Interdisciplinary Doctoral School

Field of doctoral study: History

DOCTORAL THESIS - Summary

THE PROVINCE OF SIBIU IN
CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTS
PRODUCED AT THE DAWN OF THE
MODERN AGE

PhD Student:
ANDREI-NICOLAE NACU

Scientific coordinator:
Prof. dr. ZENO-KARL PINTER

SIBIU 2018
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... 3

1. GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................... 5

2. HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................. 7

2.1. THE FORMATION AND THE POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE EVOLUTION

OF THE SAXON SEATS UNTIL THE 18TH CENTURY .................................................... 7

2.2. THE TERRITORIAL EVOLUTION ............................................................................ 10

2.3. THE CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE SAXON SEATS .............................................. 13

2.4. DEMOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION ................................................................................. 14

2.5. LIST OF SETTLEMENTS FOUND ON THE TERRITORY OF THE SAXON SEATS

IN ABOUT 1780 .................................................................................................................. 16

3. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE MAPS PRODUCED UNTIL 1780 .................... 24

3.1. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE CITY PLANS OF SIBIU, MEDIAȘ,

SIGHIȘOARA AND SEBEȘ PRODUCED UNTIL 1780 .................................................. 35

3.1.1. The plans of Sibiu .................................................................................................. 35

3.1.2. The plans of Mediaș ............................................................................................... 38
3.1.3. The plans of Sighișoara .......................................................................................... 39
3.1.4. The 1769 plan of Sebeș .......................................................................................... 40

4. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 42

5. THE FIRST CARTOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS OF TRANSYLVANIA (1330–

1520) ........................................................................................................................................ 49

5.0.1. Preliminary considerations – Transylvania on the Hereford map (ca 1290) ......... 49

5.1. TRANSYLVANIA ON 14TH CENTURY PORTOLANS ............................................ 51

5.2. TWO 15TH CENTURY MAPPAEMUNDI .................................................................... 53

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 5.3. THE FIRST REGIONAL MAPS OF CENTRAL EUROPE (END OF THE 15 TH
CENTURY AND THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH CENTURY) .................................... 56

5.4. TRANSYLVANIA IN MARTIN WALDSEEMÜLLER’S CARTA MARINA (1516) 63

6. THE SEVEN AND TWO SEATS ON REGIONAL MAPS OF HUNGARY AND

TRANSYLVANIA PRODUCED BETWEEN 1528 AND 1690 ......................................... 65

6.1. THE MAP OF HUNGARY MADE BY SECRETARY LAZARUS (TABULA

HUNGARIAE, 1528) ........................................................................................................... 66

6.1.1. General characteristics and map content ................................................................ 67

6.2. THE MAP OF TRANSYLVANIA MADE BY JOHANNES HONTERUS

(CHOROGRAPHIA TRANSYLVANIAE, SYBEMBÜRGEN, 1532) .................................... 69

6.2.1. Johannes Honterus – biographical data .................................................................. 69

6.2.2. General map characteristics ................................................................................... 71
6.2.3. Map content analysis in QGis ................................................................................ 73
6.2.4. The road network ................................................................................................... 76

6.3. THE MAP OF HUNGARY MADE BY WOLFGANG LAZIUS (REGNI HUNGARIAE

DESCRIPTIO VERA, 1552/1556) ....................................................................................... 80

6.3.1. Wolfgang Lazius – biographical data..................................................................... 80

6.3.2. General map characteristics ................................................................................... 80

6.4. THE MAP OF TRANSYLVANIA MADE BY JOHANNES SAMBUCUS

(TRANSILVANIA. SIBEMBÜRGEN, 1566) ........................................................................ 84

6.4.1. Johannes Sambucus – biographical data ................................................................ 84

6.4.2. General map characteristics ................................................................................... 84

6.5. THE SAXON SEATS ON THE MAPS OF TRANSYLVANIA FROM THE ATLASES
OF ABRAHAM ORTELIUS AND GERARDUS MERCATOR (1570 AND 1595) ........ 88

6.5.1. The map of Transylvania from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius .............................. 88
6.5.2. The map of Transylvania from the atlas of Gerardus Mercator ............................. 90

6.6. OTHER MAPS PUBLISHED UNTIL THE END OF THE 17TH CENTURY ............ 92

6.6.1. The map of Transylvania made by Joan Blaeu (ca. 1660) .................................... 92
6.6.2. The map of Transylvania made by Johannes Tröster (1666) ................................ 94
6.6.3. The map of Transylvania made by Giacomo Cantelli da Vignola (1686) ............ 97

