Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good

 What is Justice?
Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving
each person his or her due. Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often today used
interchangeably. There have, however, also been more distinct understandings of the two terms.
Justice usually has been used with reference to a standard of rightness.
The most fundamental principle of justice that has been widely accepted since it was first
defined by Aristotle (2000 years ago). Aristotle stated that "equals should be treated equally and
unequals unequally."
It means that "Individuals should be treated the same, unless they differ in ways that are
relevant to the situation in which they are involved." For example, if Jack and Jill both do the same
work, and there are no relevant differences between them or the work they are doing, then in justice
they should be paid the same wages. And if Jack is paid more than Jill simply because he is a man,
or because he is white, then we have an injustice a form of discrimination because race and sex
are not relevant to normal work situations.
On the other hand, there are also criteria that we believe are not justifiable grounds for
giving people different treatment. In the world of work, for example, we generally hold that it is
unjust to give individuals special treatment on the basis of age, sex, race, or their religious
preferences. If the judge's nephew receives a suspended sentence for armed robbery when another
offender unrelated to the judge goes to jail for the same crime, or the brother of the Director of
Public Works gets the million dollar contract to install sprinklers on the municipal golf course
despite lower bids from other contractors, we say that it's unfair. We also believe it isn't fair when
a person is punished for something over which he or she had no control, or isn't compensated for
a harm he or she suffered.
Nevertheless, justice is an expression of our mutual recognition of each other's basic dignity,
and an acknowledgement that if we are to live together in an interdependent community we must
treat each other as equals.
Different Kinds of Justice
1. Retributive or Corrective justice

Retributive justice refers to the extent to which punishments are fair and just. In
general, punishments are held to be just to the extent that they take into account relevant
criteria such as the seriousness of the crime and the intent of the criminal, and discount
irrelevant criteria such as race. It would be barbarously unjust, for example, to chop off a
person's hand for stealing a dime, or to impose the death penalty on a person who by
accident and without negligence injured another party. Studies have frequently shown that
when blacks murder whites, they are much more likely to receive death sentences than
when whites murder whites or blacks murder blacks. These studies suggest that injustice
still exists in the criminal justice system in the United States.
 2. Compensatory justice

Compensatory justice refers to the extent to which people are fairly compensated
for their injuries by those who have injured them; just compensation is proportional to the
loss inflicted on a person. This is precisely the kind of justice that is at stake in debates
over damage to workers' health in coal mines. Some argue that mine owners should
compensate the workers whose health has been ruined. Others argue that workers
voluntarily took on this risk when they chose employment in the mines.

3. Distributive justice

Refers to the extent to which society's institutions ensure that benefits and burdens
are distributed among society's members in ways that are fair and just. When the
institutions of a society distribute benefits or burdens in unjust ways, there is a strong
presumption that those institutions should be changed. For example, the American
institution of slavery in the pre-civil war South was condemned as unjust because it was a
glaring case of treating people differently based on race.

Examples of Justice Coming from Different Perspectives:

1. In a recent court case, a man sued the driver who ran into his car for $5,000 in damages to his
automobile; $4,300 in medical bills; and $1,000 for inconveniences caused by the accident.
2. Before hiring a person to fill a vacancy in a governmental agency, the agency must advertise
the availability of the position and provide all applicants the opportunity to take a written
examination and to have an interview
3. During the Middle Ages, people were sometimes forced to confess to crimes by the use of
torture.
4. If you are accused of a crime, the government has the obligation to provide a lawyer to assist
you at public expense if you cannot afford one.

 What is Fairness?

Fairness is concerned with actions, processes, and consequences, that are morally right
honorable, and equitable. In essence, the virtue of fairness establishes moral standards for
decisions that affect others. Fair decisions are made in an appropriate manner based on appropriate
criteria.

It is the impartial and just treatment or behavior without favoritism or discrimination.

Fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general
but that are concrete and specific to a particular case. Fairness can be interpreted as being equal in
provision, in opportunity or in result.
 Being fair can be seen as equality in the sense that everyone gets the same thing. This has
the limtation that everyone may not want, need, deserve or even be able to use the same thing.

