The Council of Nicaea - Constantines Sword or Shield
The Council of Nicaea - Constantines Sword or Shield
The Council of Nicaea - Constantines Sword or Shield
2009
Recommended Citation
Gaskill, Pamela T., "The Council of Nicaea: Constantine's Sword or Shield?" (2009). Master of Liberal Studies Theses. 35.
http://scholarship.rollins.edu/mls/35
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The Council of Nicaea:
by
Pamela T. Gaskill
December, 2009
Rollins College
Hamilton Holt School
Master of Liberal Studies Program Winter Park, Florida
L
The Council of Nicaea:
Seminar Director
L
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 1
VI. CONCLUSION 70
VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 73
Preface
Christian doctrine. I It is a fixed formula summarizing the essential articles of faith for a
textually determined confess ion of faith 2 Historically, creeds are convenient summaries
arising out of definite religious situations, designed to meet the needs of the church and
places demands on members to affirm what they believe by reciting the creed:
The Nicene Creed emerged from an empire that was newly anointed as Christian
and ruled by a pagan emperor who exhibited favoritism towards the religion but did not
fully convert by being baptized until the end of his life. Destabilizing events in the empire
spurred the emperor to action, and he called for a council of bishops in 32SCE. to bring
sol idarity to the church. A product of thi s council is a creed that all members could recite
in order to prove their orthodoxy to the early church. The intended consequence of thi s
creed was uniformity in Christianity- which created a church that would be strong in its
support for the emperor and God. Its development was not sol ely to determine a person's
I Pelikan, Jaroslav. Credo: Historical and Theological Guide to Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the
Christian Tradition. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 3.
2 Pelikan, 4.
J Pelikan, 4.
4 Johnson, Luke Timoth y. The Creed: What Christians Believe and Why it Matters. (New York: Double
day, 2003), 301.
2
orthodoxy or beliefs, but it was designed to be a tool that ousted heretics and protected
This paper examines events from the late third century to the Council of Nicaea in
32Sc.E. All dates that appear in this paper reference the Common Era unless otherwise
noted. Also, all Biblical references are from the New International Version of the Bible
unless otherwise noted. Furthermore, this paper does not question the authority of the
scholars or their translation of ancient texts but accepts them as proven scholarly work.
The scope of this paper is not to debate the differences in translation of ancient texts but
rather to examine how the Council of Nicaea changed the path of orthodox Christianity
Chapter I
Why Has Jesus Not Returned? The Quandary Within The Early Church
The original followers of Christ faced a quandary when Jesus did not return after
hi s ascension into heaven. His message was one of a triumphant return that also included
believers obtaining the kingdom of heaven 5 As the decades passed and Jesus did not
return to gather his followers, the apostles began reinterpreting hi s message in order to
explain his absence. They set precedence for Christian scripture. As the church grew, so
did the focus on Jesus' return, and a new directive emerged in the infant church.
Early, cryptic references to when the Kingdom of God will return to Earth are
scattered throughout the New Testament. The elusive nature of the messages provides the
foundation for how they would be reinterpreted decades later, when Jesus had still not
returned to Earth to gather his followers. Beginning in Matthew 10:7, Jesus tells hi s
disc iples to go ahead, preaching, "The kingdom of heaven is at hand." Directing them on
their mi ssion, he also tells hi s disciples that should they face persecution in a city, they
should flee from the city; however, they will not have gone through all the cities of Israel
before the Son of Man comes. 6 As the decades passed and Jesus did not return, different
sects began to interpret the meaning of this passage differently . One believed that this
7
particular passage proves that Jesus returned in 70 C.E} while another believes in the
5Matthew 3:2, Matthew 4: 17, Matthew 10:7 - Jesus' message to the people tells them to repen t for the
kingdom of heaven is near. He also tells his disciples that as they go forth to heal the sick and spread his
message, they should also tell the people to prepare, for the kingdom of God is at hand. Reiterating this
message in early chapters, the purpose is clear; those who follow Jesus believe that his return will be soon
and they must prepare for it.
6 Matthew 10:23
prophetic nature of the pas sage and the future coming of Jesus 9 The evaluation of this
verse in particular reveals the dualistic nature of scripture. Depending on one 's
different significance to future readers. The ability to interpret the gospel enables faith
leaders to illuminate the message they believe Jesus was trying to share with future
Additionally, in Matthew 24:34, Jesus tells his followers that this generation will
lo
not pass away until all the signs have been completed. Jesus also says in Matthew that
there are men standing before him who will not taste death till they see the Son of Man
coming in his kingdom and that all hi s followers should be ready for the Lord, because
they do not know in what hour he will return. I I Both Matthew 24 and Matthew 10 imply
that the return of the Lord will occur within the lifetimes of hi s followers, making the
return of Christ a quick event rather than something that would span the centuries. When
he does not return within the lifetime of the original disciples, it became necessary to
which actually happened in the first century after Christ's birth. This theory pertains to Matthew 10:23
because preterists see this verse as being in specific to the apostles and their time period. Jesus was stating
that before Ihey could fini sh their mission, he would return.
JO In Matthew 24, the disciples asked Jesus, "What shall be the sign of that coming?" In response, Jesus
listed the amictions that would bound upon the Earth. Following these signs, the Son of Man will relurn;
however, only the Father knows when this day wi ll occur.
The Gospels of Mark and Luke also highlight Jesus talking about the return of his
kingdom .12 The early gospels in the New Testament tout the message of Jesus returning
to Earth quickly because his followers believed after his resurrection that the kingdom
would soon follow . As the disciples spread Jesus' message, the notion that the kingdom
of God was at hand grew as the numbers of followers also grew. This evidence in the
New Testament shows there was a belief in the return of the Lord ; however, as time
passed and Jesus does not return, an obvious problem is at hand. As time progressed, and
the church developed and became more organized, it later modified this belief in favor of
a spiritual kingdom on earth until the "Second Coming.,,1 3 While not changing the literal
message, the intended meaning of the kingdom of God and Jesus' return was altered in
order to satisfy the desire of believers to know why Jesus had not returned to Earth.
As the second century approached without the return of Christ, many Christians
started to reinterpret Jesus ' message about returning to Earth. Rather than making it a
physical return, the focus turned on spiritually preparing for the return of Jesus. The Book
of Acts, written later in the first century as a follow up to the Gospel of Luke, explains
that the moment of Jesus' return is unknown. 14 Th is is significant because the Book of
Acts provides an alleged written history of the early church. IS In the fifth chapter of Acts,
Peter retorts to the Pharisees, who had imprisoned the apostles for spreading the message
of God, that Jesus is now at the right hand of God so that he will forgi ve of sins in
13 Kautsky, Karl ; (Translator) Heruy F. Mins. Foundations a/Christianity. (New York : Monthly Press
Review, 1925), 356.
Israel. 16 Assigning Jesus a location in heaven, at the right hand of God, corroborates the
first chapter of Acts stating the time Jesus will return is unknown. Proto-orthodox
denominations,1 7 believe that Jesus connects to his followers through the Holy Spirit,
whereas sects , such as the Gnostics, believe that Jesus reconnects directly through visions
with his followers. While the mode of communication to followers on Earth varies, the
includes the preparation man needs to make to be ready at any time for the coming of
Christ. 18 The individual must make himself ready at the end of his life, which would, in
turn, denote the possibility of Jesus' return at any moment. 19 Once Jesus' followers
recognized that the physical return of the kingdom was truly uncertain, the focus shifted
away from the sudden, literal , end-of-the-world prophecy. As the new sects and believers
adapted to the changing interpretation, new paths developed for believers, and the
16 Acts 5:31.
17 Ehrman, Bart D .. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. (NY:
Oxford UP, 2004), 10. Proto-Orthodox Christianity is defined by Bart D. Ehrman as one of the many
religious sects following the teachings of lesus Christ. As the sect grew and evolved, it became the
dominant form of modem Christianity that is still practiced today. It incorporated ideas from lewish-
Christians, the Marcioniles, and the Gnostics. Erhman also says that this is a group which "stifled its
opposition, it claimed that its views had always been the majority position and its rivals were and always
had been, heretics who willfully chose to reject the true belief."
19 Tillich, Paul. A History of Christian Thought: From Its Judaic and Hellenistic Origins to Existentialism.
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967),41.
7
Paul, a missionary apostle, mainly to the Gentiles, breaks from the first Christians
who expected that the Lord would return quickly after his resurrection 20 Recognizing his
position as apostle to the Gentiles also invol ved him in a controversy in changing the
focus of Jesus' message about his return 21 He perceived the doctrine about the
apocalyptical return of Jesus was a liability in the Greek world where the focus was on
the beginning of things and not the end of things 22 In his teachings of Jesus, as he knew
them, he adapted a language that was conducive in the Greek world, becoming the first
Christian apologist. 23 Furthermore, his teachings shifted to "Christ as the Wisdom of God
24
in creation" rather than the Kingdom of God is at hand. According to Paul, the Lord is
spiritually present in his church as it grows. This church is united through its believers
who have faith in Jesus and are baptized in hi s name?S Together, they look to the epistles
and the message of Jesus as a model for their lives and a way to prepare for the return of
their Lord.
Furthermore, Paul moves away from the Christian Jews who preached to the
Gentiles that it is necessary for them to follow the Law as laid out in the Torah. Hi s
message to his followers tells them that anyone who follows the Law has misu nderstood
20Chadwick. The Early Church: The Penguin History of the Church. (Boston: Penguin (Non-Classics),
1993),20. Paul's notable achievement involved gai ning Ihe Gentile Christians equal status as members of
the church.
