MODULE 2.

1
Classical Architecture and the
Western Succession
Module 2 Overview
2.1 Greek Architecture
2.2 Roman Architecture
2.3 Early Christian Architecture
2.4 Byzantine Architecture
2.5 Romanesque Architecture
2.6 Gothic Architecture
2.7 Renaissance Architecture
2.8 Modern Architecture
2.9 Postmodern Architecture
Greek Architecture
Map of the Greco-Persian Wars and the Greek city-states.
Greek (800-300 B.C.)
▪ Delicacy of outline, perfected proportions and refined
treatment.
▪ Based the different proportions of their construction
systems on mathematical ratios.
▪ The first manifestation was a wooden structure of
upright posts supporting beams and sloping rafters.
▪ Completed with sophisticated optical corrections for
perspective.
Greek (800-300 B.C.)
▪ Major public buildings were built with limestone and
marble. Blocks of stone were held in place by bronze
or iron pins set into molten lead.
Phases
Aegean, Hellenic, and Hellenistic
AEGEAN PERIOD
▪ Structures were generally rough and massive.
▪ The capital is ornamented with a square abacus, and
a circular bulbous echinus.
▪ Cyclopean walls: large stones without mortar, on clay
bedding.
▪ Use of corbelled arch.
▪ Megaron: single-storey dwelling with a central room
and porticoed entrance; columns support roof;
thalamus (bedroom).
The Lion’s Gate
Mycenae, Greece.

Part of the citadel palace of

Agamemnon; Cyclopean walls of
boulders weighing 5-6 tons were eased
into alignment with pebbles.
Treasury of Atreus
Beginning in the late Bronze Age, the
kings were buried outside the city in
great beehive—or tholos—tombs,
monumental symbols of wealth and
power.
Section and plan, Treasury of Atreus.
HELLENIC PERIOD
▪ Of or pertaining to ancient Greek history, culture and
art.
▪ The temple became the chief building type.
▪ Columnar and trabeated; Carpentry in marble
▪ Materials used were timber, stone, and terra cotta.
▪ Refinements to correct optical illusion (entasis,
swelling of columns)
▪ Structures were ornamented with sculptures, colors,
and mural paintings.
HELLENISTIC PERIOD
▪ Greek culture was modified by foreign elements.
▪ A diversion from religious building types; civic
structures were also built; later will be an inspiration
for Roman architecture.
▪ The design and layout of buildings are symmetrical
and orderly.
▪ Moldings were used for decorations.
▪ Temple entrances faced east.
Greek Temples
The chief building type of the Hellenic Period.
1) First Temple of Apollo at Thermos, Greece; 2) Plan: Later Temple of Apollo at Thermos.
Acropolis
"City on the height." In classical Greek architecture, a
city stronghold or fortress constructed on higher
ground than surrounding urban fabric.
The Acropolis of Athens. (Reconstructed model)
 1 Parthenon
3 Erechtheum
4 Statue of Athena Promachos
5 Propylaea
6 Temple of Athena Nike
12 Altar of Athena
15 Odeon of Herodes Atticus
16 Stoa of Eumenes
18 Theatre of Dionysus
Eleuthereus
19 Odeon of Pericles

The Acropolis of Athens.

Temenos
The sacred area or enclosure surrounding a classical
Greek temple.
Propylaea
A monumental gateway to a sacred enclosure,
fortification, town or square.
Parthenon
Athens, Greece. Ictinus and
Callicrates.

Built from 447-438 B.C. in honor of

Athena, the city’s patron goddess.
Used the proportion 2n+1 in determining
the number of columns on the sides of a
temple (n=number of columns at front)
 Naos or cella, principal
chamber; enclosed part of the
temple where the cult image
was kept.
Pronaos or anticum, an open
vestibule before the cella.
Epinaos or posticum, rear
vestibule.
Opisthodomos, a small room
in the cella as for a treasury.

Parts of a Greek temple.