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7. THE SAXON SEATS ON THE MAPS OF TRANSYLVANIA MADE BETWEEN THE
END OF THE 17TH CENTURY AND THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY ................ 100

7.1. HABSBURG MILITARY CARTOGRAPHY AND TRANSYLVANIA. GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................................... 100

7.1.1. The repertoire of the most important military maps of Transylvania produced until
ca. 1780 .......................................................................................................................... 103

7.2. THE MAP OF TRANSYLVANIA MADE BY GIOVANNI MORANDO VISCONTI

(MAPPA DELLA TRANSILUANIA E PROVINTIE CONTIQUE, 1699) .......................... 105

7.2.1. Giovanni Morando Visconti – biographical data ................................................. 105

7.2.2. General map characteristics ................................................................................. 107
7.2.3. Map title and legend ............................................................................................. 109
7.2.4. Hydrographic network, relief and forests ............................................................. 111
7.2.5. Administrative boundaries, settlements and fortifications ................................... 113
7.2.6. Roads .................................................................................................................... 115

7.3. THE MAP OF TRANSYLVANIA MADE BY JOHANN CONRAD VON WEISS

(NOVA ET ACCURATA GEOGRAPHICA MAPPA DACIAE MEDITERRANEAE SEU
MODERNI PRINCIPATUS TRANSYLVANIAE, 1735) ..................................................... 117

7.3.1. Johann Conrad von Weiss – biographical data .................................................... 117

7.3.2. Versions and general map characteristics ............................................................ 119
7.3.3. Map title and legend ............................................................................................. 120
7.3.4. Relief and hydrographic network ......................................................................... 124
7.3.5. Battlefields and natural resources ........................................................................ 125
7.3.6. Administrative subdivisions ................................................................................. 126
7.3.7. Settlements and fortifications ............................................................................... 127
7.3.8. Roads, mountain tracks and postal stations .......................................................... 128

7.4. THE MAP OF TRANSYLVANIA MADE BY STEPHAN LUTSCH VON

LUCHSENSTEIN (NOVA PRINCIPATUS TRANSILVANIAE TABULA, 1751) ............. 130

7.4.1. Stephan Lutsch von Luchsenstein – biographical data ........................................ 130

7.4.2. Versions and general map characteristics ............................................................ 131
7.4.3. Map title and legend ............................................................................................. 133
7.4.4. Relief and oronyms .............................................................................................. 136
7.4.5. Hydrographic network and hydronyms ................................................................ 137
7.4.6. Battlefields ........................................................................................................... 139
7.4.7. Economic objectives and natural resources ......................................................... 139

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 7.4.8. Administrative subdivisions ................................................................................. 140
7.4.9. Settlements and fortifications ............................................................................... 142
7.4.10. Roads, mountain tracks and postal stations ........................................................ 145

7.5. THE MILITARY MAP OF THE GRAND PRINCIPALITY OF TRANSYLVANIA

(KRIEGS CHARTE DES GROSZ FÜRSTENTHUM SIEBENBÜRGEN, 1769–1773) ..... 148

7.5.1. General characteristics of the maps of the first military survey ........................... 152
7.5.2. Map title and legend ............................................................................................. 156
7.5.3. Relief, oronyms and other place names ............................................................... 158
7.5.4. Hydrographic network and hydronyms ................................................................ 160
7.5.5. Forests, economic objectives and natural resources ............................................. 164
7.5.6. Battlefields and execution places ......................................................................... 172
7.5.7. Administrative subdivisions ................................................................................. 174
7.5.8. Settlements ........................................................................................................... 177
7.5.9. Fortifications and ruins......................................................................................... 183
7.5.10. Churches, chapels and monasteries .................................................................... 185
7.5.11. Roads and bridges .............................................................................................. 188
7.5.12. Fords and river crossings.................................................................................... 193
7.5.13. Postal routes, postal stations and inns ................................................................ 195

8. THE HISTORICAL CITY PLANS OF SIBIU, MEDIAȘ, SIGHIȘOARA AND SEBEȘ

................................................................................................................................................ 197

8.1. THE CITY PLANS OF SIBIU.................................................................................... 198

8.1.1. Plans of the fortifications of Sibiu (1686–1688) ................................................. 198

8.1.2. The plans made by Giovanni Morando Visconti (1699 and 1702) ..................... 202
8.1.3. The plan of Sibiu from the collection of Colonel Johann Conrad von Weiss (ca.
1730–1736) .................................................................................................................... 209
8.1.4. Plan of Sibiu and fortification extension project (ca. 1735–1739) ..................... 212
8.1.5. The plan of Sibiu from the collection of General Paul Ferdinand von Bohn (ca.
1735–1747) .................................................................................................................... 214
8.1.6. The plan made by Captain Jacob Zultner (ca. 1750) ........................................... 216
8.1.7. The plan made by Lieutenant-Colonel Sulli (1749) ............................................ 218
8.1.8. The 1751 plan of Sibiu ......................................................................................... 225
8.1.9. The plan made by Baron Posarelli (1776) ........................................................... 230
8.1.10. Plans of the citadel and of the Sibiu–Gura Râului canal .................................... 233