21 Ibid, 20.
22 Chadwick, 20.
23Chadwick, 20. Paul is the first Christian apologist because he charged himself with defending and
proving the truth of Christian doctrines
24 Chadwick, 20.
25 Chadwick, 20.
8
26
the gospels Paul separates himself from the Jews and the Law in order to persuade
more believers in his message. If there are no stipulations attached to converting, such as
following the Law, which included circumcision and the dietary laws, then Gentiles were
more likely to convert to the new religion. As Paul's message to the Gentiles spreads
farther from Jerusalem, the Gentile Christians were disinterested in the idea of the
community of "last days.'.27 The new Gentile followers were unaware of the message
that the Kingdom of God was returning in their lifetimes. Looking forward , Paul deviated
from the message of the quick return of Christ and instead looked for the wisdom of
Christ in the surrounding world and how to leach the new followers to model their lives
Paul's message to the Gentiles was not unique in its deviation from the Jewish
Christian sect. Other sects that centered around James arose that taught variation s of
Jesus' message and instructed different ways to find Jesus and the Kingdom of God.
Marcion of Sinope,28 a preacher between 85-160, was excommunicated from the church
in 144 for his dissention with the proto-orthodox church ?9 The church teachers di smi ssed
his teachings because he dismissed the Old Testament as not being relevant and he
purged the New Testament of all Jewish references, which he felt were added by scribes
26 Ehrman. Bart D .. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. (New
York: Oxford University Press, USA, 2005), 98.
27 Bultmann, Rudolf. Primitive Christianity In Irs Contemporary Selling. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1956). 176.
28Ehrman, Bart D, 103-104. Marcion and his followers were seen as a threat to the chu rch. He completely
rejected Jewish customs, scriptures, and the God of the Old Testament. The writings of Marcion and his
followers have all disappeared ; the only informat ion that exists is information written by his opposition.
29 Valantasis, Richard. The Beliefnet Guide to Gnosticism and Other Vanished Christianities (Beliefnet
Guides). (New York : Three Leaves, 2006), 63.
9
who did not understand Jesus' true message 30 This view was heretical in the early
church. Leaving only the Gospel of Luke,31 Marcion also preached to his followers that
Jesus did not have a human body; thus , he did not have to be born of a human mother 32
Hi s message to his followers also stated that Jesus came into this world in order to save it
from the vengeful God of the Jews 33 His level of threat to the Proto-Orthodox Church is
evident in the amount of anti-Marcionite literature that exists and that his own work has
not surv ived the millinea. The attack stressed the need of the organizing church to quash
opposition and create uniformity. By denouncing Marcion' s preaching, the new church
flexed its growing power. Marcionites represented one faction that opposed the church
and its teachings during a turbulent time when the bounds of Christianity were not
Christianity that held onto different beliefs and interpretations of Jesus' message and
purpose on Earth.
Jesus' early followers were Jews because they knew he was a Jew. They believed
34
he was the messiah and that he fulfilled the old covenant One sect of the first Jewish
Christians were the Ebionites 35 As with the Marcionites, the Ebionites left no writings;
30 Ehrman, 108.
]] Valantasis, 65-66. Marcion removed the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and John because he felt they were
corrupt beyond repair. Only the Gospel of Luke was to be trusted because it presented Jesus in a Roman
way rather than a Jewish way.
Valantasis, 66. This would solve the problem of explaining Jesus' divinity. If he was not a part of this
32
world then there is no stretch to understanding how he could be an extension of God.
33 Ehrman, 105.
34 Chadwick, 9.
3SEhrman, 100. The source of their name is unknown, although it translates to "poor." One reason this
name may have developed was because they gave up all of their possessions in voluntary poverty.
10
their ex istence is known only through writings from their opposition. By looking at the
oppositi on's attacks, scholars know that the Ebionites taught Jesus was the Son of God
because of hi s "adoption .,,36 Thus, he was born of the fl esh but invested with divinity by
God after exhibiting the ability to maintain God's law and suffering self-sacr ifi ce.
Because the Ebionites still followed the Law and the Old Tes tament as Jews , Pau l's
mission to the Gentiles horrified them. They were further appalled by his baptizing them
as Christians without requiring them to conform to Jewish laws and traditi ons 37 The
Ebionites were eclipsed because of their unwillingness to accept the Gentiles who were
unwilling to convert to Judaism. The number of Gentile converts quickly surpassed the
Jewish Christians. As the church continued to develop, the Jewish traditions were
incessantly pushed back until they were forgotten 38 As the church grew and developed, it
constricted the development of other sects and worked to dimini sh their authority in order
to eliminate opposition.39
The organization of the early church was based on the idea that the apostles were
chosen by Jesus to represent him on Earth. They were also the ones who spent Jesus' last
days with him on Earth; thus, they possessed the true authority. Following this
progression, it would be the apostles' decision whom to appoint as new leaders in the
40
church. For the proto-orthodox church, Peter was the first leader. Hi s dominant
Ehrman, 101. Jesus was considered by the Ebionites to have kept god's law so perfectly and was the
J6
most righteous man on Earth, thus god adopted him as his son.
17 Ehrman, 102.
40 Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels. (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 10.
l
II
leadership position was based on Jesus' declaration that Peter would be the rock and
shepherd of the new church.4t This delegation of how new bishops would be chosen
assured the faithful a contemporary authority could be rightfully traced and verified while
it also enabled a defense to be mounted against sects that had leaders who did not possess
the rightful lineage 42 The assumed lineage of power behind the church was an effective
tactic to oppose and eliminate sects such as the Marcionites and Ebionites.
The new church was geographically scattered though, and its unity depended on
two things: first, that the believers had a common faith, and second, that there was a
common way of ordering their life and worship43 One way to determine a common
worship was to verify that all the churches were using the same gospels and letters
acceptance, and by the late second century, the written word was preferred over the past
oral tradition, which, because of its fluidity, enabled alternate or unfavorable teachings to
The last weapon of orthodoxy that was developed in the late second century was a
Rule of Faith, established by lrenaeus and Tertullian in order to further unify the
churches" s It established a common belief, and enabled any heretics to be ejected from
42 Chadwick, 42
4J Chadwick, 32 .
.. Chadwick, 42-43.
45 Chadwick, 44. "The whole church believes in one God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and Earth
and the seas and al1 that is therein, and in one Christ Jesus the Son of God, who was made flesh for our
salvation, and in the Holy Spirit who through the prophets preached the dispensations and the comings and
the virgin birth and the passion, and the rising from the dead and the assumption into heaven in his flesh of
12
the midst of the true, orthodox believers. This tool, along with the established lineage of
The Gentile church community was building a strong foundation to remove any
opposition which could deter believers from following its established path. In particular,
the church sought to oust the Gnostics from their midst. The message of the Gnostics
contradicted the formal structure of the church and presented an alternative perspecti ve
on what Jesus taught, to whom he taught it, and the necessary path to heaven. Viewed as
opposition to the growing church, the Gnostics became a perilous target that needed to be
eliminated.
The middle years of the second century belong to the Gnostics 46 The leaders
knowledge and experience in a scheme that centered around Christ as the divine figure 47
Their open acceptance of beliefs fueled the church's opposition. Evidence for their
impact is the sheer volume of writing opposing their teachings. Through the writing of
proto-orthodox leaders, it is evident the Gnostics were viewed as a threat to the new
church.
our beloved Lord Jesus Christ, and his coming from heaven in the glory of the Father. .. to raise up all
flesh."
46 Frend , W. H. C.. The Rise a/Christianity. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 195. Between 130 and
180, a succession of teachers, working mainly in Alexandria spread their dominant influence to Rome and
Italy and even as far as the Rhone Valley.
47 Frcnd, 195.
13
48
The striking features of Gnosticism are dualism and their preference for platonic
doctrines. In regards to dualism, the Gnostics believed the material world is evi l and the
49
spiritual world is good The world is not directly of one true God, but of an inferior god,
or a demiurge, and the soul is not of this world because it is connected to that one true
God 50 The preferred platonic doctrine lies within the immortality of the SOUl 51 Enslaved
in this world, the soul can be freed, become conscious of its origin, and ascend to God
"only by the grace of gnosis, the supernatural knowledge brought by the divine sav ior. ,,52
Ultimately, the supreme deity, God, cannot be described and is far removed from all
human comprehension. 53 This greater, non-material God is the true God and not the one
that created this world. The Gnostic, believed that he has an inner spark from the greater
God within him, sought to understand the secret knowledge of God in order to find
salvation and free his soul to reunite with the true God.
The Gnostic discourse embraced all types of knowledge and religious experience,
feeding the dislike of the church. The Gnostics drew easi ly on philosophy and poetic
48 Wiener, Philip P .. "Dualism in Philosophy and Religion," In Dictionary of the History of Ideas, (New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), vol 2, 42. A dualist is a person who believes that the facts which he
considers cannot be explained except by supposing ultimately the existence of two different and irreducible
principles. Gnosticism, however, is not completely dualistic because they believe the Creator is somehow
related to the true god. Thus, the two divinities are not entirely separate in nature. Their dualism is neither
absolute nor systematic. It resided in a feeling that the world is alien to God, and there is a gulf that exists
between nature and god that can only be crossed by God.
49 Ehrman, 119.
50 Wiener, 42.
51 Chadwick, 34.
52 Wiener, 42.
53 Ehrman, 120.
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14
wisdom in their search for truth 54 Accepting experiences and perceptions not contained
within the acknowledged written word afforded them the ability to write or share new
ways to salvation. The intuitions of the Gnostics kindled an inner, divine nature which
meant participation in the deity they sought, ensuring bliss and safety for their sou l in
their life and after their death 55 The Gnostic believer, by accepting the call of the Divine
Messenger, Christ, could become enlightened and return home at the end of hi s life.56
While the Gnostics believed that Christ provided the knowledge necessary for
salvation,57 they preferred their proprietary scripture as the source of sav ing information.
