for clarification, but keep such interruptions to a minimum.
When they have made their case, you can then ask deeper questions to probe for
further information. If they have left out areas that you might have expected them to
cover, it may be because they are not comfortable talking about this. Sustain a gentle
approach of interest, curiosity and general inquiry. If you make it sound like an audit or
inquisition, then they may well stop talking. Your goal is to make it easy for them to
tell you more about their situation.
Think about the person with whom you are negotiating. Listen to the inner person,
discovering their beliefs, values, preferences and schemas. Find out what power they
have and how they might use it.
Understand how they prefer to satisfy their needs. Identify their interests and goals that
underlie the positions they are taking. When you know what is driving them, you will
have many alternative routes to satisfying them.
3) Argue:
In the argument stage, the serious exchange of views begins. This can be
uncomfortable as the goal is to strengthen your own position whilst weakening the
other person's position. Note that in a collaborative negotiation, the argument may be
gentile and polite to the point where it does not seem like argument. Nevertheless, the
points may still apply to some extent.
Respond to the positions and claims of their opening statements and subsequent
arguments, pointing out the limitations, falsehoods and irrelevancies. Depending on
your approach, your attack on their position may be aggressive, rational, empathetic or
apologetic. Overall, you are seeking to refute their argument, and the way you do this
will set the tone for the rest of the negotiation. Note that erosion of their position is
effective only when they feel less certain or that they have less to bargain with. Simply
asserting that they are wrong may only serve to annoy them and make them more
determined.
If they are claiming that something they have is of value to you, you can show how
what is on offer is not that important. This is relatively easy to do as only you
determine value of what you might get.
When they make assertions, question them more closely. Change probabilities.
Show how things asserted as always true are only sometimes true. Probe for the
evidence behind asserted truths. Test the reasoning they are using. Then use what you
discover to undermine what they are proposing as unquestionable truth.
When they tell of the things that they want from the negotiation and you would find
it difficult to give them this, then show how they cannot possibly get these or otherwise
reduce what they will ask for. Show how requirements are not legitimate. Indicate how
they can get what they want elsewhere. Hint that what they want is not yours to give.
Where you have stated something as true in your opening argument, add rationality
and cause. Use clear forms of reasoning that show how you are speaking the whole
truth, and that anything else is falsehood. Demonstrate objective evidence that proves
your case. Show your impartiality by considering the (weakened) arguments against
your case.
4) Explore:
So far, no agreements have been made, and early positioning may have made the
way forward difficult to see. Having established what you each want, however, you can
now move towards one another, seeking a way forward. It is generally a mistake to go
fast during a negotiation and taking time to explore can pay back significantly later.
Exploration not only gains you more information about the other person and their
needs, it also builds the relationship between you, making it easy to reach agreement.
In many negotiations it can be surprising how much both parties may agree. It is
easy for areas of difference to overshadow that the people involved are not that different
after all.
Particularly when you are far apart, a good first step in getting together is to find
those things where you agree with the other person. Finding agreement with the other
person demonstrates similarity and hence creates bonding with them. This may also be
done during earlier stages.
When you are negotiating, the focus on what you want as opposed to what they
want can make it seem like you are miles apart, when in fact you may be quite near to
an equitable solution. Finding areas of agreement helps to shrink the areas where you
have to negotiate. By saying 'we agree on this and that', you can find the specific areas
where negotiation is needed.
When you know where you agree, then finding where you really disagree is easier.
The fact that you agree makes it easier to work together and accept areas of difference.
An effective way to enable others to accept differences is to accept the person, even
though you do not agree with what they want. At the very least, you can accept that
they have the right to have different views and wants to you.
A common source of difference is that is not always clear is that people are driven by
fundamentally different goals.
5) Signal:
Signaling is a relatively short phase of activity in which (usually) both parties prepare
to move from their initial position. After early positions and explorations, signaling is a
conciliatory move that indicates a willingness to negotiate.
A signal is a subtle indicator to the other person that you may be willing to
negotiate. This is seldom done openly as this would contradict the opening and
argument. Signaling is not making a verbal statement and effectively saves face,
providing an excuse to subsequently move from your original position (or to backtrack
if the other person is not ready to collaborate).