8.2. THE CITY PLANS OF MEDIAȘ ............................................................................... 236

8.2.1. The plan made by Giovanni Morando Visconti (1699) ...................................... 236

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 8.2.2. The 1705 plan of the castle area ........................................................................... 239
8.2.3. The siege plan of Mediaș from 1705 .................................................................... 240
8.2.4. The plan of Mediaș from the collection of Colonel Johann Conrad von Weiss (ca.
1730–1736) .................................................................................................................... 243
8.2.5. The plan of Mediaș from the collection of General Paul Ferdinand von Bohn (ca.
1735–1747) .................................................................................................................... 245
8.2.6. The plan made by Captain Ludwig Theumern (1750) ........................................ 247

8.3. THE CITY PLANS OF SIGHIȘOARA ...................................................................... 251

8.3.1. The plan of Sighișoara from the collection of Colonel Johann Conrad von Weiss (ca.
1730–1736) .................................................................................................................... 251
8.3.2. The plan of Sighișoara from the collection of General von Bohn (1735) ........... 254
8.3.3. The plan made by Captain Ludwig Theumern (1750) ........................................ 256

8.4. THE CITY OF SEBEȘ ON THE 1769 SURVEY MAP OF THE SEBEȘ SEAT...... 258

CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................... 267

APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 274

Appendix 1. List of settlements mentioned within the Saxon seats on the Lazarus-
Tannstetter map (1528) ................................................................................................. 274
Appendix 2. List of settlements mentioned within the Saxon seats on the map made by
Johannes Honterus (1532) ............................................................................................. 275
Appendix 3. List of settlements mentioned within the Saxon seats on the map made by
Wolfgang Lazius (1552/1556) ...................................................................................... 279
Appendix 4. List of settlements mentioned within the Saxon seats on the map made by
Johannes Sambucus (1566) ........................................................................................... 282
Appendix 5. The street names of Sibiu according to the list reproduced in the legend of the
city plan made in 1751 ................................................................................................... 286
Appendix 6. The names of the towers and bastions of Sibiu according to the list reproduced
in the legend of the city plan made in 1751 ................................................................... 288
Appendix 7. The organization of the personnel envisaged to participate in the military
survey of Transylvania in 1769, at the beginning of the Josephine topographic survey. AN
CG, Document 1 (1769), 33–33v. ................................................................................. 290
Appendix 8. The size of the built-up areas of the cities and towns of the Saxon seats
according to the military map of the Grand Principality of Transylvania (1769–1773) 293

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 294

1. WORKING INSTRUMENTS........................................................................................ 294

1.1. GIS and digital mapping applications ..................................................................... 295

1.2. Vector graphics applications ................................................................................... 295

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2. ARCHIVAL SOURCES ................................................................................................ 296

3. EDITED PRIMARY SOURCES ................................................................................... 298

4. SECONDARY SOURCES ............................................................................................ 300

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 SUMMARY

The present doctoral dissertation discusses the evolution of the cartographic

representation of the former Transylvanian Saxon seats from the Late Middle Ages to the
second half of the 18th century. The thesis comprises eight chapters, which are preceded by an
introduction and followed by the conclusions. Eight appendices and six A3 size analytical maps
are inserted at the end of the study.
Most of the cartographic materials used for the research were identified in public
libraries and archives in Sibiu (Brukenthal National Museum Library), Vienna (Austrian
National Library; Austrian State Archives – War Archive) and Budapest (Széchényi National
Library; Museum and Institute of Military History; Hungarian National Archives). A few other
maps and city plans were consulted online. These are preserved in institutions such as the
National Library of France, the Bavarian State Library (Germany), the Dillingen Study Library
(Germany), the Leiden University Library (Netherlands), the University Library of Basel
(Switzerland) or the Library of Congress (United States of America). Our first aim was to
discover new documents and to investigate known maps or plans which did not previously
constitute the object of in-depth research.
Secondly, we collected biographical information on the most important cartographers
who represented the Saxon seats on their maps. Although a rich literature already exists on
Johannes Honterus, Wolfgang Lazius, Abraham Ortelius and Gerardus Mercator amongst
others, the authors of the most precise maps and plans produced after the end of the 17th century
– largely Austrian army officers – are less known.
The repertoire of the cartographic sources is not a complete one, as we tried to present
maps and plans which depict new features or are more accurate than previous issues. In order
to observe spatial relations and spot significant features, we envisaged the processing of the
most important documents using digital mapping applications.
The objectives and the aims of the research were indicated in the introduction.
Methodologically speaking, our undertaking extends the analysis made in the MA dissertation1
to other landscape elements.
In the first chapter we presented the geographical framework of the region comprising
the former Saxon seats (also known as the Seven and Two Seats). We offered information