They also permitted ideas from the Greeks, Iranians and Semitic mythol ogy 58 This
variety of beliefs and allowance of diverse ideas left the Gnostics open to a wide variety
believers because of its practical synthesis on performing rites, mystic hope, and its
speculative philosophy of the world and the soul. 60 Furthermore, it appealed to believers
because it sought to answer the same questions Jews and pagans were searching for:
54 Frend, 201.
" Moffatt, James. The First Five Centuries of the Church. (Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1938), 82.
59 Frend, 197. As the church developed and grew, intellects began to become leaders in the church.
questions about evil, salvation, and why problems existed within humanity61 The
Gnostics claimed a richer understanding of God and the soul due to the reve lations they
had received during their quest. 62 Gnosticism appealed to a different class of believers,
those who were interested in knowledge and education, and it particularly appealed to the
Hellenistic Greeks. Gnostici sm enabled believers to take an active role in their salvation
and search for the true message Jesus left for his followers. They used their own gospels,
sllch as the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Mary, to corroborate their testimony that
Jesus shared the true Gnostic interpretation of his teachings with his disciples 63 Finally,
the Gnostics' freedom through knowledge enabled them to have a freedom from the
constraints of ignorance, the Law, and the fears of the final judgment 64
The church viewed the Gnostics as serious opposition to the structure of the
formation of the early church. The Gnostics organized like mysterious sects throughout
the Greco-Roman world. Their leaders were male and female, and they had their own
baptisms, passwords, sacred meal s, and ceremonies of the bridal chamber 65 They felt this
was acceptable because even Jesus shared secrets with disciples that he did not share with
anyone else and he only spoke in parables to the pUblic. 66 The Gnostics, like Jeslls, only
passed their teachings onto persons who had proven themselves to be spi ritually mature
61 Frend, 20l.
62 Moffatt, 84.
64 Frend, 200.
65 Ibid., 200.
66 Pagels, 14.
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16
and capable of possessing the message of Christ. In addition to their secret rites, Gnostic
leaders were ordained through inner visions, which enabled them to see the Lord 67 Thi s
completely undermined the authority and hierarchy that the church was es tablishing
because according to the Gnostics, there did not need to be a direct lineage to the original
eleven apostles for legitimacy. "The resurrection, they insisted, was not a unique event in
the past: instead it sy mbolized how Christ's presence could be experienced in the present.
What mattered was not literal seeing, but spiritual vision. ,,68 The connection to Christ
could be made through seeking knowledge and was not dependent upon an archaic
To maintain control of the validity of Jesus' message, it was important for the
new church to establish itself as the keeper of orthodoxy. In the beginning, it spoke of the
return of the kingdom, but as the decades passed and the Lord did not return, they needed
to shift focus from a physical preparation to a spiritual one. The developing church had a
variety of sects that did not always agree with the message it wanted to embrace. There
were sects that developed their own doctrines in order to fit their own beliefs, and there
were sects that were unwilling to accept believers outside of Judaism. The common
threads that wove through these parties was a belief in Jesus and a desire to understand
his message. It was the variety of interpretations of his message that caused inner turmoil
in the early church. The church promoted a logical succession of ordained bishops and
priests who could lead its followers down the path of God, while the Gnostics wanted its
followers to seek the truth within and to find the inner spark that would lead them directly
68 Pagels, I I .
17
to God. Because of the physiological differences, neither ideology could tolerate the
existence of the other. As time marched forward, the growing church took take every
measure necessary to guarantee its success over renegade sects, including uniting all of
Chapter II
Constantine' s conversion enabled the formation of the early church in the fourth
century 69 His ability as an outsider to take control of the church stems from Christian
leaders' conviction that God instilled Constantine's authority. Furthermore, at risk to his
own family, he repeatedl y rescued the church and sought to support and extend it. Hi s
support is what enabled the church to grow and expand as it did followin g terrible
persecutions by prev ious rulers;7o church bi shops were gratefu l for him for saving the
Constantine, along with Licinius, issued a proclamation that Christianity, and all other
cults, would be tolerated throughout the empire. Also, any buildings and other materials
7t
destroyed as a result of persecutions would be restored. This edict was a great triumph
for Christianity because of its great sufferings during the Great Persecuti on. Churches
and church artifacts were destroyed as well as believers executed for their beliefs.
Constantine could be seen as a savior to the church; without him the church may have
70 Dungan, David L.. ConSTanTine's Bible. (London: Scm Press, 2006), 95.
Freeman, Charles. The Closing of the WeSTern Mind: The Rise of FaiTh and The Fall of Reason. (New
71
York: Knopf, 2003), 102, 159. The Edict described is the Edict of Milan, 313. This also included that
martyred fami lies would receive monetary compensation, and those who were exiled would be allowed to
return to their homeland and their properly.
19
coach him in the ways of the new religion. Although he does not adopt Christianity as the
only religion for his empire, nor does he himself become a Christian at the end of hi s life,
he surrounds himself with Christian advisors, and he begins to support the new religion
openly n A symbiotic relationship grew between Constantine and the church, and the
church begi ns to adopt new, Roman values. The church evolved from a persecuted
church of martyrs by shedding its hostile view of the world to one that embraced the
values of Rome n The formation of the church under Constantine reflected Rome's
influence; the church adopted dioceses of Roman administration, the clergy took official
titles of Roman government, and the clergy began to think like Roman officials 74
The support of Christianity was not unproblematic for Constantine though. While
he was hoping for a church that would be subservient to him and flouri sh under his rul e,
he discovered a church that was riddled with disputes and power struggles. He seemed to
have been genuinely surprised by the diversity present in the Christian communities, and
soon after adopting the church, he had to address whether to give patronage to all sects or
favor some over others 76 Ultimately, he favors the proto-orthodox sect, deems himself as
73 Dungan, 95.
74Dungan, 96. The clergy began to live in stately villas and public worship was performed in ornate
temples funded and built (or rebuilt) by the state.
75Dungan, I 14. In 321 , Constantine made Sunday the legal day of rest. He also made it legal to free slaves
using Catholic Churches as a place of manumi ssions. Leaving assets to the church was also legalized.
a divinely appointed ruler, and places himself in a position as a type of common bi shop
77
who oversaw affairs of the church Furthermore, Constantine also used the church for
his imperial policy and imposed his own ideologies upon it. 78 While his actions are
significant in organizing a church that was once widely persecuted, he was not
immediately able to quash the growing rivalries within the church and had to call upon
the bi shops to quickly find a tolerable solution. The roots of the problem lie in the
arduous nature and development of the church. These problems developed over years as
From the onset of Christianity, there were several issues that plagued believers.
Some early questions raised in the church included examining if Jesus' life was a realistic
model for all Christians or if it was attainable by only a few sa ints and martyrs. Other
questions included: Could a unified church develop from Jesus' teachings? What would
be the standards of beliefs and behaviors for leaders? What would cause someone to lose
priestly authority?79 These questions, and others like them, plagued Christianity during
the first developing centuries of the religion . It is likely that the most important theology
in early Christianity was affirming the proper bel ief about God and Christ and their
relationship to one other 80 The establishment of this relationship divided many of the
77 Pholsander 26
18 Pohlsander, 27-28
79 Rubenstein, Richard E .. When Jesus Became God: The Struggle to Define Christianity during the Last
Days of Rome. (New York: Harvest Books, 2000), 40.
excommunication for the bishop by an appointed councilor authority higher than the
bishop.
During the first three centuries after the crucifixion of Jesus, the idea that the
savior was separate from God and subordinate to him was not a radical idea 81 One
martyr in the first century of the church, Ignatius,82 spoke of Christ as divine. He believed
that God had come in the flesh and that Christ was initially human 83 His belief that Jesus
was born of the flesh, suffered, and rose again supported Ignatius ' belief in martyrdom 84
If Jesus had suffered, then it made sense to him that man should also suffer; this makes
martyrdom have a purpose during the many waves of persecution during the development
of the early church. During these persecutions, early Christians were forced to sacrifice to
local gods or be executed. Those executed became martyrs for the new faith. The proto-
orthodox authors considered the willingness to die for their faith one of the hallmarks of
the new religion 85 It was used as a boundary marker, separating true believers from
being who suffered for mankind because like Jesus they were sacrificing their lives for
their beliefs. The martyrs who followed in his footsteps believed by setting the same
81 Rubenstein, 10.
84 Ibid, 152.
" Ibid, 138. This idea was not accepted by all sects of Christianity. The Gnostics believed that martyrdom
was ignorant and foolish because a god that demanded human sacrifice was vain and the true God they
served would not want this, but for his followers to seek more understandin g and knowledge.
86 Ibid, 138.
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example, others could come to the faith and understand the sacrifice that had been given
for them.
As time passed, the debate of the doctrine of Christianity continued, and groups
that pushed Jesus ' humanity to an extreme were expelled from the early church. In the
first century, the Ebionites believed that Jesus was born human but made divine only
after his death. Their belief in hi s humanity may be attributed to the Jewi sh influences
within thi s sect. Jesus' human birth and life of purity and advocacy on behalf of God
enabled God to look favorably upon him and make him a divine being after his death as a
sign of hi s approval 87 At the end of the second century, Theodotus, a Roman, pursued
similar beliefs to the Ebionites: that Jesus was human, born of a sexual union between
Joseph and Mary, and then chosen by God at his baptism 88 The proto-orthodox church
viewed the lack of belief in Jesus' initial divinity heretical , leading these groups to be
purged.