A common view of fairness in the Western systems, and especially in the US, is to provide
equal opportunity, for people to use in what way they can. This is seen as fair, so everyone gets
the same starting point, and difference in performance is assumed to be due to individual initiative,
intelligence, hard work, etc.
Examples of Fairness coming from different Perspectives:
1. Most of us think it is fair and just when a parent gives his own children more attention
and care in his private affairs than he gives the children of others.

2. In the eyes of the majority it is fair when the person who is first in a line at a theater is
given first choice of theater tickets.

3. We think it is just when the government gives benefits to the needy that it does not
provide to more affluent citizens.

4. We think it is just when some who have done wrong are given punishments that are
not meted out to others who have done nothing wrong .

5. We think it is fair when those who exert more efforts or who make a greater
contribution to a project receive more benefits from the project than others.
Principles of Fairness
Fairness requires that we:
• Treat all people equitably based on their merits and abilities and handle all essentially similar
situations similarly and with consistency.
• Make all decisions on appropriate criteria, without undue favoritism or improper prejudice.
• Never blame or punish people for what they did not do, and appropriately sanction those who
violate moral obligations or laws.
• Promptly and voluntarily correct personal and institutional mistakes and improprieties.
• Not take unfair advantage of people’s mistakes or ignorance.
• Fully consider the rights, interests, and perspectives of all. Approach judgments with open-
minded impartiality (setting aside prejudices and predispositions), conscientiously gather and
verify facts, provide critical stakeholders with an opportunity to explain or clarify, and carefully
evaluate the information.
  What is common good?

The common good (also commonwealth, common weal or general welfare) refers to either
what is shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what
is achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and
public service.

From the era of the ancient Greek city-states through contemporary political philosophy,
the idea of the common good has pointed toward the possibility that certain goods, such as security
and justice, can be achieved only through citizenship, collective action, and active participation in
the public realm of politics and public service. In effect, the notion of the common good is a denial
that society is and should be composed of atomized individuals living in isolation from one
another. Instead, its proponents have asserted that people can and should live their lives as citizens
deeply embedded in social relationships.

The notion of the common good has been a consistent theme in Western political
philosophy, most notably in the work of Aristotle, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau. It has been most clearly developed in the political theory of republicanism, which has
contended that the common good is something that can only be achieved through political means
and the collective action of citizens participating in their own self-government. At the same time,
the notion of the common good has been closely bound up with the idea of citizenship, a mutual
commitment to common goods and the value of political action as public service. Therefore, it has
played a prominent role in the defense of republican constitutional arrangements, notably the
defense of the Constitution of the United States in the Federalist papers.
The notion of the common good was next taken up in the late 15th and early 16th centuries in
the work of Machiavelli, most famously in The Prince. Machiavelli contended that securing the
common good would depend upon the existence of virtuous citizens.
Aristotle stared that "good proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually
shared by its members." However, Adam Smith proposed “Individual ambition serves the common
good.” On the other hand, John Rawl –said that “"certain general conditions that are...equally to
everyone's advantage"
In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract, composed in the mid-18th century,
Rousseau argues that society can function only to the extent that individuals have interests in
common, and that the end goal of any state is the realization of the common good.

 Is Justice and Fairness the same?

The notions of justice and fairness are very difficult to disentangle. It is often assumed that
there is no difference between the two ideas and hence that justice and fairness are of equal
importance.
 Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often today used interchangeably.
There have, however, also been more distinct understandings of the two terms. While justice
usually has been used with reference to a standard of rightness, fairness often has been used with
regard to an ability to judge without reference to one's feelings or interests; fairness has also been
used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that are concrete and
specific to a particular case

According to Chris Cooke justice and fairness refer to different concepts. Justice is about
the state giving to people their due, whilst fairness is about people’s position in society being
determined by factors within their control. Fairness is not appropriate as a principle of justice
because as Cohen shows, it is impossible to have inequalities of outcome determined by factors
within people’s control, and egalitarianism fails to provide incentives for the gifted to use their
skills to benefit all. Rawls rejects egalitarianism, but claims to support fairness, and thus misses
this aspect of control that is crucial to fairness. The concepts of justice and fairness ideas make
justice inherently more important because of its links with moral obligation.