1
Andrei Nacu, „Patrimoniul infrastructurii rutiere din epoca habsburgică în Transilvania central-sudică (1699–
1867)” [The road infrastructure patrimony of the Habsburg era in south-central Transylvania (1699–1867)], MA
Thesis (Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, 2015).

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pertaining to the geographical limits, the relief, hydrography, climate, precipitations, soils and
vegetation. The analyzed area covers an area of 6.400 km², representing 2,7% of Romania’s
territory. It encompasses most of the modern Sibiu County, alongside smaller territories
belonging to the Hunedoara, Alba, Mureș, Brașov and Vâlcea Counties.
The second chapter deals with general aspects concerning the history of the region. The
colonization of the central part of southern Transylvania with a German-speaking population
started in the 12th century, during the reign of King Geza II of Hungary (1141–1162). This
process lasted until the end of the 12th century and finally ended in the following century. The
Province of Sibiu corresponds to the original area of colonization and stretched from Orăștie
to Baraolt according to the charter issued by King Andrew II in 1224 (Andreanum). The
territory was initially organized in a County of Sibiu, but in the 14th century the county was
replaced by seven – then eight – seats (Sibiu Main Seat and the seats of Orăștie, Sebeș,
Miercurea, Nocrich, Cincu, Rupea and Sighișoara). The ‘Two Seats’, Mediaș and Șeica, were
under the jurisdiction of the Szekely count until 1402. After the formation of the Saxon
University of Transylvania in 1486, the authority of Sibiu was expanded to include the Two
Seats, alongside the districts of Brașov and Bistrița. Because of this close political association
and the geographical proximity, we decided to extend our analyses to the former seats of
Mediaș and Șeica.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, a series of possessions formerly belonging to the counties
of Alba and Târnava were subordinated to the city of Sibiu and the Saxon seats. Most of these
fiefs became part of the so-called ‘Seven Judges Domain’ (Lat. bona septem judicum, Ger.
Siebenrichtergüter). They were considered to belong to all the Saxon seats, although they were
subordinated to the Magistrate of Sibiu only. At the same time, the villages of Jina, Săcel, Orlat
and Cârța were possessions of the city of Sibiu. In 1765/1766, after the establishment of the
military border in Transylvania, the Habsburg authorities placed the villages of Racovița,
Veștem, Orlat, Jina și Cugir under the authority of the First Wallachian (Romanian) regiment
(headquartered in Orlat).
The historiography of the maps depicting the Saxon seats produced until ca. 1780 is
presented in the third chapter. Previous contributions on the historical city plans of Sibiu,
Mediaș, Sighișoara and Sebeș are also briefly analyzed here. Some facts concerning the
historical maps of Transylvania can be found in historical, geographical and statistical works
printed in the second half of the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th century. A few
17th and 18th century maps were analyzed by the Transylvanian scientist and theologian József
Benkő, while the first repertoire of the historical maps of Transylvania was published by the
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German-speaking Hungarian historian and editor Karl Gottlieb von Windisch. A major event
in the history of regional cartography was the ‘rediscovery’ of the Johannes Honterus map of
Transylvania in 1876. The 16th century Honterus map was subsequently researched by
numerous historians and geographers, more recently by Gerhard Engelmann, Hans
Meschendörfer and Otto Mittelstrass, Gernot Nussbächer, Katalin Plihál and Zsombor Bartos-
Elekes. In the past years we can observe a growing preoccupation with the Austrian 18th century
maps, particularly the 1769–1773 military map of the Grand Principality of Transylvania. The
Austrian cartography in the Age of Enlightenment and the role of maps as a tool for reforming
and centralizing the Habsburg monarchy during the reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II was
the subject of the doctoral thesis defended by Mădălina Valeria Vereș in 2015 at the University
of Pittsburg. Her thesis was partially focused on the cartographic depiction of Transylvania and
its borders in the 18th century.
The methodological aspects of the thesis were described in the fourth chapter. Some of
the maps and plans we identified were georeferenced. This operation allowed the correct
positioning of the documents in digital cartographic applications. Additionally, the historical
city plans were exported from the cartographic application Global Mapper 15 and
superimposed as layers in Google Earth. This procedure allowed us to precisely identify
differences existing between the 17th and 18th century situation and the current one, as well as
to measure and locate features that either disappeared or are covered by the present urban
fabric.
A more complex processing was required for the 1769–1773 ‘Great military map of
Transylvania’, where an extra georeferencing was deemed necessary. Next, a cartographic
database was constructed by digitizing elements from the military map in the QGis application.
Four vector files were generated, including a point layer with over 3.000 digitized objects, a
polygon layer and two line layers.
The evolution of the representation of Transylvania until the appearance of the first
regional maps of Hungary and Transylvania was examined in the fifth chapter. Transylvania
was firstly mentioned in a portolan made by Angelino Dalorto in 1330, while the city of Sibiu
is cartographically attested by a 1448 mappamundi made in Konstanz by the Benedictine monk
Andreas Walsperger. After 1450, with the spread of the printing press, the cartographic
production developed considerably, and the first modern maps of Central Europe were
published. An important print of this period is the Eichstätt map (1491), which is based on the
work of the German cardinal Nicolaus Cusanus. Amongst the places mentioned on the Eichstätt