Qualify statements
Add qualifiers that indicate how you might just be persuaded to do something that
you would not normally do or that you may agree to something other than what you
originally wanted.
Indicate possibility
Use words that indicate possibility, opening out the potential for a different future
that you may have painted in your opening statement.
Open body language sends even more subtle signals of readiness, with indications
of welcome (such as open arms) and relaxed, smiling face. Body signaling can be
enhanced by starting with closed body language and then moving to an open position at
the same time that you use verbal signaling. Use gestures that move in time with your
signals. Match the other person's movements to show empathy.
When you have signaled to the other person, the next step is to wait for them to
signal in return. Watch their face when you signal. Are there signs of hope appearing?
Do they seem to have recognized that you have gone from arguing your case towards
moving towards them? Also watch their body language. When you signal, does their
stance change? When you move from matching their body language to a more open
position, do they follow you?
Listen for their verbal signals. Hear the tone of voice that they use. Is it more
relaxed? Are they using qualifiers and indicating possibility?
Do not concede
If they do not signal, it can be tempting to try something more overt, such as
conceding on something. It can seem that they are blind to signals and if you move to
concession, then they will get this signal and concede in return. But what you have
actually done by this is to show that if you make a move and they do not reciprocate,
then you will give something more. This is simply encouragement for them to wait for
more concessions.
When they signal in return (or maybe they signaled first), respond by opening your
body language further and responding with a further encouraging signal. Show that you
approve of their movement by rewarding them with more attention and acceptance.
6) Package:
In this stage, the goal is to build potential solutions. The final agreement is not yet
being hammered out and you are still dealing in possibilities. By sustaining an
atmosphere of openness, you make it possible for both you and them to consider
alternatives exchanges without feeling obliged to complete the exchange.
In putting together potential agreements, start by looking for things that you can
exchange and where they might concede to you.
Trade in variables:
When looking for things to exchange, find the variables of the things in which you are
dealing. If you are talking about action, consider when and where it will occur. If you
are talking about money, consider who pays what to whom when and how often. If you
are dealing in physical items, consider size, quantity, weight and other attributes.
Your elegant negotiable are those things that you have that you do not value very
highly, but the other person finds particularly attractive. They are thus easy for you to
give away but are valued by the other person. The danger with elegant negotiable is
that you give them away without realizing that you can use them to get something
valuable in exchange. This is one reason why you should do lots of listening before
diving into making trades.
Use the Columbus technique and Socratic questioning to draw them out. Help them
understand variables and elegant negotiable. Support them in problem-solving,
clarifying the problem on which you are working together, identifying causes and why
things have happened, finding focus for resolution and creatively identifying possible
solutions.
7) Close:
Move to closure
As your packaging reaches a complete solution, you can move towards the idea of
closing on a final deal.
Show your own readiness by using signals to indicate that you want to reach
agreement. Use words like 'right' and 'ok'. Use ready body language that aligns with
your words. Watch their response, and if they signal in return, move further towards
closure.
Attempt closure
When things seem ready, you can use a trial close to nudge the other person closer
to agreement. If they do not seem ready, probe for reasons and return to packaging or
handle objections as appropriate.
A good thing to do at closure is to summarize what you believe has actually been
agreed. This assures that the other person also agrees and that there is a common
understanding of who will do or give what.
The realization of impending closure can cause people to panic in case they have
forgotten something. This may occur as sudden appearance of objections and other
reasons why they might not want to complete the deal. You can use objection-handling
techniques to manage such situations.
Tricky tactics such as the quivering quill may be used just before the close as the
other person attempts to squeeze a few more drops of blood out of you. Handle
opposition such as this with professional aplomb, showing that you are immune to
deception or coercion.
The final step of closure is to confirm the agreement and sign on the dotted line. 'It's
not over until the fat lady sings' is a common saying. In negotiation, it is not over until
the ink is dry and the exchange has irrevocably been made.
Shake hands
Although you may not literally shake hands, it can be a very effective thing to do at
the point of agreement. It symbolizes the closure and is such a powerful social symbol
in many different cultures that the other side will think twice about backing out.