Research and words by: Ermille Murrielle Sunglao and Kenneth Sumaoang
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
Distributive justice refers to the socially just distribution of goods to the society. This
shows a huge amount of fairness in allocation of resources among diverse members of a
community. The concept includes the available amounts of goods, the process by which goods
are to be allocated, and the resulting allocation of the goods to the members of the society.
In social psychology, distributive justice concerns the perceived fairness of how rewards
and costs are distributed across group members. For example, in a company, when workers are
paid with different amount of salaries, distributive justice is absent. Therefore, everyone deserves
to get the same amount of reward or costs without considering the input.
There are five types of distributive justice norms proposed by Donelson R. Forsyth:
First is equity, everyone must be given an equal amount of reward or cost regardless of the
input. This means that one who contributed 30% of the work should be given the same amount of
compensation as the one who contributed 80% input. ‘
The second type is called equality. This opposes the principle of equity. The allocation of
rewards or costs between the members is based on the amount of their input. So the larger the input
– either time, money, or effort – the larger would be the amount to be given back.
The next one is power. This refers to the people who have the authority, power or control
over the group should receive a larger amount of reward over those in lower levels. This is actually
applied with most of the company in our country. The amount of salaries of the workers are based
on their job/position. If you are on the higher level of the hierarchy means you have power over
the lower ones and that means getting larger amount of salary.
 The fourth one is the need. Those who are in need should be given the resources need in
order to meet their needs. These people should be prioritized than those who have already enough
resources regardless of their input. For example, in our country, the lack of resources of our
indigenous group of people must be taken an action for them to meet and satisfy their needs.
The last one is responsibility. This concerns that those people who already have the most
shared amount should give a part to those who have less. If others receive amount of resources that
are not enough to satisfy their needs, and you know that you that you have more of it, let it be your
responsibility to give them some of yours.
The only goal of distributive justice is the just allocation of resources to all of the group
members. It is the distribution of the burdens and benefits of an activity.