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map in the Province of Sibiu are Turnu Roșu (Rotetore), Tălmaciu (Tolmet), Sibiu
(H[ermannstadt].), Cincu (Grosesteva) and possibly Orlat (Unzemborg).
The sixth chapter is dedicated to the first printed maps of Hungary and Transylvania.
These documents reflect the political changes that affected the Carpathian Basin after the Battle
of Mohács (1526). The Lazarus-Tannstetter map of Hungary (1528), the map of Hungary by
Wolfgang Lazius (1552/1556) and the Johannes Sambucus map of Transylvania (1566) contain
dedications to the Habsburg monarchs, attesting to their claims on the territories of the
Hungarian crown. Even the Johannes Honterus map of Transylvania, made in 1532 in Basel
(Chorographia Transylvaniae Sybembürgen), can be counted as belonging to this series of
materials with propaganda attributes. Apart from the German and Latin verses referring to the
hardships endured by the Transylvanian Saxons, the primary focus of the map on the Saxon
regions creates the false impression of a German-dominated province. For example, 91 of the
220 settlements and fortresses depicted on the map are on the territory of the Saxon seats. Not
without reason this print is also known as the ‘Map of the Saxon Land’ (Sachsenlandkarte).
The map of Honterus is the most important cartographic document published until the
end of the 17th century. However, the print contains important errors regarding the positioning
of some settlements and disparities between the name and the corresponding town or village.
Moreover, there is no designated name for over 20 settlements. These aspects were partially
clarified following a digital analysis performed in QGis. Thus, we can ostensibly notice
Gușterița, Roadeș, Bungard, Turnișor, Dupuș, Feldioara, Mercheașa or Viscri among the
unnamed settlements. At the same time, the location shown for Roadeș, Gușterița and Bungard
corresponds to the site of the villages of Cața, Nou and Roșia respectively. Furthermore, the
church illustrated north of Făgăraș coincides with a Romanian monastery attested two centuries
later between Făgăraș and Șoarș. As Hans Meschendörfer and Otto Mittelstrass previously
noticed, some roads can be identified by observing the linear placement of several settlements.
The following routes were suggested by Honterus in south-central Transylvania: Sibiu–
Mediaș, Sibiu–Aiud, Sibiu–Sebeș–Orăștie, Sibiu–Cârța, Sebeș–Aiud, Mediaș–Cetatea de
Baltă, Brașov–Rupea–Sighișoara–Târgu Mureș and Rupea–Odorheiu Secuiesc.
The maps published in the atlases of Abraham Ortelius (1570) and Gerardus Mercator
(1595) or in the 17th century Dutch atlases contributed to the perpetuation of the cartographic
image elaborated by Honterus. No significant variations in the depiction of the Saxon seats can
be recorded until 1686. However, the situation changed dramatically after Transylvania was
annexed to the Habsburg dominions. Owing to the initiatives of Prince Eugene of Savoy, the
Austrian military cartography witnessed revolutionary advances at the turn of the 18th century.
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This development was evident in the territories liberated by the Imperial armies after the 1683
failed Ottoman siege of Vienna. Between ca. 1690–1780, the most accurate maps of
Transylvania were made by the military engineers and General Staff officers of the Habsburg
army.
The seventh chapter opens with an analysis of the first map of Transylvania completed
after a topographic survey – Giovanni Morando Visconti’s Mappa della Transiluania (…).
Morando Visconti was an architect and military engineer who came to the province in 1691.
His map was printed in Sibiu in 1699 and displays 140 settlements and approximately 40 rivers
and streams on the territory of the Saxon seats – a spectacular increase compared to previous
documents. Likewise, the map made by Visconti represents all the main roads in the region for
the first time.
The second analyzed map of the province was made in 1735 in the aftermath of a
general survey conducted under the supervision of Colonel Johann Conrad von Weiss, the
‘Director’ of Transylvanian fortifications. The von Weiss map depicts oronyms for the first
time, in addition to nearly all the settlements within the Saxon seats. The map also portrays a
series of economic objectives – a glass factory at Sibișel, iron resources in the southern part of
the Orăștie Seat and agricultural fields in the Făgăraș Depression.
On the other hand, the map elaborated by the Transylvanian officer Stephan Lutsch –
a former pupil of von Weiss – in 1751 (Nova Principatus Transilvaniae Tabula) shows the
relief through the shading technique. The precision of the administrative boundaries is also
superior to the 1735 map. In the Lutsch map we can notice the ‘iron hammer’ at Sibișelu Nou,
a series of stamp mills and gold washings south of Sebeș, as well as six Salpeter manufactories.
The 1751 map records four settlements deserted in the 15th century – the former village hearths
of Șibot and Răhău, Weißkirch (near Miercurea Sibiului) and Fettendorf (near Biertan).
Moreover, the Saxon settlements with church fortresses are signaled by a red quadrilateral with
small dots to its corners (placed under the village or town symbol).
The most important cartographic document produced in the 18th century is
unquestionably the military map of the Grand Principality of Transylvania (Kriegs Charte des
Grosz Fürstenthum Siebenbürgen). The scale of the map is 1:28.800. It comprises 280 sections,
52 of them covering the region of the Saxon seats.