Parts of a Greek temple.
Parthenon
Optical Corrections

▪ Entasis, a slight convex curve in

the shaft of a column;

▪ the stylobate curves upward;

▪ the columns taper toward the top;

▪ the columns at the corners angle

inwards and are thicker than the
others;

▪ and the column flutes deepen

toward the top.
Planning of Temples
Greek and Roman temples are described according
to the number of columns on the entrance front, the
type of colonnade, and the type of portico.
Terminologies.
Number of columns
▪ 1 - hemostyle ▪ 7 - heptastyle
▪ 2 - distyle ▪ 8 - octastyle
▪ 3 - tristyle ▪ 9 - enneastyle
▪ 4 - tetrastyle ▪ 10 - decastyle
▪ 5 - pentastyle
▪ 6 - hexastyle ▪ 12 - dodecastyle
Column arrangement
▪ Determines the type of colonnade a classical temple
has.
 In-antis: anta, columns are
between anta and at front.
Amphi-antis: double anta, at
front and rear.
Prostyle: portico at front only.
Amphiprostyle: porticoes at
front and rear.
Peripteral: columns on all
sides.
Pseudo-peripteral: columns
attached to naos.
Dipteral: double line of
columns surrounding the naos
Pseudo-dipteral: like dipteral,
but inner columns are
attached to the naos.

Variations in column arrangement.

Intercolumnation
The systematic spacing of columns expressed as
multiples of column diameters.
▪ 1.50D Pycnostyle
▪ 2.00D Systyle
▪ 2.25D Eustyle
▪ 3.00D Diastyle
▪ 4.00D Araeostyle
Vitruvius’ (Roman architect) Rules for the Diameter, Height, and Spacing of Columns.
The Greek Orders
An order is one of the predominating styles in
classical architecture. The orders of ancient Greek
classical architecture: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
The Greek Orders
▪ Doric

▪ Ionic

▪ Corinthian
DORIC
▪ Oldest, simplest and most massive of the three Greek
orders.
▪ Developed in Greece in the 7th century B.C.
Characteristics
▪ Fluted (concave curves) columns
having no base;

▪ Capital: square abacus at top,

rounded echinus at the bottom;

▪ Entablature: plain architrave, a

frieze of triglyphs and metopes,
and a cornice, the corona on which
has mutules on its soffit.

▪ Column: H= 4-6 * column base ⌀

Entablature: H=1 3/4 * lower ⌀
Parthenon
Athens, Greece. Ictinus and
Callicrates.
IONIC
▪ Developed in the Ionian Islands (now western Turkey)
in the 6th century B.C.
▪ Used for smaller buildings and interiors.
Characteristics
▪ Fluted columns typically had
molded bases.

▪ Capital: spiral volutes.

▪ Entablature; consists of an
architrave of three fascias, a richly
ornamented frieze, and a cornice
corbeled out on egg and dart and
dentil moldings.

▪ Column: H=9 * column base ⌀; 24

flutes separated by fillets
Entablature: H=2 ¼ * column ⌀
Temple of
Athena Nike
Athens, Greece. Callicrates.
CORINTHIAN
▪ Named after the city of Corinth, where sculptor
Callimachus supposedly invented it after he spotted
boblet surrounded by leaves.
▪ Similar to the Ionic order in its base, column, and
entablature, but its capital is more ornate, carved with
two tiers of curly acanthus leaves.
Characteristics
▪ Similar in most respects to Ionic
but usually of slender proportions.

▪ Capital: deep-bell shaped

decorated with acanthus leaves
and an abacus with concave sides.

▪ Column: H=10 * column base ⌀

Temple of
Apollo Epicurius
Ictinus. Bassae.

The Corinthian order used for the first

time; Built of fine-grained, brittle grey
limestone; details in marble, roof of thin
marble slabs.
Figured columns
▪ Caryatid: Also kore, a carved statue of a draped
female figure which functions as a column.

▪ Canephora, canephore, canephorum, kanephoros:

`basket-carrying´; a carved statuesque column of a
draped female figure carrying a basket, or with a
basket on her head.
Figured columns
▪ Atlas, telamon (Gk.) plural atlantes: a massive
carved statuesque stooping male figure, often serving
as a columnar support for a pediment.

▪ Herm, herma plural hermae: a square tapered column

capped with the carved head, bust or torso of a figure,
usually Hermes; originally used by the Greeks as a
boundary marker, later as decoration.
1) Treasury of Siphnos, Delphi, Greece, c.525 BC; 2) Erechtheion, Athens, Greece, 420–406 BC, Mnesikles;
3) Palazzo Ducale, Venice, Italy, 1300–1400; 4) Palazzo Valmorana, Padua, Italy, 1566, Andrea Palladio
Erechtheion
Athens, Greece. Mnesikles.
Civic Buildings
AGORA
Tyre, Lebanon.