EGALITARIAN
It is a doctrine and/or philosophical perspective that prioritizes equality – equal treatment
among people in terms of gender, race, religion, economic status and political beliefs. It opposes
the income/distribution inequality – the idea that contributed to the creation of different
economic and political systems. In addition, Karl Marx took egalitarianism as the fundamental
key in the development of his Marxist philosophy. Moreover, John Locke’s proposal regarding
individuals had natural rights is also influenced by egalitarianism.
Several countries are subject to egalitarianism such as Finland, Czech Republic, Ukraine
and many more. In addition, Ukraine, an independent country in the Eastern part of Europe, is
considered to be the world’s leading nation regarding income equality among its people. Even
though it could be seen that there are advantages regarding egalitarianism, it couldn’t be denied
that it also has its downfall. Hence, Ukraine still belongs to the poorest nations resulting to its
poor infrastructures, bureaucracy and corruption.
Legal egalitarianism refers to the principle that everyone is subject to the same law. No
matter what your standing is, upper class or lower class, you still have no special legal
protections over the other. Even though you are a government official, once you committed a
crime, you will still get the same sanction as what your lower people would get.
However, political egalitarianism supports the principle of democracy wherein every
person has equal standing but with respect with the government power. This means that, since
you are a government official, you have the power and authority over the other.
Moreover, economic egalitarianism refers to the principle of everyone has the right to
collect or accumulate income. Hence, every individual has the opportunity to produce money
within the system. This is where free market economy takes place. Free market economy refers
to a system wherein the prices of goods and services are decided by open market and by
consumers. In line with this, the state or the government has only a little or no control at all
regarding the laws and forces of supply and demand.
Egalitarianism advocates for equality and fairness. However, it wouldn’t be that fair for a
more skilled-worker to be paid as the same as a regular skilled-worker. For example, in a
company, there are two workers, a male and a female, both from different ethnicity. Both of
them do the same job with the same effort put in it. It doesn’t matter if they are black and white,
female or male, as long as they do the job assigned, egalitarian gives them the opportunity to be
paid equally.
Research and words by: Kristine Diane Santiago
CAPITALISM
Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of
capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production,
and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly by competition in a free market.
Capitalism in better thought of as a system of distribution rather than a theory of
distribution. I mean by that that Capitalism is a system where burdens and benefits are
distributed more or less according to market forces. When individuals argue in favor of
capitalism as the best or the preferred system of distribution they usually do so on the basis of
other moral theories of distributive justice.
Individual rights rule the capitalistic ideal and implementation. Private individuals, small
businesses, organizations, and corporations make independent decisions about prices,
production, and distribution of goods, ideally resulting in a self-regulating market.
A capitalist society is one that supremely values: first, private property rights; second, the
enforcement of contracts; and third, voluntary exchange. However, there are varying deviations
from capitalism's purest form, most specifically when private property rights are eroded by
governmental influence.
The kind of impact that capitalism has on your life depends on whether you’re a worker
or a boss. For someone who owns a company and employs other workers, capitalism may make
sense: The more profits your company brings in, the more resources you have to share with your
workers, which theoretically improves everyone’s standard of living. It’s all based on the
principle of supply and demand, and in capitalism, consumption is king. The problem is that
many capitalist bosses aren’t great at sharing the wealth, which is why one of the major critiques
of capitalism is that it is a huge driver of inequality, both social and economic.
Capitalism’s supporters believe in several key points: Economic freedom leads to
political freedom and having a state-owned means of production can lead to federal overreach
and authoritarianism. They view it as the only sensible way to organize a society, insisting that
alternatives like socialism, communism, or anarchism are doomed to fail.
Anti-capitalists view capitalism as an inhuman, anti-democratic, unsustainable, deeply
exploitative system that must be dismantled. They see it as inherently at odds with democracy
because of how capitalist bosses hold power over workers in the workplace and the fact that, the
more capital one accrues, the more power they have.
Research and words by: Hajie Elijah Joy Santos and Anne Marella Soguilon
SOCIALISM
"From each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution."
The mantra of socialism indicates that everyone in society should receive a share of the
production based on how much each has contributed which motivates them to work long hours if
they want to receive more.
Meaning, socialism is an economic system where everyone in society equally owns the factors of
production namely labor, entrepreneurship, capital goods, and natural resources. The ownership
is acquired through a democratically elected government while it could also be a cooperative or a
public corporation where everyone owns shares
In a socialist country, workers receive their share after a percentage has been deducted for the
common good which includes transportation, defense, and education. This common good also
encompasses caring for those who can't directly contribute to production like the elderly,
children, and their caretakers.
All legal production and distribution decisions are made by the government, and individuals rely
on the state for everything from food to healthcare. The government determines output and
pricing levels of these goods and services.
 Advantages of Socialism
1. Since workers own the means of production, they are no longer exploited under the political
ideology of socialism. All profits are spread justifiably among all workers, according to his or
her contribution and even those who can't work must have their basic needs met, for the good of
the whole.
2. The system eradicates poverty which means everyone has equal access to health care and
education and no one is discriminated against.
3. Everyone works at what one is best at and what one enjoys. If society needs jobs to be done
that no one wants, it offers higher compensation to make it worthwhile.
4. Preservation of natural resources.
 Disadvantages of Socialism
1. The reliability on the cooperative nature of humans to work is the biggest advantage of
socialism. It refutes those within society who are competitive, not cooperative.
2. Socialism doesn't reward people for being competitive and entrepreneurial. As such, it won't
be as innovative as a capitalistic society.
3. The government that is set up to represent the masses may abuse its position and claim power
for itself.
Types of Socialism
1. Democratic Socialism - the factors of production are managed by a democratically elected
government.
2. Revolutionary Socialism - socialism that will emerge only after capitalism has been
destroyed. In here, “There is no peaceful road to socialism”.
3. Libertarian Socialism – this assumes that the basic nature of people is rational, autonomous,
and self-determining. Once the structures of capitalism have been removed, people will naturally
seek a socialist society that takes care of all because they see that it is the best for their own self-
interest.
4. Market Socialism - the production is owned by the workers. They decide how to distribute
among themselves. They would sell excess production on the free market. Alternatively, it could
be turned over to society, which would distribute it according to the free market.
5. Green Socialism - this type of socialistic economy highly values the maintenance of natural
resources. It emphasizes public transit and locally sourced food. Its production focuses on
making sure everyone has enough of the basics instead of consumer products one doesn't really
need.
6. Utopian Socialism - this was more a vision of equality than a concrete plan. It would be
achieved peacefully through a series of experimental societies.