Prior to Constantine's rule, the Great Persecution, led by Diocletian, was Rome 's
final attempt to limit the expansion of Christianity across the empire 89 Beginning
approximately 303 C.E., Diocletian's first edict commanded churches and holy sites
razed to the ground, sacred articles also burned, and those who refused to stop practicing
their faith be deprived of their freedom. Other edicts followed , including that if those
imprisoned agreed to sacrifice to Roman gods, then they could be freed 90 In North Africa
87 Ibid, 152.
88 Ibid, 152.
89 Rubenstein, 31.
90 Halsall, Paul. "Medieval Sourcebook: Diocletian: Edicts Against The Christians." Fordham.edu.
http: //wwwJordham.edulhalsall/source/persec l.html (accessed April 7, 2009).
23
and Libya, during the persecution several bishops refused to sacrifice to Roman gods,
resulting in their torture and death. During thei r persecution, these bishops declared they
were the true church and all others who did not follow their path should be ousted as
nonbelievers 9l For Tertullian 92 and other proto-orthodox writers before and after him, the
divine succor afforded to true martyrs in their time of torment was substantiation of the
validity of the martyr's faith 93 This emphasizes Ignatius' belief in martyrdom , and its
place in early Christianity was a way to draw others to the faith and exhibit Christ-like
qualities. Dying for one's belief, the ultimate imitation of Jesus, ensured a place in
heaven for the martyr. Furthermore, martyrdom in Africa during the Great Persecution
had been sought not only by saints, but also by men of immoral and disso lute life who
thought sacrificing their lives would wash the sinful stains from their soul s 94 A variety of
believers and followers of Christ embraced martyrdom, but other followers chose to
avoid death by handing over sacred relics to the authorities and sacrificing to pagan gods
in order for their lives to be spared. This division led to one of the first great
Once Constantine possessed supreme control over the empire in 313, his Edict of
Milan ended the persecution started by Diocletian. While Constantine may have hoped
for peace after restoring the church, the reality he soon faced was the churches' own
91 Dungan, I 04.
92Bradshaw, Rob. "Tertullian of Carthage (e. 160 - 225)." EarlyChureh.org.uk: An Inlernel Resource for
the Sludy of the Early Centuries of Christianity. http://www.earlychurch.org.ukltertullian.php (accessed
April 9, 2009). Tertullian was an early Christian writer in the late second and early third centuries . His
writings have been controversial over the centuries; however, scholars now agree that his contributions
should not be rejec led based on past prejudices.
OJ Ehrman , 140.
94 Firth, 160.
24
members threatened its stability, and the hatred that existed within it was almost as
menacing to the tranquility of Constantine's rule as the strife that once existed between
the Christians and pagans 95 After the Great Persecution, there was unrest in the Christian
community about the bishops , priests and believers returning to their homeland who had
to be destroyed by the persecutors. 96 Many accepted these returning believers back into
the fold of the congregation; however, strident protestors berated these returning leaders
for not being true believers and giving into the persecutors. Protestors tried to prevent
them from returning to their abandoned positions in the church; these protestors believed
Donatus 97 led the greatest opposition to the returning bishops and priests branding
them apostate for vacating their position. He and his followers insi sted their
uncompromising bishops and priests had true authority because they had not lost the
grace of the Holy Spirit by denying their faith and God 9 8 This led to a precarious
position because the Donatists declared sacraments performed by sinful priests invalid,
whereas the general population of the church held the opposite view by accepting their
95 Firth, 159.
96 Rubenstein, 38.
97Lettinga, Neil. "Western North Africa: Donatism." African Christianity: A History of the Church in
Africa. www.bethel.eduJ-Ietnie/AfricanChristianityIWNADonatism.html(accessed April 26, 2009).
Donatus of Casae Nigrae, successor of Bishop Majorinus, was an articulate, outspoken spokesman for the
sect, which came to carry his name, the Donatis!. This group held that any Christians who had caved during
the tumultuous years of persecution were no longer fit to hold office in the church because they had lost the
grace of the Holy Spirit to effectively administer the sacraments to the congregation.
98 Rubenstein, 38.
2S
performed priestly deeds. 99 The main schism between the Donatists and the church began
in approximately 311, when the Donatists refused to accept a bishop in Carthage whose
mentor had succumbed in the Great Persecution. Appointing their own bishop, their
intent was to maintain a wholly pure church , yet it effectively divided the African church
into two factions. loo The goal of the Donatists was not to create this division though; their
intent was to maintain a wholly pure church. 101 The departing faction believed they were
in the right because their bishop had not succumbed to persecution. There is no evidence
Donatus, was recognized as an ordained bishop by any of the churches of Europe, Egypt,
or Asia. 102 The tension and split was localized to Northern Africa.
Constantine was dismayed by the actions of the Donatists and their refusal to
adhere to the letters that he sent attempting to smooth thi s matter. In the beginning he
Constantine. By 316 C.E., he withdrew his patronage from them W3 By iso lating the
Donati sts and withdrawing financial aid, Constantine defined for the western
communities what was to later be known as the Roman Catholic Church. 104 In essence,
the communities that were left were embodied with the spirit and influence of the Roman
100 "Donatist," Donatus was a succeeding priest of Majorinus in 313. Donatus was a leader of unbending
faith whom the movement later took its name from.
102 Firth, 166. Although the Donatists do not appear to have affected the early church outs ide of Africa, the
sect exists well into the sixth century and continued to extol its righteousness based on the idea of being
true descendents of the church.
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Empire and Constantine himself; they followed the edicts laid forth and developed an
inner structure modeled after Roman influences. The western communities of the church,
those outside of Africa, were not as heavenly Christianized and did not possess the
tradition of intense debate as the Eastern church. lOS Although Constantine's behavior in
ousting the Donatists contradicted his own toleration edict, his open favoritism towards
the catholic faith marks his position in the camp of the church, which desired to remain
order to share his message, the Donatists held firm to the idea that anyone who turned
their back on the church and its message, even to save his own life, was a sinner and
ineligible to be a leader within the church. These early divisions in the church were
attempts to answer questions of early believers. Ignatius believed it was ideal to model
one's life after Jesus just as the Donatists tried to establish guidelines and rules for what
enabled a man to be a priest and maintain his status. Constantine believed a unified
church was possible and it would strengthen the empire if the members of the church
were more tolerant and more conciliatory. The growing church needed more than a
common belief to survive. A stronger, established set of rules and beliefs was needed in
order to solidify the church's place and manifest it as a dominating power in the world
and not a floundering, disjointed religion. Constantine would use his influence to further
106 Firth, 168. Constantine's desire to limit and stop turmoil in the eastern churches most likely led him to
side against the Donatists because they were such a dividing group. Their refusal to com promise alluded to
future problems had Constantine accepted their argument and sided with them. Considering that he was
trying to unify an empire, he would have been naturally opposed to any group that would openly created a
schism.
27
push the bishops to unify all the churches and band them together or face
Chapter III
Further conflicts within the evolving church continued to threaten Con stantine 's
efforts to unify the church and empire. Constantine's desire to be recognized as a divinely
appointed king by the Christian God was overshadowed by quarrel s that existed within
the church. Stemming from an attempt to determine whether Jesus was of divine nature
or born of man and elevated after death , the early conflict that arose in the Eastern church
threatened not only the stabil ity of the church, but Constantine's political position. ,o7
Prior to this destabilizing argument, the early church wrestled both with statements of
faith that qualified the message of Jesus and with the Donatism rupture. There was a
growing need to clarify the succession of the apostles to the disciples and to distance the
proto-orthodoxy from the Gnostic and outlying sects. There were several messages being
di sseminated, and many early church leaders attempted to clarify the proto-orthodox
message as the true lessons of Jesus passed along by the apostles . The road to orthodoxy
began long before the fourth century; it began with scattered versions of faith in the
writings of early church fathers trying to find a commonality and cohesiveness in the
emerging church.
The early church emerged from a Jewish culture that was permeated by
Hellenistic culture and philosophy. 108 As Jews, Jesus and hi s disciples initially spread his
message to their own people. Paul, near the end of the first century, began sharing the
message of Jesus with the Gentiles, and the fracture that developed was irreparable. As
Christians came together, they brought with them many ideas from the pagan world. 109
To keep these believers from breaking off and forming another sect, church leaders
The influence of the Greek philosophers peaked in the second century as leaders
began writing public defenses of faith. Familiar with Greek philosophy and its formation,
church leaders modeled their own arguments for the church after it. 110 These early
Christian philosophers, in the style of early Greek and Roman philosophers, wrote
virulent tracts attacking rivals and their compos lire of new gospels. II I Such analysis of
the writings required the new gospels to be attributed to authors of apostolic origin in
Valentinus , an early Gnostic teacher, was one sllch church father that later writers
labeled heretical. I I) Like many Gnostic teachers, Valentinus believed he had a vision of
ll4
the risen Christ, which led to his teachings Valentinus al so alleged he possessed
instruction from a direct disciple of one of Jesus' disciples, Theodas, a disciple of Paul. 11 5
II I Dungan, 34.
112 The authors of these gospels were not the actual apostle of Jesus. The specific writer is unknown;
gospels are attributed to a community of followers who carried the message of the specific apostle from the
time of Jes us.
113 Hoeller, Stephan A .. "Valentinus - A Gnostic for All Seasons." The Gnosis Archive.
http://www.gnosis.org/valentinus.htm(accessed December I, 2009). Valentinus was an active leader in the
church from approximately 135 - 160. He had a large following in Rome and in 143 was a candidate for
the office of bishop, which he refused. Little is known of his late career, but some of his works survive as
well as writings against him by later Christian writers.
114 Brons, David. " Valentinu s and the Val entinian Tradition ," The Gnosis Archive.
http://www.gnosis.org/library/valentinus/ (accessed December 1,2009).