A market or meeting place in a Greek

city, the hub of public life where the most
important public buildings were situated.
THEATRON
Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus.

Designed for the presentation of plays in

which choral songs and dances were
prominent features.

Open-air, usually hollowed out of the

slope of a hillside with a tiered seating
area around and facing a circular
orchestra backed by the skene, a
building for the actor’s use.
Parts of a Greek theater.
STOA
Stoa of Attalos. Athens.

An ancient Greek portico, usually

detached and of considerable length,
used as a promenade or meeting place
around public places.
PRYTANEION
Prytaneion of Panticapaeum. Ukraine.

Senate house; A public town hall for the

citizens of ancient Greece, containing
state banquet halls and hospitality
suites.
BOULEUTERION
Bouleuterion. Priene.

Council chamber with rows of stepped

benches surrounding a central platform.
ODEION
Ephesus Odeon. Turkey.

A roofed theatre building in antiquity,

especially one for the performance of
vocal and instrumental music.
STADION
Nemea Stadion. Greece.

An ancient Greek elongated sports

venue with rounded ends, surrounded
on all sides by banked spectator stands;
venue for foot racing.
HIPPODROME
Hippodrome. Tyre, Lebanon.

An open or roofed track or arena for

chariot and horse racing in ancient
Greece.
PALAESTRA
Palaestra, Vaison-la-Romaine.

Wrestling house; A place used for the

instruction and practice of wrestling and
athletics.
GYMNASION
Pompeii Gymnasion.

An ancient Greek centre for sports, with

buildings, playing areas and baths.
Residential Buildings
Megaron
▪ An early Greek dwelling type.

▪ A long rectangular central hall in a

Mycenaean palace complex, which
may have served as a temple.

▪ Parts consists of an open porch, a

vestibule, and a large hall with a
central hearth and a throne.
 1 prodomos – porch
2 doma – main room
3 thalamos – rear chamber
4 hearth

Megaron, Dimini, Thessaly (Greece), neolithic period.

Prostas
A Greek dwelling-type entered from the street via a
passage to an open courtyard, around which all spaces
are arranged; the principal rooms are accessed via a
niche-like anteroom or prostas.
 5 court, courtyard
6 prostas – anteroom
7 prothyron – entrance
8 thyroreion – entrance passage
9 pastas – veranda
10 andron – mens' dining room
14 room's function uncertain;
bed chamber, living room, store etc.

Prostas house, house 33, Priene, Ionia (modern Turkey), 200–100 BC.
Pastas
A dwelling-type from the classical period of northern
Greece, 423–348 BC, with a courtyard in the centre of
the south side and deep columned veranda or pastas
affording access to rooms.
 5 court, courtyard
8 thyroreion – entrance passage
9 pastas – veranda
10 andron – mens' dining room
11 kitchen
14 room's function uncertain;
bed chamber, living room, store etc.

Pastas houses, Olynthus (Greece), c.300 BC.

Peristyle
A Greek dwelling-type whose open courtyard is
surrounded by colonnades on all sides, often more
luxurious than a prostas or pastas house.
 5 court, courtyard; 8 thyroreion – entrance passage; 9 pastas
– veranda; 10 andron – mens' dining room; 11 kitchen; 12
peristylion – peristyle; 13 hestia, eschara – altar; 14 room's
function uncertain; bed chamber, living room, store etc.

Peristyle house, Maison de la Colline, Delos (Greece), c.200 BC.

Urban Planning
Hippodamian Grid System
A rectilinear town layout in which blocks of dwellings are
divided up by narrow side streets linked together by
wider main roads, developed by the Ionian Hippodamus
of Miletus in the 5th century BC.
 A acropolis: citadel
B gate
C via sacra, sacra via: sacred road
D city walls
E agora: main square

MILETUS, Ionia, Ancient Greece (now Turkey); town plan probably by Hippodamus of Miletus c.450–400 BC.
 G nymphaeum: fountain house,
nymph temple
H temple
K plateia (pl. plateiai): main street
L steponos (pl. steponoi): side street
M gymnasion: sports hall
N stoa: colonnaded court
O thermae: baths
Q heroon (monopteros): heroic shrine
R synagogue (basilica)
T warehouse