After the conclusion of the Seven Years War (1756–1763), Maria Theresa ordered the
start of ample mapping operations in the Habsburg monarchy. Emperor Joseph II, who took
charge of the military affairs after 1765, exercised a considerable influence over the project.
For this reason, the 1763–1787 mapping operation is also known as the Josephine Survey
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(Josephinische Aufnahme). In Transylvania, the survey was completed between 1769 and 1773
under the supervision of Colonel Dominik Tomiotti de Fabris and Major Mihály Lajos Jeney.
The multitude of features represented in the Josephine military map made an exhaustive
investigation of the document almost impossible. In many situations we had to content
ourselves with writing shorter case studies, even if the database generated after the
digitalization of the cartographic material is much more comprehensive. We identified over
850 oronyms and forest names, almost half of them in the mountainous areas. Contrasting the
central and northern parts of the region, where German and Saxon place names prevail, almost
all the names in the mountains are of Romanian origin. The same situation is true in the case
of the 415 accounted hydronyms. The forested area in the analyzed region had a slightly smaller
surface in the second half of the 18th century. For example, the forests of the former Cincu Seat
covered roughly 170 km2, in contrast with the 208 km2 documented at the beginning of the 21st
century.
In 1769–1773, the largest settlements by built-up area were the cities of Sibiu (3,8 km2)
and Sighișoara (2,6 km2), followed by the villages of Jina (2,3 km2) and Săliște (2 km2). Three
Romanian monasteries are displayed near Boholț, Cugir and Vaidei, while over 230 churches
and chapels are recorded inside or at the outskirts of the 191 settlements. The number of
identified mills is 262, with the biggest concentration recorded on the Săliște river. The
vineyards were uniformly distributed, being rare only in the Nocrich and Rupea Seats.
Similarly, the gold washings along the Valea Pianului river and a mine are marked in the Sebeș
Seat (at the southern outskirts of the village of Pianu de Sus). Amongst the ruins represented
on the military map are those of the former St. Catherine basilica near Beriu, the former
fortified church of St. Thomas near Apoldu de Jos, as well as the ‘Broken Tower’ (Ro. Turnul
Spart, Ger. Halbeturm) and the medieval fortresses of Tilișca, Gârbova, Slimnic, Tălmaciu
(Landskrone) and Lotrioara. Other fortresses represented on the map are those of Câlnic,
Rupea, Saschiz, Jimbor and Boița. The remains of the mausoleum built by King Matthias
Corvinus and of the chapel erected by Voivode Stephen Báthory of Ecsed, both already ruined
by the time of the survey, are figured near the Câmpul Pâinii (Ger. Brotfeld, Hu. Kenyérmező)
battlefield site.
The highways displayed in south-central Transylvania belong to two categories: main
roads (Landstrassen) and ordinary roads (Ordinaire Fahrwege). The main roads of the
analyzed region had a total length of approximately 740 km. The 40 inns identified on the
military map were largely scattered along these routes. Of the 730 recorded bridges, the
overwhelming majority were wooden structures. River crossings either by boat or by floating
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bridge are marked on the Olt river at Turnu Roșu, Sebeșu de Jos, Racovița and Feldioara. Along
the Mureș there is only one such crossing, located north of Orăștie (on the road to Geoagiu).
The historical city plans were investigated in the final chapter. The first plans of Sibiu
primarily depict the fortifications and can be dated to ca. 1686–1688. The street network,
churches and cemeteries of Sibiu are firstly illustrated in the 1699 and 1702 plans made by
Giovanni Morando Visconti. The 1702 plan also portrays the citadel projected to be built near
the city. The construction of the citadel started in 1702, under Visconti’s supervision. However,
work ceased in 1703, after the start of the rebellion lead by Prince Francis II Rákóczi.
A new cartographic representation of Sibiu was completed in ca. 1730–1736 under the
direction of Johann Conrad von Weiss. In this plan we can observe the Jesuit Roman Catholic
Church in the Large Square (consecrated in 1733) or the fortification established on the left
bank of the Cibin river in 1704, during Rákóczi’s rebellion. This defensive work, known as the
‘Retrenchment’, enclosed an area of about 9 hectares, corresponding to the Ocnei Gate suburb
(the future Theresianum neighborhood).
Of great interest are three plans presenting several planned fortifications around Sibiu.
The plan made by Captain Jacob Zultner in ca. 1750 illustrates the most radical proposals. We
have also analyzed two mid-18th century very detailed plans of Sibiu, one made by Lieutenant-
Colonel Jakob Ludwig Sulli and one made in 1751, during an inspection of the fortifications
surrounding Sibiu. The plan drawn by Sulli shows a territory of ca. 30 km2 that includes the
nearby villages of Turnișor and Gușterița. On the other hand, the 1751 plan offers some extra
information regarding the main fortifications of Sibiu. The 39 recorded towers are numbered,
and their names are provided in the legend. Besides the towers, the legend also accounts the
five bastions, the ‘Thick Tower’ and the Wheelwright’s Roundel. Likewise, the manuscript
mentions the name of 45 streets, offering a complete picture of the old street nomenclature.
The last analyzed plan of Sibiu, the one made by Baron Posarelli in 1776, illustrates the