115 Hoeller, "Valentinus." The claim of Theodas actually being a disciple of Paul is debated. Valentinians
claim th at he is, wh ile other orthodox writers claim he is not. For the sake of Valentinus though, this claim
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Valentinus taught the Lord Jesus had bestowed esoteric doctrine secretly upon a few,
selected disciples. This secret was advanced teaching, which other church leaders were
not privy to, but he had learned it directly from Theodas. 116 Protesting Valentinus'
teachings and writings, Irenaeus argued that Valentinus was not only erroneous in his
teachings, but that he did not possess the necessary "succession of bishops" that
preserved the truth of the apostles' message through unbroken successions. I 17 These two
early writers played a great role in the early fissure of the church. Debates such as theirs
continued to proliferate in the early church, broadening the rupture. Arguments about
beliefs to be developed- an action Constantine will take in the early fourth century when
he takes power.
followers to showcase their proper, orthodox, belief in Jesus. In the tenth chapter of the
first book Against Heresies, lrenaeus opens with his version of the faith that churches
gives him a place in line with other church leaders who possess direct lineage from the original apostles,
like the proto-orthodox church is trying to establish. Thus, by their guidelines, he is a qua lified leader of the
church.
117 Dungan, 45. Irenaeus also argues that the succession Valentinus claims does not go back to Jesus, but
have to Simon the Samaritan. Furthermore, because they c laim to have secret gospels and mysterious
writings that are not for all church leaders, then Valentinus' teachings are false and rejected by the true
church.
118 Davis, Glenn. "The Development of the Canon of the New Testament: Irenaeus of Lyons." The
Development of the Canon of the New Testament. http://www. ntcanon.org/lrenaeus.shtml (accessed
November 18,2009). Irenaeus (120 - 202) was an early, if not one of the first, great Catholic theologians.
He also was an avid opponent of the Gnostics.
31
received from the apostles and their disciples. I 19 He insists that though orthodoxy was
scattered in the churches, the message begun by the apostles was the basis of their faith ,
and this was what the church was to share with its followers.120 Irenaeus' in sistence on
the divine succession was a countermeasure against the Gnostic heretics, " ... who sa id
they possessed a secret oral language tradition from Jesus himself.,, '21 Further countering
this heretical claim, Irenaeus insisted that the bishops from different cities should be able
to be traced back to the apostles, and more importantly, proven not to be Gnostic. 122 Thi s
articulated the "criteria of apostolic continuity" in a form that would set the standard in
the history of the church. 123 Because these bi shops were directly descended from the
apostles, their interpretation of the gospel could be trusted as the accurate message from
Jesus. Irenaeus devised a method to determine who was spreading the devout, sacred
message of the church from those who were spreading a heretical message, which he
lrenaeus' version of the faith resembled prior creedal statements. Considering that
not all Christian creeds survive in written form , the ones that did provide an insight into
the nature of how believers professed their faith. Creedal statements, or confessions of
faith, are positive affirmations in the church; they are statements of truth that the church
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32
teaches the follower to believe. 124 Prior to Irenaeus' version of fa ith 125 in Against
Heresies, there are four previous creedal statements that warrant examination for their
Ireaneus' statement of faith not on ly clearly defines the belief in the Trinity, but it also
adds the phrase "became incarnate for our salvation.,,126 This phrase is a critical response
to the Gnostic idea that God would not enter the material reality and that escaping from
their material existence saves people.127 Irenaeus was specifically presenting a statement
of beli ef that the Gnostics cou ld not accept, nor recite, thus making it easier to identify
Irenaeus, proto-orthodox, believed in the hi storical details of Jesus. Thi s was the
foundation of his faith, unlike the Gnostics who looked to personal insight and intuition
to guide them in their faith. His version of faith was one in a lineage of creedal statements
that outline a Christian' s beliefs. Irenaeus echos Ignatius' letter to Tralli ans in the first
century affirming a physical Jesus. 128 In the ninth chapter, Ignatius emphasized Jesus'
be ing fully human. Jesus was "descended from David, and was also of Mary; who was
124 Turner, Cuthbert Hamilton. The History alld Use of Creeds and Anathemas in the Early Cellturies of the
Church. (London: Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1910).2 1.
125 Schaff, Phillip. "Ante-Nicene Fathers: Volume I." Welcome to the Christian Class ics Ethereal Library.
http://www.cceJ.org/cceJ/schaff/anfOl .html (accessed November 22, 2009). "The Church, though dispersed
through our the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received fro m the apostles and their
disciples this faith: [She believes] in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the
sea, and all things that are in them. And in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our
salvation. And in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets Ihe dispensati ons of God, and the
advents, and me birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension
into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord .. ." For the complete version of fa ith, see the
tenth chapter of the first volume."
truly born, and ate and drank.,, !29 Ignatius continued by expounding that he was
crucified, died, and raised from the dead in the same manner that the Father will raise up
those who believe in him.!30 This creedal statement from the letter exemplifies Ireaneus'
belief in Jesus as a human being and solidifies a crucial orthodoxy belief: Jesus was
human. This was an important statement of faith because of unorthodox sects who
Apostolorum, the Epistle of the Apostles, contains another clear statement of Christian
belief.!3! The Epistle of the Apostles illuminates the position of Jesus among Christians;
it contains a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples, explaining the message they will
share with other followers.!32 For the first time, the epistle contains a creedal statement
concerning the church and the forgiveness of sins. The conclusion for the story of the
feeding of the five-thousand, ends by stating that the loaves that fed the five-thousand
"are the symbol of our faith in the Lord of the Christians (in the great Christendom), even
in the Father, the Lord Almighty, and in Jesus Christ our redeemer, in the Holy Ghost the
comforter, in the holy church, and in the remission of sins." 133 The loaves are a symbol of
the Trinity because from one loaf came many, just like from one God came the Son and
129 Knight, Kevin, ed. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Vol. 1. Buffalo: Christian Literature Publishing Co, 1885.
http://www.newadvenLorg/fathers/0106.htm (18 November 2009).
133 Kirby, Peter. "The Epistula Apostolorum: Epistle of the Apostles." Early Christian Writings: New
Testament, Apocrypha, Gnostics, Church Fathers.
http://w ww.earlychristianwritings.com/tex!/apostolorum.html(accessed November 21, 2009).
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34
the Holy Spirit. !34 This proclamation of faith in the Epistula Apostolorum is interesting in
its proto-orthodoxy statements about the Trinity considering its format contains non-
standard speculations. !35 Regardless of its position in the canon, the statement of faith
reveals the developing religion's need to define and hone its beliefs through a succinct
statement.
Baptism, from the earliest age, was preceded by a confession of faith.136 These
creeds appeared as baptismal rites for new members into the church. The earliest
questions asked of the people to be baptized were the first stages of the process by which
a creed was developed. 137 In chapter sixty-one of Justin's First Apology, a third building
block of creedal development appears; Justin focuses on the rites of baptism and the
purpose for washing oneself clean, literally in water and figuratively in Jesus. 138 This
chapter describes the rites of baptism and explains how it's practiced in the second
century. It also shows how confession accompanies baptism, providing evidence for the
natural expression of the elements of the confession.!39 Justin concludes the sixty-first
chapter by telling the readers that baptism is "in the name of Jesus Christ, who was
crucified under Pontius Pilate, and in the name of the Holy Ghost, who through the
134 Kirby, Peter. "Tertullian (Roberts-Donaldson)." Early Christian Writings: New Testament, Apocrypha,
Gnostics, Church Fathers. http://www.earlychristianwritings.comltextltertullianl7.html(accessed
November 23, 2009). The Trinity is first coined by Tertullian in the late first century. The use of the word
in this statement is for clarification for modem readers.
136 Bate, Herbert Newell. History of the Church to AD 325. (New York: Edwin S Gorham, 1908), 123.
138 Kirby, Peter. "Saint Justin Martyr: First Apology (Roberts-Donaldson)." Early Christian Writings: New
Testament, Apocrypha, Gnostics, Church Fathers. http://www.earlychristianwritings.comltextljustinmartyr-
firstapology.html (accessed November 21, 2009).
prophets foretold all things about Jesus, he who is illuminated is washed."140 The
arguments against non-proto-orthodox sects but also used to explain why particular rites
are performed. This is an important inclusion for believers because both acknowledges
their action, and gives it purpose and meaning. They are being baptized in the name of
the savior they believe in, the man who gave his life for theirs. Justin's explanation for
baptism is another piece in the building up to the writing of a formal creed as an example
A fourth inspiration also comes from an account of Justin, before his execution,
141
when he makes a statement of faith before his accusers. Justin, persecuted for his belief
in Jesus, is brought before the prefect of Rome, Rusticus. After being commanded by
Rusticus to sacrifice to the gods, Justin refuses, retorting that it is against his dogma.
whom we reckon to be one from the beginning, the maker and fashioner of
the whole creation, visible and invisible; and the Lord Jesus Christ, the
Son of God, who had also been preached beforehand by the prophets as
about to be present with the race of men, the herald of salvation and
teacher of good disciples. And I, being a man, think that what I can say is
141 Butler, Alban. The Lives a/the Fathers, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints Edited/or Daily Use
(Complete Set Volumes I Through 6 Which Includes Supplement). (New York: Virtue And Co., 1936.)