MILETUS, Ionia, Ancient Greece (now Turkey); town plan probably by Hippodamus of Miletus c.450–400 BC.
 Roman
Architecture
Roman (300 B.C. - 365 A.D.)
▪ Ostentation, interiors were elaborately ornamented
and exteriors remained austere.
▪ Influenced by the Etruscans, and combined their use
of the arch, vault, and dome with the Greeks’ columns.
▪ The invention and development of concrete led to a
system of vaulting, which demonstrated their
sophisticated engineering skills.
▪ Placed an emphasis on monumental public buildings.
Roman (300 B.C. - 365 A.D.)
▪ Marble, granite, and alabaster were the primary facing
materials, as well as stucco and mosaics.
▪ Sophisticated building services such as, plumbing,
heating, and water supply.
▪ On an urban scale it also produced an impressive
array of planning elements.
The Roman Orders
The orders of ancient Roman classical architecture:
Tuscan or Etruscan and Composite.
The Roman Orders
▪ Tuscan
▪ Composite
TUSCAN
The Etruscans’ simplified version of the
Doric Order with smooth-shafted
columns, a simple capital, base and
entablature.
COMPOSITE
A classical Roman order, a hybrid of
Ionian and Corinthian, with fluted
columns, a capital with both volutes and
acanthus leaves, a base and an
entablature with dentils.
Materials and Methods
Opus
Plural opera, “work” (Latin); an artistic composition or
pattern, especially as used in relation to Roman
stonework and walling construction.
Roman concrete
Combined volcanic ash - called pozzolana - and lime
with sand, water, and gravel.
Advantages of using concrete
▪ Strong, cheap, and easy to use.
▪ Doesn’t have to be quarried, cut, or transported unlike
real stone.
▪ Can be mixed on the building site.
▪ Can be casted in a mold of virtually any shape.
1 opus siliceum: polygonal masonry, cyclopean masonry, Pelasgic masonry; 2 emplecton: coursed stone masonry;
3 graecorum structura – 'Greek construction'; 4 opus antiquum, opus incertum, opus intercentum,
coursed stone masonry; 5 opus gallicum, murus gallicus: 'Gallic wall'; 6 opus testaceum, opus latericium, opus
lateritium, brick-faced concrete

Roman masonry and concrete walling.

7 opus vittatum mixtum, opus mixtum vittatum, banded brick and ashlar; 8 opus listatum, banded brick and rubble;
9 opus reticulatum mixtum; 10 opus reticulatum – 'meshwork'; 11 opus quasi reticulatum; 12 opus africanum –
'African work'

Roman opus mixtum.

13 opus isodomum, opus quadratum, coursed ashlar; 14 opus pseudoisodomum; 15 opus spicatum: herringbone
brickwork; 16 opus craticium: wattle and daub; 17 opus signinum: rough render; 18 opus caementicium, opus
concretum, opus structile, structura caementic

Roman opus mixtum.

Arch
A curved structure for spanning an opening,
designed to support a vertical load primarily by axial
compression.
Parts of an arch.
Typologies, round arch.
Typologies, pointed arch.
Vault
An arched structure of stone, brick, or reinforced
concrete, forming a ceiling or roof over a hall room,
or other wholly or partially enclosed space.
Typologies, vault.
Civic Buildings
FORUM
Roman Forum, Italy.

The public square or marketplace of an

ancient Roman city, the center of judicial
and business affairs, and a place of
assembly for the people, usually
including a basilica and a temple.
Imperial Forum
No streets and no spatial or axial connections between
the spaces; the elements are simply bonded to each
other to create a sequence of open, colonnaded, and
enclosed spaces.
Imperial Forums.
Forum Romanum
Oldest forum in Rome; Republican Forum; Open space,
rectangular in shape, enclosed by different institutional
and public buildings, serving as the city's marketplace
and centre of public business.
Forum Romanum.
View eastward into the Forum Romanum.
BASILICA
Basilica of Maxentius. Rome.

A Roman building-type, rectangular in

shape with an apse at either end, used
as a meeting place, courthouse,
marketplace, and lecture hall.
 1 tribune – apse, podium
2 navis media – nave
3 aisle
4 chalcidicum – porch
5 porticus, portico, colonnade
6 exedra, apse
7 epicranitis – moulding
8 clerestory window
9 coffered ceiling

Basilica of Maxentius (Basilica of Constantine, Basilica Maxentii), Rome, 306–312 AD.