Theresianum Orphanage, founded in 1767, in addition to the new Holy Cross Chapel in front
of the Elisabeth Gate. Similarly, Posarelli showed the first parcels on the former citadel ground,
in the future Josephine neighborhood.
The first known plan of Mediaș, attached to the Mappa della Transiluania (1699), is
the work of Giovanni Morando Visconti. It depicts the streets, churches and fortifications, the
bridge over the Târnava Mare river and the suburbs. Six years later, Visconti made a plan of
central Mediaș in which he illustrated a series of ramparts and bulwarks in the area of the
fortified Church of St. Margaret. Although the authors who analyzed this manuscript consider
that Visconti’s project was never completed, a siege plan produced in the same year depicts
13
some of these defensive works. The plan in question was most probably made by the French
engineer François Damoiseau, one of the members of the military mission dispatched by King
Louis XIV to assist Francis II Rákóczi’s rebels.
A new plan of Mediaș was produced in ca. 1730–1736, during the topographic survey
coordinated by Johann Conrad von Weiss. The names of the main streets, as well as of the
towers, gates and bastions are mentioned in the legend of the document. A close enough picture
is offered by a plan found in the collection of the Austrian general Paul Ferdinand von Bohn.
Fresh data regarding the topography of Mediaș is provided by a plan made by Captain
Ludwig Theumern in 1750. In the central Market Square, on the southwestern side, we notice
the ensemble of the Piarist School, opened before 1740. The plan augments the information
concerning the street nomenclature, while the castle area and the Franciscan Monastery are
represented much more precisely. Another novelty brought by Captain Theumern’s plan is the
representation of 12 fountains inside the city.
In the case of Sighișoara, we acknowledged three city plans made in the 18th century.
The manuscript from the collection of Colonel von Weiss (ca. 1730–1736) illustrates the
fortifications, streets, churches, cemeteries and the local hydrography. Several gardens and
isolated constructions are figured in the future Cornești neighborhood and north of the Târnava
Mare river, while the legend mentions the Leprosery and the names of the churches and city
gates. Likewise, a foundry is indicated in the northeastern part of the city.
The 1735 plan of Sighișoara depicts the dwellings from most of the Lower Town, the
Cornești neighborhood and the suburb across the Târnava Mare river individually. The
constructions at the western edge of Brădet Hill and in the central part of Cornești correspond
to the Gypsy districts attested in these locations by toponymy and written sources.
The names of almost all the streets in the Lower Town of Sighișoara are inserted in the
1750 plan made by Captain Ludwig Theumern. In the Upper Town, the City Hall is indicated
in front of the Dominican Monastery. The legend shows that the former church of the
Dominican nuns was used as a warehouse at that moment.
The city of Sebeș was represented in a 1769 topographical map (Stuhl Mühlenbach in
dem Gros-Fürstenthum Sibenbürgen. Geometrisch aufgenommen im Jahr 1769). The
manuscript is a sample made in advance of the Josephine military map of Transylvania. The
section corresponding to the city shows all the dwellings and storage buildings, the
fortifications, the street network, the Sebeș river and the Metz stream, the ponds in front of the
main walls, the fountains, churches and cemeteries, as well as the suburban farms, gardens and
vineyards. Additionally, different colors are used to mark wooden and stone structures.
14
 The key results of our research are presented in the analytical maps included in the
thesis or appended at its end. All these maps were created using digital mapping applications
such as Open Jump GIS and vector graphics applications such as Inkscape. The first
cartographic material at the end of the thesis represents a physical map of the investigated
region. It depicts the main settlements, the hydrographic network and the relief. A historical
administrative map of the Saxon seats was included next. This map shows the seats and their
fiefs, the possessions of the city of Sibiu, alongside the villages divided between the Saxon
seats and the counties or those included in the Transylvanian military border district in
1765/1766. The third map records the first cartographic mention for the settlements on the
territory of the Saxon seats. Thus, six settlements and the fortress of Turnu Roșu were attested
by maps made before 1528, 12 settlements firstly appeared on the 1528 map of Hungary, 74
on the Honterus map of Transylvania, eight on other maps made before 1699, 50 on the 1699
Visconti map of Transylvania, 38 on the 1735 von Weiss map, one on the 1751 Lutsch map
and two on the 1769–1773 military map. The fourth analytical map displays the settlements,
roads and mountain tracks represented on the map of Transylvania made in 1751 by Stephan
Lutsch. The fifth map indicates the settlements and main roads depicted on the 1769–1773
military map of Transylvania. The final map shows the citadel at the southwestern edge of
Sibiu as it is depicted in a plan made by Giovanni Morando Visconti in ca. 1702–1703.
The maps and historical plans represent a valuable source for the study of the former
territorial core of the Transylvanian Saxons. They successfully complement the information
provided by the historical and archeological research, as we have strived to demonstrate in the
pages of this dissertation.