36
now I say that He is the Son of God. For I know that of old the prophets
Justin's explanation is a clear statement of his belief that God has spoken through the
prophets. 143 The lineage of the prophets further authenticates the belief that Jesus is from
the beginning of time and represents the only God throughout all time. This validated
Irenaeus' later ideology that the church's orthodoxy came from the apostles who
possessed a direct lineage to Jesus. Justin's influence was fundamental to later fathers
above, continued as the Christian church moved into the third century and early church
fathers further established the need for Christians to follow rules handed down by the
apostles. For early church fathers, these rules established the conventions of the church
and later built the foundation of the Catholic Church. One of the fathers of the early
church, Tertullian, was a prolific writer against heretical teachings. In The Prescription
Against Heretics, Against Marcion, and Against Praxeas, 144 Tertullian referred to the rule
of faith by which genuine believers should live and provided a way to measure against
the heresies of false teachers. 145 He further elaborated that the rule of faith was derived
from the apostles and handed down faithfully through the lineage of disciples chosen by
142 Roberts, Alexander, and James Donaldson. "Martyrdom of Justin Martyr. " Believe Religious
Information Source website. hnp:llmb-sofLcomlbelieve/txv/manyrS.htm (accessed November 22, 2009).
144 See Kirby, "Tertullian (Roberts-Donaldson)," for full translations of these texts. For references to the
rules of faith Tertullian discusses, see specifically: chapters 12 and 19 in Prescription Against Heresies,
chapter 3 in Against Marcion, and chapter 2 in Against Praxeas.
the apostles. Origen of Alexandria also believed that a rule of faith was necessary and
that it was the basis and guide for theology . 146 He, too, pointed to the teaching of the
apostles by Jesus and the transmission of these teachings through them to later di sciples;
thus, these teachings were to be the accepted truth of the church. 147 These two early
church leaders established an important precedent by insisting that the leadership of the
maintained order in the church by providing followers a verbal testament of their faith.
Their postulation was later picked up and expanded on by the framers of the Nicene
Creed.
Toward the end of the second century and into the beginning of the third century,
there was a concerted effort to define orthodoxy and heterodoxy. 148 Like the early
Christian fathers who were developing early rules of faith for their followers, later church
leaders expanded on this need for two reasons. First, there was a desire to create cohesion
Christianity: especially one advodcated by the Gnostics. 149 In order to eliminate the
heretical sects, a clear definition of orthodoxy and heterodoxy was needed. The process
in defining these would not be simple though. It would take another century for these
elements to be hashed out and an orthodox church to emerge as victor over all other sects.
148 Kelley, l .N.D .. Early Christian Creeds. (London: Continuum, 1972), 27.
The foundation for the definition of orthodoxy lies within the preliminary versions of
faith.
The statements of faith presented in the writings of the early church fathers led to
the development of the Nicene Creed in the fourth century. From the beginning, the early
church was a believing, confessing, preaching church that saw themselves as the bearers
of a unique story of redemption. 110 Embodied in the New Testament are-creed like
slogans, tags, and catch words that possess rhythm and a general pattern that leaders
developed and molded into creedal statements. III While in the proper sense of the terms
no creed, confession, or formulas of faith exist verbatim in the New Testament; there is a
common body of doctrine that lent itself to the development of a creedal statement for the
imperative: to express beliefs and to confess what one believes. III The need for a creed
exists for many reasons. Two reasons include the need for a declaration of faith prior to
baptism for catechetical instruction and at baptism to serve as a vow for people seeking
l l4
admittance to the church. rn the struggle to overcome sects who do not conform to a
pre-orthodox view of the church, a creed was needed in order to establish accepted lines
lll
of belief for church leaders and followers. This response extended from an early form
of heresy where Gnostics denied the phys ical reality of Jesus Christ and separated him
from God, creating two entities. 156 The difference of early sects resulted in a
metaphorical line being drawn in the sand, and the opposing fa ctions clashed, each
condemning the other for being wrong in its interpretation of the gospels. This tendency
towards division did not end, but became an ever-growing problem within the early
church as more segregated beliefs formulated from interpretations of the New Testament.
Prior to the beginning of the fourth century, creeds and summaries of faith were
local in character. Although local church leaders assumed they encompassed the
universal beliefs of the church, all had a local flavor that was distinctive. 157 They
reflected the interpretations of the individual leaders and the values they emphasized
from the New Testament. The creeds that did have a mainline development were limited
to baptism and the catechetical preparation leading up to it. 158 It is poss ible the
development of a more universal baptismal creed developed because of the tenth chapter
of the Book of Romans that contains a directive to confess Jesus is Lord. 159 This
instruction provided the necessary path for the development of a similar creed throughout
Statements of faith developed in the early church because there was a need for
unity . There was a need to institute a cohesive, unified belief which all followers agreed
to, so that differing factions did not confuse followers by contradicting other segments of
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40
the church. A unified statement was also needed to prohibit vehement disagreements
from threatening to break up the church. These early proclamations of faith and creedal
affirmations provided the necessary groundwork for the Council of Nicaea to generate the
threatened the stability of Constantine's empire. It forces him to call the bishops of the
church together to create a formal statement of faith that would represent the unified
church. The development of the Nicene Creed would not have been possible without the
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Chapter IV
Creeds were slowly building throughout the centuries, each one clarifying a little
more about Christianity than the last and each one possessing a little bit of local flavor.
The purpose of the creeds was not only for baptismal use, but also to clarify beliefs for
congregations. Because there were sects that many proto-orthodox churches did not
believe in , like the Gnostics, creeds were also developed to weed out these heretical
believers. By the time Constantine took power and threw all of his support behind
Christianity, controversy within the church threatened to destabili ze the new church, and
Constantine's empire as well. In 325, Constantine called together all the bishops to meet
unilateral creed the entire church could stand behind. His task was greater than he knew,
and the Council of Nicaea set in motion the formation of what we now know as the
Roman Catholic Orthodox Church. In 325, though, the purpose of the Council of Nicaea
was to eradicate the Arian controversy that was threatening the church and the stability in
Constantine's empire. While it was not effaced in 325, the message from the first council
clearly stated that rebel doctrines that did not fit within the orthodox view of Jesus were
160 The Council of Nicaea in 325 was the first ecumenical council. It was held to establish acceptable
doctrines and practices for the church. After the first ecumenical council in 325, there were six more
councils to settle theological debates that threatened the stability of the church. The last ecumenical council
was held in Nicaea in 787.
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A number of events culminated in the Council of Nicaea in 325. 161 The paramount
dispute revolved around the status of Jesus: was he the same as God, or subservient to
approximately 312 when Alexander was selected instead] 63 Although he was dismayed
that he was passed over as bishop of Alexandria, there was no initial quarrel between the
two church leaders. l64 Although he was not selected as bishop, he was a respected
church leader, and he continued to lead his congregation. Arius ' reputation was as an
"earnest worker, a strict and ascetic li ver, and a powerful preacher who dealt boldly and
around a theology that contradicted that of Bishop Alexander, it was not radically new.
Arius was a student of 51. Lucian of Antioch, who had been condemned for teaching that
Jesus was only a man. 166 Arius, like his teacher, taught that Jesus was not eternal like
God, but rather an "adoptive son'; his promotion to divinity was because of his moral
161 The Council of Nicaea in 325 is the firs1 one in Nicaea. For the purpose of this paper, all references to
the Council of Nicaea refer to the first one.
162 Schaff, Phillip. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. "Arius." Grand Rapids:
Baker Books, 1954. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01IPage_284.html(accessed November 24,
2009). Considered one of the great heretics of the church; he was born in approximately 256 and was
presbyter in Antioch and later in Alexandria.
163 Firth, John B. Consrantine the Great. (New York: GP Putnams, 1905). 190.
166 Raymond, Brother John. "Arianism Versus 1he Council of Nicaea." Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church
(Arian Catholic). http://arian-catholic.org/arian/arianism_v_nicaea.html(accessed November 28, 2009).
43
growth and obedience to God on Earth. 167 He argued that God 's essence could not be
shared, for such a sharing in nature would imply a division in the one GOd . 168 Using the
Gospel of John as a source for hi s argument-Jesus was the Word of God, Arius
elaborates that the word of God cannot be fully God, but must be a creature God formed
at a point in time; thus, the Word had a beginning and was subject to change. 169 This
contradicted the teachings of Bishop Alexander and his successor, Bishop Athanasius. 17o
Arius, through his defiant teachings, had his name attached to one of the greatest
controversies in the early church. The Arian controversy would require Constantine's
intervention and led to the first Council of Nicaea and ultimately, the development of a
Arius ' teachings appealed to followers who needed reason and logic for them to
be able to believe in Jesus, something that was solid and stood against all objections. 171
Arianism promoted that Jesus was somewhere between God and man. If Jesus was not
God by nature and earned his elevation, then it stood to reason that anyone had the
potenliallo be raised to his status by GOd I72 Arians could be considered pri soners of
Greek logic because they thought in terms of either/or. 173 Either Jesus was fully God or
170 Schaff, Phillip. The New Schaff- Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, s. v. "Athans ius." Grand
Rapids: Baker Books, 1954. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encycOllPage_343.html(accessed November
24, 2009).
else he was fully man; he could not be a portion of God. This logic, applied to Jesus,
makes him a type of demi_God. 174 This ideology appealed to Christians who were still
influenced by paganism that existed around them. It worked better for them to believe in
God the Son as an intermediary between the omnipotent, unapproachable God the Father
175
and fallen man. Arius' teachings were common sense for many because the logic was
easy to follow and it appealed to newly converted pagans who were able to understand
was in place by 320. They accepted that Jesus was the Son of God and fully divine and
part of the Godhead. 177 Arius created such a stir because he challenged this orthodoxy
with the claim that Jesus was created as Son. This makes him distinct from the pre-
existing God and subordinate to him as a son is to a father. 178 This subordination does not
agree with the teachings of the proto-orthodox church. The church taught the equality
found in the Trinity: three separate personas in one all equal because they are really one
in the same. For Arius and hi s followers, Christ was a perfect representati ve of God; he
was always in agreement with God, but still not equal to him. 179
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45
The theology Arius preached to his followers rested on the conviction of absolute
transcendence and perfection of the Godhead. 180 For Arius, God the Father was
unrendered and uncreated. He was infinity: from everlasting to everlasting, him self
without a source or beginning. '8' The son, Jesus, must have had a beginning because God
was the only one without a beginning; thus, having been created by God, Jesus was
subordinate to him. '82 If Jesus was not created by God, then the issue of dualism arises,
and God is no longer the only supreme deity. Furthermore, if another being was to share
in the divine nature of God, there would be a plurality of divine beings, whereas God, by
definition , is unique. ' 83 Therefore, all that exists, including the Son of God, /l.oYOrJ"
(logos), must have come into existence by an act of creation by GOd. ' 84
Arius further taught that the Son of God was a creature, and the first of all
creatures. He was created before all the angels and archangels, making him ineffably
superior to all other created beings. '8S Furthermore, because the Son was created, he
could have no real knowledge of his father because, being finite, he could not conceive of
something infinite l86 Arius' argument used the Platonic thinking of forms. 187 Plato's
highest form was a supreme, unchanging God. The subordinate entity, /l.oYOrJ"(Iogos), or
the Son of God, provided the link with the lower created world. 188 For God to
communicate his essence or substance to another being would imply that he was divisible
and subject to change. '89 Because the belief stood that God was unChangeable and
unknowable, then it was imposs ible for him to divide himself with another being and still
be one.