THE STATES AND CITIZENS: RESPONSIBILITIES TO EACH OTHER: THE

PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION AND INCLUSIVE GROWTH
What is a state?
State – it is the means of rule over a defined or “sovereign” territory. It is comprised of
an executive, a bureaucracy, courts and other institutions. It is more than just a government
because government changes while state doesn’t. A state operates a military and police force as
well as charges and imposes taxes.
According to Sidgwick, “State is a combination or association of persons in the form of
government and governed and united together into a politically organized people of a definite
territory.”
Responsibility of the State
One of the responsibilities of the government is to collect taxes to pay for the goods and
services. Most state and local government revenues come from sales taxes, grants from the
federal government, personal income taxes and property taxes. Understanding the role of citizens
as taxpayers and the role of government in providing goods and services to the public can help
prepare people to be fully engaged citizens.
What is a citizen?
Citizen – a person who is entitled to enjoy all the legal rights and privileges granted by a
state to the people comprising its constituency, and is obliged to obey its laws and to fulfill his or
duties as called upon.
Duties of a Citizen
A duty or an obligation is something that a citizen is required to do, by law. Some
duties/obligations are:
1. Serving on juries
2. Defending the nation
3. Obeying laws
4. Paying taxes
TAXATION: ITS MEANING AND PRINCIPLES
Tax is the most important source of government revenue. It is a compulsory payment made by
individuals and companies to the government on the basis of certain well-established rules or
criteria such as income earned, property owned, capital gains made or expenditure incurred
(money spent) on domestic and imported articles.
Since many people object to paying taxes, taxation involves compulsion. The taxpayers are
required to make certain payments, regardless of their individual wishes or desires in the matter.
Principles of Taxation
The principles of taxation which is the appropriate criteria to be employed in the development
and evaluation of the tax structure, have received attention from the days of Adam Smith.
Adam Smith developed his four famous canons of taxation:
1. Equity. The amount payable by taxpayers should be equal, by which he meant proportional to
income;
2. Ability. The taxpayer should know for certain how much he will have to pay.
3. Convenience. There should be convenience of payment;
4. Economy. Taxes should not be imposed if their cost of collection is excessive.
The following are the most important principles of taxation:
1. Neutrality. As a general rule, people do not like tax payment. In fact, every tax provides an
incentive to do something to avoid it. Since the government is under compulsion to collect taxes,
it is not possible to guarantee complete neutrality. The tax system must, therefore, seek to
achieve neutrality, by minimizing the disturbance to the market that comes from taxation.
2. Non-neutrality. Sometimes it becomes essential to maintain non-neutrality for meeting
certain social objectives. These objectives can be secured by providing tax incentives. This
means that in some cases, it may be desirable to disturb the private market.
For example, the government may impose tax on polluting activities, so as to discourage firms to
pollute the environment. Likewise, a tax on cigarettes will serve a two-fold purpose: raising
revenue and discouraging consumption of this harmful item. In both the cases, the market is
disturbed but in a desirable way.
3. Equity. Taxation involves compulsion. Therefore, it is important for the tax system to be fair.
On grounds of equity it has been suggested that a tax system should be based on a principle of
equal sacrifice or ability to pay. The latter is determined by (a) income or wealth and (b) personal
circumstances.
INCLUSIVE GROWTH: ITS MEANING AND PRINCIPLES
Inclusive growth is defined as “broad-based growth that enables the widest range of people and
places to contribute to economic success, and to benefit from it too. Its purpose is to achieve
more prosperity alongside greater equity in opportunities and outcomes”.
Principles of Inclusive Growth
1. Creating a shared-binding mission – show a commitment to inclusive growth as the shared
endeavor with a common vision for change.
2. Measuring the human experience of growth, nut just its rate – measure what we value and
what we want to achieve.
3. See growth as a social system, not just a machine – solve what is having an impact, where
and why, and where services or spending are having perverse effects on inclusive growth
outcomes.
4. Be an agile investor at scale – make sure there is strategic, integrated finance for social and
physical infrastructure, to maximize the value of public, private and their sector investment.
5. Entrepreneurial, whole-place leadership – bring together, at a place level, business, civil
society and political leaders, formally and informally, to drive system-change.
Research and words by: Fatima Clyde Santos