8) Sustain:
When the deal is closed and seems to be complete, the end may not yet be in sight.
Many negotiations have a future element, where the main agreement is for future
action. 'There's many a slip twixt cup and lip', as they say, and an earlier commitment
might not be delivered as promised.
Sustaining commitment is thus about making sure that people stay closed and that what
was agreed in the Close stage stays agreed and gets delivered as promised.
longer delay until the promises are completed, the situation may change and the
negotiated agreement may move from being rather attractive to being rather
unattractive. And sometimes commitment just wanes, all by itself. Understanding
strong and weak commitment is thus important.
Remember Kano's needs: deliver basic needs solidly, performance needs carefully, and
then add icing to the cake with some excitement needs. These need not (and should not)
be over the top. The formula is 'delight = expectation + 1'. If you deliver just a little
more than is expected, you can create a very happy and loyal customer. 'Under-promise
and over-deliver' is an effective motto.
Renegotiate as necessary
If the situation changes and the agreement are really not worth keeping in its current
form, then rather than pull out without saying anything, it is better to go and talk to the
other party. Where possible and appropriate, re-negotiation the deal, sealing
commitment in a newer, more appropriate agreement. If the other person also benefits
from this, they will be doubly committed to the new arrangements.
Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures
and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eye blink
conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.
B) Pavlov's experiment:
One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation, Pavlov
Museum, 2005. The original and most famous example of classical conditioning
involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the
physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the
presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he called the unconditioned
response), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally
fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions. From this observation he predicted that,
if a particular stimulus in the dog’s surroundings were present when the dog was
presented with meat powder, then this stimulus would become associated with food and
cause salivation on its own.
In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a metronome to call the dogs to their food and,
after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the metronome.
C) Types:
Forward conditioning:
Diagram representing forward conditioning. The time interval increases from left to
right.
During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two
common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.
Delay Conditioning:
Trace conditioning:
During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented,
a period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the
US is presented. The stimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may also be
called the "conditioning interval"
Simultaneous conditioning:
During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminate at the
same time.
Backward conditioning:
Temporal conditioning:
Unpaired conditioning:
The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent
trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used
to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.
CS-alone extinction:
The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after the
CR has been acquired through Forward conditioning training. Eventually, the CR
frequency is reduced to pre-training levels.
D) Procedure variations:
In this procedure, two CSs and one US are typically used. The CSs may be the same
modality (such as lights of different intensity), or they may be different modalities (such
as auditory CS and visual CS). In this procedure, one of the CSs is designated CS+ and
its presentation is always followed by the US. The other CS is designated CS- and its
presentation is never followed by the US. After a number of trials, the organism learns to
discriminate CS+ trials and CS- trials such that CRs are only observed on CS+ trials.
During Reversal Training, the CS+ and CS- are reversed and subjects learn to suppress
responding to the previous CS+ and show CRs to the previous CS-.
This is a discrimination procedure in which two different CSs are used to signal two
different interstimulus intervals. For example, a dim light may be presented 30 seconds
before a US, while a very bright light is presented 2 minutes before the US. Using this
technique, organisms can learn to perform CRs that are appropriately timed for the two
distinct CSs.
Phase 1:
A CS (CS+) is not paired with a US until asymptotic CR levels are reached.
Phase 2:
CS+/US trials are continued, but interspersed with trials on which the CS+ in
compound with a second CS, but not with the US (i.e., CS+/CS- trials). Typically,
organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but suppress responding on CS+/CS-
trials.
Phase 3:
In this retention test, the previous CS- is paired with the US. If conditioned
inhibition has occurred, the rate of acquisition to the previous CS- should be
impaired relative to organisms that did not experience Phase 2.
Blocking:
Phase 1:
A CS (CS1) is paired with a US.
Phase 2:
A compound CS (CS1+CS2) is paired with a US.
Test:
A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect is
observed in a lack of conditioned response to CS2, suggesting that the first phase
of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS
and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. They reflect the
values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect
different values.
Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an
increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of
others. Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of
college students.
Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not
entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture. This
reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them
from the multiple subcultures they belong to.
If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the group's
norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging
conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of its members. For
example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that have been
established as law.
Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can
control events that affect them. Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe
that events result primarily from their own behavior and actions. Those with a high
external locus of control believe that powerful others, fate, or chance primarily determine
events. Those with a high internal locus of control have better control of their behavior,
tend to exhibit more political behaviors, and are more likely to attempt to influence other
people than those with a high external locus of control; they are more likely to assume
that their efforts will be successful. They are more active in seeking information and
knowledge concerning their situation.
Rotter (1975) cautioned that internality and externality represent two ends of a
continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to
their own control. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. For
example, college students with a strong internal locus of control may believe that their
grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts, whereas those with a strong
external locus of control may believe that their grades are the result of good or bad luck,
or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades capriciously; hence, they are less likely
to expect that their own efforts will result in success and are therefore less likely to work
hard for high grades.
The most famous questionnaire to measure locus of control is the 13-item forced
choice scale of Rotter (1966), but this is not the only questionnaire - indeed, predating
Rotter's work by five years is Bialer's (1961) 23-item scale for children. Also of
relevance to locus of control scale are the Crandall Intellectual Ascription of
Responsibility Scale (Crandall, 1965), and the Nowicki-Strickland Scale.[3] One of the
earliest psychometric scales to assess locus of control, using a Likert-type scale in
contrast to the forced-choice alternative measure which can be found in Rotter's scale,
was that devised by W.H. James, for his unpublished doctoral dissertation, supervised by
Rotter at Ohio State University, although this remained an unpublished scale. [4] Many
measures of locus of control have appeared since Rotter's scale, both those, such as The
Duttweiler Control Index (Duttweiler, 1984), which uses a five-point scale, and those
which are related to specific areas, such as health. These scales are reviewed by Furnham
and Steele(1993), and include those related to health psychology, industrial and
organizational psychology and those specifically for children, such as the Stanford
Preschool Internal-External Control Index,[5] which is used for three to six year olds.
Furnham and Steele (1993) cite data which suggest that the most reliable and valid of the
questionnaires for adults is the Duttweiler scale.
Locus of control's most famous application has probably been in the area of
health psychology, largely thanks to the work of Kenneth Wallston. Scales to measure
locus of control in the health domain are reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993). The
most famous of these would be the Health Locus of Control Scale and the
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, or MHLC (Wallston, Wallston, &
DeVellis, 1976; Wallston, Wallston, Kaplan & Maides, 1976). The latter scale is based on
the idea, echoing Levenson's earlier work, that health may be attributed to three possible
outcomes - internal factors, such as self-determination of a healthy lifestyle, powerful
others, such as one's doctor, or luck. Some of the scales reviewed by Furnham and Steele
(1993) relate to health in more specific domains, such as obesity (for example, Saltzer's )
(1982) Weight Locus of Control Scale or Stotland and Zuroff's (1990) Dieting Beliefs
Scale), or mental health (such as Wood and Letak's (1982) Mental Health Locus of
Control Scale or the Depression Locus of Control Scale of Whiteman, Desmond and
Price, 1987)and cancer (the Cancer Locus of Control Scale of Pruyn et alia, 1988).
They note similar ambiguity for data on the relationship between internal health
locus of control and other health-related behaviours, such as breast self-examination,
weight control and preventative health behaviours.