15
 SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARCHIVAL SOURCES

1. Sibiu. Brukenthal National Museum Library (BMNB):

a. Map Collection: H 463 (74); H 463 (75); H 463 (77); H 912; H 2097; H 4928; H
4935; H 4937; H 4938; H 5594; H 5674; H 5702; H 5731; H 5810.
b. Manuscript Collection: Ms 26.

2. Sibiu. Sibiu County Branch of the Romanian National Archives (AN):

a. General Command of the Austrian Army in Transylvania, 1703–1865 (CG):

Document 1 (1769).
b. Brukenthal Fund: 120 RR 1–68.

3. Vienna. Austrian National Library (ÖNB):

a. Map Collection: ALB kleinPort 705; ALB Port 204 1; ALB Port 204 2; FKB C.103.1-
2; FKB C.105.1a-v; FKB C.107.A.1-4; FKB C.107.3; KAR051266.

4. Vienna. Austrian State Archives – War Archive (KA):

a. Map and Plan Collection (KPS): B III c 38; B IX a 700; B IX a 701; B IX a 702; B
IX a 713; B IX a 714; B IX a 715; B IX a 716; B IX a 717; B IX a 741; B IX c 744; B IX c
749; H III c 99-1; I. C VI 1-1-214; I. C VI 1-1-358; I. C VI 1-1-542; I. C VI 1-2-214; I. C VI
1-2-358; I. C VI 1-4-214; I. C VI 1-5-214; I. C VI 1-6-214; K VII k 330 (3); K VII k 330 (11);
K VII k 330 (16); K VII k 409.

5. Budapest. National Széchényi Library (OSZK):

a. Old Prints Collection (RNT): App. M. 136.

b. Map Collection: RMK III. 296; TK 903; TK 1093; TK 1116; TK 1633; TK 2058;
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6. Budapest. Institute and Museum of Military History (HIM):

a. Map Collection: B IX a 487/15; B IX a 722/4.

7. Budapest. Hungarian National Archives (MNL):

a. Map Collection: S 11 (268:3); S 35 (2); S 84 (44/1).

16
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