Using the Gospel of John as an example, Arius equated Jesus with ilo)'VO"
(logos). 190 ilo)'VO"(logos) had to be a separate act of creation by God, created at the
beginning of time with the supreme and distinct role of mediator for his Father's glory.191
Arius' view was that if Christ was wisdom in the Word, it had to be backed by Proverbs,
which is the centerpiece of his argument. 192 The passage in Proverbs,'93 if read as if it
refers to Jesus, corroborates Arius' argument that Jesus is a creation of God, and
therefore, cannot be equal to God. Because all exists as a creation of God, even Jesus, this
makes Jesus a subordinate. 194 Using the Bible to further his argument, Arius looks to the
description of Jesus' suffering in the Gospel of Mark as proof that he was a lesser
divinity.1 9S In Arius ' view, there was no reason why God would not have created Jesus,
190 John 1
193 Proverbs 8:22-31 NIV: "The LORD brought me forth as the first of his works, before his deeds of old; I
was appointed from elcmily, from the beginning, before the world began." The passage cOnl inues by
recounting how Jesus was created before anyth ing el se, the mountains, the earth, and even the heavens.
as Son, to be the savior of man. He had provided scripture that proved Jesus was not of
the same essence as God. For Arius, there was no argument; the Bible supported his
position.
Not only did Proverbs recount that Jesus was made separate from God, but Arius
also applied the Gospels to document that Jesus saw himself as distinct from GOd. 196 He
Mark 10: 18, Jesus questions why the rich young man calls him good, because only God
between himself and God. This continues in John 17: Jesus prays to God that he should
glorify his son, so his son can glorify him. Two more references Arius frequently referred
to include the last line of Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 16:27, and Hebrews 5:8. 197 Each
of these references convey a sense of discreteness that affirms Arius' argument that Jesus
the Son, is separate from God the Father. Arius did not present his argument lightly, but
utilized the gospels and early church fathers for support. 198
Arius argued that if the relationship between God and Jesus was to be interpreted
the same as a human relationship, and then logically, God had to come before the Son.
Therefore, there was a time when the Son did not exist, and the Son was created from an
essence or being that was previously nonexistent as the Father is made from an eternal
essence. 199 According to Arius, Jesus was morally impeccable and remained immutable,
198 Freeman, 165. Early church fathers that Arius drew on included Justin the Martyr, Clement and Origen.
They too, all treated Jesus as a derivative from the father.
but he alludes that this is by his own resolute act of will and not due to his being eternal
like God 2OO In Arius' eyes, the Word was not authentic, but the adoptive Son of the
Father. "He is called Son or Power by grace. He was promoted to that position because
the Father saw the meritorious and perfect life he would, by his own free acts of will,
lead.,,20t This argument for the Son of God being unequal to the Father caused a great
schi sm in the early church , necess itating Constantine to orchestrate the first Council of
Nicaea.
Alexander, appointed Bishop of Alexandria in 312, was the first to detect and
202
condemn Arius for his heretical teachings In approximately 318, disturbances begin in
Christian circles of Alexandria, where Arius was exalting his doctrine of the Son of God
203
being unequal and not of the same essence At first, Alexander does not interfere with
Arius , but believes his eccentric teachings will fade over time. Arius' tolerant and open
acceptance of religious ideals contradicted the proto-orthodox need for a lucid definition
of Christianity that unified the Father and the Son 204 Arius' eccentric doctrine did not
fade, and he became rather confident in his rebellious teachings, gathering more
205
followers with his logical teaching of Jesus as subservient to God Alexander was
compelled to intervene as the unity in the church began to crumble and followers began
202 Schaff, Phillip. "ANF06. Fathers of the Third Century : Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionys ius the Great,
Julius Africanus, Anatolius, and Minor Writers, Methodius, Am." Welcome to the Christian Classics
Ethereal Library. http: //www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf06.x.ii.html(accessed November 29, 2009).
203 Firth, 19 \.
to take sides. He called for Arius to meet privately to discuss his behavior. However, this
meeting did not dissuade Arius, but fueled him even more as he intensified his purpose of
· h·t S message.206
sprea dmg
Dismayed at the Arian controversy, Constantine wrote to Alexander, sco lding him
for allowing this disagreement to create such a serious divide and instructing him to
resolve the conflict 207 The fighting in the streets between the separate church
quell the situation. He believed that by instructing Alexander to quash the conflict that he
would be able to easily carry out hi s orders. Constantine, unfamiliar with complexity of
this hindrance, made a tactical blunder in downplaying the Arian di spute 2 08 Thi s was not
a simple issue that could be dismi ssed with a simple order from a bi shop. The leaders of
the church could not 'agree to di sagree' about such a fundamental difference 209 They
were not squabbling philosophers interpreting theology differently; the church leaders
were identifying the cornerstone of Christianity. Each faction refused to submit to the
opposing side because doing so would deny all they taught and believed.
Alexandria, which more than one hundred bi shops attended. The bi shops who attended
this council were split in their preferences for doctrine; Arius' teaching that the Son of
God was unequal to the Father, or Alexander's teaching of the proto-orthodox church in
209Firth, 209 . Constantine called on Bishop Alexander to put an end to the quarreling and to agree on the
fundamentals , that was more important than agreeing on all points. Constantine misunderstands the
importance of the argument when he directs Alexander to sq ue lch the argument.
50
the equality of the Trinity 210 Alexander and his followers saw the need for a strong God,
a strong church, and a strong empire, which would provide the security the church needed
211
to thri ve in Constantine's empire. At the council Alexander called, Arius attended with
hi s supporters, standing behind hi s doctrine. The synod called for all in attendance to sign
a "Confession of Orthodoxy"; Arius and his supporters refused and they were
excommunicated. 212 Fleeing Alexandria, Arius sought refuge in Palestine; from there, he
sought reconciliation and re-admittance to the church.213 He worked pass ionately to gain
re-admittance and ultimately attended the first Council of Nicaea in order to plead his
After issuing the Edict of Milan in 313,214 Constantine 's goal with Christianity
was to create unity throughout the empire and restore the tone of the populace.215 The
fighting that existed throughout the empire jeopardized the stability of Constantine's rule.
Rather than continue persecuting the Christians, Constantine determined peace was
needed. After issuing the edict, Constantine worked on unifying the church by rebuilding
churches that were destroyed and restoring artifacts destroyed during the Great
Persecution 216 As he worked to unify the church, he was faced with two major schisms
m Firth, 196.
that threaten what he had accomplished in hi s empire. The first was the Donatism 21 7 rift
in the West and the second was the Arian scandal in the East. Although Constantine did
not understand why these di sagreements caused such strife, he knew there was enough
support on either side to cause a permanent split, derailing his plan for a unified empire.
It was obvious he had to intervene because the church fathers could not reconcile the
issue. In an effort to save the church as a whole, and his empire, Constantine invited all
the bi shops to a council in Nicaea to negotiate a solution to these press ing conflicts.
217Lettinga. Neil. "Western North Africa: Donatism. " See the second chapter for more information abou t
the Donatism scandal.
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52
Chapter V
Scandal and di sagreements rocked the development of the Christian church in the
fourth century. Fundamental differences on Jesus' status, along with other iss ues like
what date Easter should be yearly , threatened the stability of the church. Constantine
needed to act quickly if he wanted a steady church to provide unified support to him.