Norman and Bennett argue that a stronger relationship is found when health locus
of control is assessed for specific domains than when general measures of locus of
control are taken. ("Overall, studies using behaviour-specific health locus scales have
tended to produce more positive results (Lefcourt, 1991). Moreover, these scales have
been found to be more predictive of general behaviour than more general scales, such as
the MHLC scale" (Norman & Bennett, 1995). Norman and Bennett cite several studies
which have used health-related locus of control scales in specific domains, including
smoking cessation (Georgio & Bradley, 1992), diabetes (Ferraro, Price, Desmond &
Roberts, 1987), tablet-treated diabetes (Bradley, Lewis, Jennings & Ward, 1990),
hypertension (Stantion, 1987), arthritis (Nicasio et al., 1985), cancer (Pruyn et al., 1988)
and heart and lung disease (Allison, 1987). They also argue that health locus of control is
better at predicting health-related behaviour if studied in conjunction with health value,
i.e. the value people attach to their health, suggesting that health value is an important
moderator variable in the health-locus of control relationship. For example, Weiss and
Larsen (1990) (cited in Norman & Bennett, 1995) found increased relationship between
internal health locus of control and health when health value was assessed. Despite the
importance that Norman and Bennet (1995) attach to use of specific measures of locus of
control, there are still some general textbooks on personality, such as Maltby, Day and
Macaskill (2007), which continue to cite studies linking internal locus of control with
improved physical health, mental health and quality of life in people undergoing
conditions as diverse as HIV, migraines, diabetes, kidney disease and epilepsy (Maltby,
Day & Macaskill, 2007).
Other fields to which the concept has been applied include industrial and
organizational psychology, sports psychology, educational psychology and the
psychology of religion. Richard Kahoe has published celebrated work in the latter field,
suggesting that intrinsic religious orientation correlates positively, extrinsic religious
orientation correlates negatively, with internal locus.[6] Of relevance to both health
psychology and the psychology of religion is the work prepared by Holt, Clark, Kreuter
and Rubio (2003), in preparing a questionnaire to assess spiritual health locus of control.
These authors distinguished between an active spiritual health locus of control
orientation, in which "God empowers the individual to take healthy actions"[7] and a more
passive spiritual health locus of control orientation, where people leave everything to
God in the care of their own health.
is sometimes assumed that as people age, they will become less internal and
more external, but data here have been ambiguous. Longitudinal data collected by Gatz
and Karel (cited in Johnson et al., 2004 imply that internality may increase up to middle
age, and thereafter decrease. Noting the ambiguity of data in this area, Aldwin and
Gilmer (2004) cite Lachman's claim that locus of control is ambiguous. Indeed, there is
evidence here that changes in locus of control in later life relate more visibly to increased
externality, rather than reduced internality, if the two concepts are taken to be orthogonal.
Evidence cited by Schultz and Schultz (2005), for example Heckhausen and Schulz
(1995) or Ryckman and Malikosi, 1975 (cited in Schultz & Schultz, 2005), suggests that
locus of control increases in internality up until middle age. These authors also note that
attempts to control the environment become more pronounced between the age of eight
and fourteen. For more on the relationship between locus of control and coping with the
demands of later life, see the article on aging.
As Schultz and Schultz (2005) point out, significant differences in locus of control have
not been found for adults in a U.S. population. However, these authors also note that
there may be specific sex-based differences for specific categories of item to assess locus
of control - for example, they cite evidence that men may have a greater internal locus
for questions related to academic achievement (Strickland & Haley, 1980; cited in
Schultz & Schultz, 2005).
7. Self-efficacy:
Locus of control has been a concept which has certainly generated much research in
psychology, in a variety of areas. Usefulness of the construct can be seen in its
applicability to fields such as educational psychology, health psychology or clinical
psychology. There will probably continue to be debate about whether specific or more
global measures of locus of control will prove to be more useful. Careful distinctions
should also be made between locus of control (a concept linked with expectancies about
the future) and attribution style (a concept linked with explanations for past outcomes),
or between locus of control and concepts such as self-efficacy. The importance of locus
of control as a topic in psychology is likely to remain quite central for many years.
B) Machiavellianism
1) Introduction”
2) In Political Thought:
3) In Psychology:
you did something unless it is useful to do so," (No. 1) but not ones like, "Most people
are basically good and kind" (No. 4). People scoring below 60 out of 100 on the MACH-
IV are considered low Machs; they tend to believe, "There is no excuse for lying to
someone else," (No. 7) and, "Most people who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral
lives" (No. 11). Christie, Geis, and Geis's graduate assistant David Berger went on to
perform a series of studies that provided experimental verification for the notion of
Machiavellianism.
Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the dark triad,
along with narcissism and psychopathy. Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism
to be essentially a subclinical form of psychopathy, although recent research suggests
that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap, they are distinct personality
constructs