Basilica of Maxentius (Basilica of Constantine, Basilica Maxentii), Rome, 306–312 AD.
THERMAE
Thermae of Caracalla.

Establishments that were built for

washing, as well as exercising,
entertaining, and conducting business.
 20 vestibulum – entrance hall
21 main entrance
22 apodyterium – changing room
23 palaestra – wrestling area
24 ambulatio – exercise
25 balneum – bathing pool
26 destrictarium – massage
27 laconicum (dry), sudatorium (wet) – sweating rooms
28 schola – conversation
29 caldarium – hot baths
30 heliocaminus – a solar-heated room
31 tepidarium – lukewarm baths
32 frigidarium – cold baths
33 natatio – swimming pool
34 exedrae – libraries and lecture halls
35 xystus – gardens, parks
36 stadium or waterfall
38 aqueduct
39 tabernae – shops, restaurants
Thermae of Caracalla, Rome, 212–216 AD.
Thermae of Caracalla, Rome, 212–216 AD.
Hypocaust. System of flues on the floor or walls of Roman baths that provided central heating.
GYMNASIUM
Gymnasium of Hadrian, Ephesus,
Turkey.

Centre for sports, with buildings, playing

areas and baths.
 1 dromos – running track
2 xyst, xystus – passage, colonnade
3 sfairisterion, sphaeristerium – ball games
4 cryptoportico, cryptoporticus
5 palaestra – wrestling hall
6 korykeion, coryceum – boxing
7 ephebeion, ephebeum – main hall and classrooms
8 apodyterion – dressing room
9 elaiothesion, elaeothesium – oil and lotion store
10 alipterion, unctuarium – oiling and massage
11 konisterion, conisterium – sanding and powdering
12 laconicum (dry), sudatorium (wet) – steam bath
13 caldarium, calidarium – hot baths
14 tepidarium – lukewarm baths
15 frigidarium – cold baths

Gymnasium of Hadrian, Ephesus, Turkey.

AMPHITHEATER
Colosseum. Rome.

A classical arena for gladiatorial contests

and spectacles consisting of an oval or
round space surrounded by tiered
seating for spectators.
 1 Doric order, 1st storey
2 Ionic order, 2nd storey
3 Corinthian order, 3rd storey
4 Composite order, 4th storey
5 balteus, corona podii – parapet
6 podium – dignitaries' enclosure, 'ringside'
7 maenianum primum, ima cavea – first tier
8 maenianum media, media cavea – middle tier
9 maenianum summum, summa cavea – upper tier
10 maenianum summum in lignis – upper wooden tier,
'peanut gallery'
11 gradus – row of seats
12 praecinctio, precinctio, balteus – horizontal gangway
13 aditus – entrance to cavea
14 vomitorium (pl. vomitoria) – exit, escape route

Superimposed orders; elevation of amphitheatre; cavea, visorium – section through seating

 15 pulvinar – box, loge
(a) emperor's, (b) consuls' and Vestal virgins'
21 porta triumphalis – triumphal gate
22 porta pompae – ceremonial gate
23 porta libitinensis – funerary gate
24 porta sanavivaria – gate of life
25 hypogeum, hypogaeum – underground
spaces

Plan of amphitheatre
THEATRUM
Pompeii, Italy.

A Roman theatre building or structure; a

building or arena with a stage and
auditorium for the production and
performance of theatrical works.
 1 logeion, pulpitum – platform
2 proskenion, okribas, proscaenium
– front stage
3 hyposkenion – lower stage
4 episkenion – upper stage
5 skenotheke, scaena frons – stage
wall
6 aulaeum – curtain
7 parapetasma, siparium –
secondary curtain

Pompeii, Italy, c.30 AD; Oropus, Greece, c.200 BC.

 8 orkhestra, orchestra – choir
9 thymele – altar
10 paraskenion, versurae –
secondary stage
11 parados, itinera versurarum –
side entrance
12 thyroma – stage door
21 prohedria – front seats
22 podium – diginitary seating
23 kerkis, kekrides, cuneus –
seating block
24 diazoma, praecinctio – gangway
25 klimakes – steps
26 gradus – seating row

Priene (principle), Turkey, c.350–300 BC;

CURIA
Curia Julia.

Senate house; Greek Prytaneion.

TRIUMPHAL
ARCH
The Arch of Constantine, Rome.

A large arched monument constructed in

a public urban place to commemorate a
great event, usually a victory in war.
CIRCUS
Circus Maximus.

In Roman architecture, a long U-shaped

or enclosed arena for chariot and horse
racing; Greek hippodrome.
32 balbides, carceres – starting gates; 33 porta triumphalis; 34 spina – dividing wall; 35 meta prima; 36 meta
secunda; 37 quadriga – four-horsed chariot.

Plan, Roman circus.

AQUEDUCT
Pont du Gard.

A bridge or other structure designed to

convey fresh water, usually a canal or
river supported by piers and arches, or a
tunnel; from the Latin, aquae ductus,
‘conveyance of water’.
DRAINAGE
Cloaca Maxima.

Main storm drainage system; one of the

world’s earliest sewage system.
PONS
Bridge of Augustus, Rimini, Italy.
PALACE
Palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia.

Diocletian’s Palace is part fortified camp,

part city, and part villa. It is in the form of
a slightly irregular rectangle (175 by 216
meters) protected by walls and gates,
with towers projecting from the western,
northern, and eastern facades
 Decumanus
The principal straight axis or street of a Roman
town, encampment etc., generally running east–
west and crossed towards one end by the cardo.

Cardo
Shorter main axis or street in a typical Roman
city, town or military encampment (castrum),
running north to south and crossing the principal
street or decumanus

Palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia.

Pantheon, Rome, Italy.
TEMPLE
Pantheon, Rome, Italy.

The world's largest unreinforced

concrete dome.
It served as a temple, church, and tomb
for the past centuries.
The building was sited in an area north
of the old city center known as Campus
Martius.
12 exedra, exhedra – niche; 13 lacunar, coffered ceiling; 14 caisson, coffer;
15 oculus, opaion – circular rooflight; 16 dome

Reflected ceiling, floor plan, and section. Pantheon, Rome, 118–126 AD

Residential Buildings
Domus
The patrician townhouse; Has party
walls on its flanks and an enclosed back
area, its principal opening to the exterior
is located on the street front.
Elements of a typical Roman house.
Insula
Casa di Diana. Italy.

A Roman masonry and concrete

tenement block for the labouring
classes, often a multistorey structure
with commercial premises and
workshops (tabernae) at street level;
originally the plot of land bounded by
urban streets, on which one was built.
 On Street Level
1 taberna – shop or workshop
2 courtyard, light well

Casa di Diana – Insula of Diana, Ostia, 130–40 BC.

Villa
Villa dei Misteri.

A large classical Roman country house

with an estate; originally divided into two
parts, the pars urbana, or living area,
and pars rustica or working area.
 4 atrium – court
5 impluvium – pool
12 tablinum – reception room and
archive
13 fauces – entrance passage
14 culina – kitchen
15 lavatrina – washroom
19 peristylium – colonnaded court
21 triclinium aestivum – outdoor
dining area

Villa dei Misteri – Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, c.200–100 BC.

Atrium house
Casa di Trebius Valens.

A Roman dwelling type in which the

building mass surrounds a main central
space, the atrium, open to the sky.
 3 vestibulum – entrance hall
4 atrium – court
5 impluvium – pool
6 lararium – altar
7 compluvium – opening
8 cubiculum – bed chamber
9 triclinium – dining room
10 ala – alcove
11 oecus, oikos – dining room
12 tablinum – reception room and archive
13 fauces – entrance passage
14 culina – kitchen
15 lavatrina – washroom
16 balneum, balineum – bathroom
17 porticus – veranda
18 exedra, exhedra – reception room
19 peristylium – colonnaded court
20 piscina, fons – pool
21 triclinium aestivum – outdoor dining area
22 coenatio, cenatio – dining room

Casa di Trebius Valens – house of Trebius Valens, Pompeii.

Vitruvius
▪ Marcus Vitruvius Pollio;
▪ Wrote De architectura (On architecture), known today
as the “Ten Books on Architecture”.
▪ firmitas, utilitas, venustas (durability, usefulness, and
beauty)