Constantine feared a divided church becoming a menace to the unity of his empire.218 He
called together a council of all the bishops to create a unified document that would be
backed by the state.219 While a council of bi shops creating doctrine is not a radical idea,
the new position of the church, in regards to the state, was a progress ive idea 220 Not only
did Constantine fund the council, but he al so sponsored the bishops and their entourage
for their journey and stay in Nicaea. 221 His intention for drawing the bishops together was
to consolidate the church with a unified theology and to efface the dissention that exi sted
In the spring or early summer of 325 C.E., Constantine called a council for all the
bi shops to attend to settle disputes causing di stress and tension within the church. The
Eastern Church was represented well; however, the representatives from the Western
Church were scarce.223 Constantine's revolutionary idea anticipated that the whole church
would be represented in order to establish the foundation of the newly adopted state
church; however, the unequal divi sion of representation influences the deci sions made by
the council 224 No contemporaneous records or proceedings of the council were published
and are presumed never to have existed. The information that does exist about the first
Council of Nicaea is in fragments of letters and writings remaining from bishops who
were in attendance and the Nicene Creed itself. 225 The three surviving sources about the
council are a fragment from St. Eustathius of Antioch, some chapters [Tom Athanasius,
both written a generation after the council, and Eusebius of Caesarea's letter to his church
dictating the proceedings of the council. 226 The surviving evidence of the council tells of
three acts that were established by the council: the Nicene Creed, twenty canons, and a
degree for the determination of Easter 227 Independently, these three acts are significant
for the developing church; they denote specificity for the proto-orthodox church. The
Nicene Creed is of particular importance because, for the first time, a unified creed was
created for all church members to recite their orthodox belief and deny any opposition
The opening day of the proceedings was ostentatious. Constantine entered the
proceedings clad in gold and covered in precious stones, taking his seat in a golden
226 Kelly, 212. There is not an exact date for the letter Eusebius wrote home to his congregation; however, it
is assumed to have been written shortly after the council took place. It addresses the specific language of
the creed.
throne 228 According to Eusebius, Constantine's opening speech focused on the internal
strife present in the church, and he encouraged all the bishops to work together in
the council together, there is no evidence that he imposed, a desired outcome for the
gathered bishops other than reconciliation 230 As a sign that he was not at the proceedings
to dictate their actions, he tossed into the fire, without reading, several letters of
complaints against mi scellaneous brethren that were given to him in the beginning of the
meeting by several bishops231 The message he sent was clear: he was not there to settle
issues, but for the council to arrive at the necessary parameters for a unified church. Since
Constantine did not directly guide the council in formulating a creed, the council of
provide the location, to cover the ex penses, and to allot the time necessary for the bishops
to work together to find the right language in order to achieve consensus on a canon for
the church 233 The provision of these three elements provided a conducive environment
Constantine, the destabilizing divisions of the church were eliminated and the threat to
229 Dungan, I I 1.
231 Dungan, I I I.
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Arius and his teaching. His message denied the equality of the Trinity and the beliefs of
the proto-orthodox church because Arius taught that Jesus was a creation of God, and
thus, subservient to him . His direct opponent was Athanasius, a layman to Bishop
Alexander, who defended the divinity of the word because of his conviction that in
Christ, it was really God sav ing humanity?34 Athanasius firm ly believed in the unity of
Jes us and God and that they were of the same substance. Although both Arius and
Athanasius were not allowed to sit in on the council' s discuss ions because they were not
bishops, each had his own representative bishop in the council. Eusebius supported Arius,
and Bishop Alexander shared Athanasius' views.235 The representatives for Ariu s and
party, made the first move to get a creed adopted. His attempt was un successful because,
according to the bi shops, it contained evidence of blasphemy 236 From the account of St.
the audience and to the writer on account of its departure fro m the fa ith. 237 While some
present at the council sympathi zed with Arius, the majority of the bi shops present were
anti-Arian. They were determined to produce an article of faith that prohibited a loose
interpretation that would allow the Arians to continue the debate over Jesus' status of
2J7Lane, Anthony N.S. "The Council of Nicaea: Purposes and Themes." The Debate.
htlp:lldcbate.org.ukltopics/theo/council_nicaca.html (accessed December 3, 2009).
S6
divinity. Athanasius recounted that the intention of the bishops was to draw up their own
formulary and that it should express what they believed in true scriptural language. The
on ly hindrance to their goal was that the Arians managed to twist the chosen biblical
passages in their fa vor. 238 After debating the pol arizing positions, the majority of the
reali zed they had to go outside the vocabulary of the Bible in order to achieve their
miss ion 239 Arius was frequently called into the council's proceedings to be questioned,
and his statements, as well as the opposing arguments, were acti vely considered 24o Hi s
arguments to the council were ultimately used in formulating statements Arius could not
Eusebius of Caesarea, ori ginall y aligned with the Arians, presented a creed to the
counci l to prove his orthodoxy.241 The creed survives in a letter Eusebius wrote home to
his congregation about the events of the council to quell any rumors that may have
arrived prior to his return home that he had signed an article of faith that contradicted the
one he professed prior to the council. Eusebius' creed cleverly avoided all issues raised
242
by Arius in stating that Jesus was an ancillary to God Furthermore, whi le on the
surface it was not unorthodox , it allowed for Arian interpretation, unacceptable by the
standards of the majority of the council. 243 The significance of the surviving creed in
Eusebius' letter provides insight into how the final Nicene Creed included several clauses
that were specifically anti-Arian, whereas Eusebius' creed did not 244 Eusebius' creed,245
colloquially, explained the separate existence of all three divine persons, 246 but did not
The purpose of presenting his statement of faith247 to the council was not to have
it adopted as the creed put forth by the council, but to clear any taint of heresy in
connection with Arius and to dispel any heretical stigmatism that may be associated with
248
him However, it did not clearly deny Arian interpretation; it only allowed for a more
orthodox inference. The survival of his creed through the centuries is important because it
provides an example of the individualistic statements of faith that existed within the
church. These diverse statements were what the church felt it needed to quash because
they provided an opportunity for misleading elucidations of orthodox views. The council
needed to put forth a statement of faith that was universal for the church in order to oust
245 Hardy, Edward R .. Christology o/the Later Fathers (Library o/Christian Classics). Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1977.336-337. Eusebius of Caesarea's creed says: "We believe in one God,
Father, Almighty, the maker of all things visible and invisible, And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Word of
God, God of God, Light of Light, Life of Life, unique Son, first born of all creation, begotten of the Father
before all the ages, through whom all things came to be, who for our salvation, was incarnate and dwelt
among men and suffered and rose again on the third day and ascended to the Father and will come again in
glory to judge the living and dead. We also believe in one Holy Spirit."
241 Kelly, 221. Eusebius' statement of faith to the council is not limited to the creed, but also encompasses
his general theological position.
248Kell y, 226. The exact timing of Eusebius' presentation to the council cannot be determined. According
to Kelly, by looking at his letter to his congregation, it suggests that his presentation of the creed came
carly. prior to the formation of the Nicene Creed. The failure to adopt his creed was not what disappointed
him; rather it was the tone of the Nicene Creed thaI he objected to. This can be seen in the way he
scrutinizes the new creed in his letter home to his congregation.
58
Eusebius of Caesarea wrote home to his congregation about the creed adopted by
the council of Nicaea in order to explain to his church why he signed a creed that varied
249
from hi s normal teaching He felt it was important to tell hi s church that the teaching
had received the full endorsement of the council and that it did not completely contradict
his previous theology 250 He presents first his statement of faith, then the council's creed.
Finally, he dissects the council ' s creed to satisfy himself that all the statements are
compatible with what he and his constituents regarded as sound theology 251 Eusebius'
survi ving letter provides insight into how the council determined the terminology of the
Nicene Creed. His argument not only sustained hi s congregation, but allows scholars to
examine specifically how members of the council avoided future heretical Arian
"confessed moreover that such were his own sentiments, and he advised all
present to agree to it, and to subscribe its articles and to assent to them, with the
not in the sense of the affections of bodies, nor as if the Son subsisted from the
Father in the way of division, or any severance; for that the immaterial, and
intellectual, and incorporeal nature could not be the subject of any corporeal
m Kell y, 223.
affection, but that it became us to conceive of such things in a divine and ineffable
manner. ,,253
This was his response to the council being unable to reject Arianism on the sole basis of
2 54
scripture Constantine explained 7]o,uoovawa (homoousio s), or consubstantial, was
not used in the sense of bodily sense, for the Son did not derive his existence from the
Father by means of severance since an immaterial being could not be subject to any
physical affliction. The understanding of Father and Son being of the same substance
must be understood as bearing a divine and inexpressible significance 255 When the
the term and used it as fuel to eradicate the Arians.2S6 The addition of this word to the
creed marked the technical and theological character of the creed; this signaled that the
creed was going to be used as a tool to test epi scopal orthodoxy.257 The development of
the Nicene Creed exhibited a new trend in statements of faith because for the first time
one was being developed in such a manner that it would be used to seek out heretics.2S8
The statement of faith, the Nicene Creed, as dictated in the council, and passed
253 Schaff, Phillip. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Buffalo, NY: Christian
Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.
http://www.newadvent.org/fathersI2804.htm (accessed November 22, 2009). Of the same
substance.
258 Pelikan, 9.
60
We believe in one God, the Father, almighty, maker of all things visible
and invisible;
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten from the Father,
only-begotten, that is, from the substance of the Father, God from
God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten not made,
of one substance with the Father, through Whom all things came
incarnate, becoming man , suffered and rose again on the third day,
ascended to the heavens, will come to judge the living and the
dead;
Those who say, There was when He was not, and, Before being born He
was not, and that He came into existence out of nothing, or who
This creed eliminated the possibility of the Arians interpreting it in a favorable manner.
There is di stinct terminology that prevents heretical readings of it, which applies not only
to the Arians, but the Gnostics as well. The bishops carefully chose the words and
phrases of the creed so that they could not be mi sinterpreted. Using the word
170,uOOvawO'(homoousios) to explain the Father and Son being one and the same and
l
61
proclaiming that the Son is and always was rejects the poss ibility of the Gnostics or the
Arians faithfully reciting the creed as a symbol of their faith . The opponents of the proto-
orthodox creed would not be able to recite this statement of faith because they would not
believe in it; thus, heretics would be ejected from the midst of orthodox believers.
The opening line of the creed provides the monothei stic view on which
Christianity is founded. It clarifies that God is the sole creator of the heavens and the
earth. This is an is sue that was not debated; all parties agreed in a single, omnipotent
deity. The classification of Jesus in the second line is the beginning of the proto-orthodox
The council of bi shops, orthodox in the sense that they wanted to stay within the
bounds of the New Testament, may have chosen to say Jesus was "begotten from the
Father" based on scripture from the Bible 2 60 Paul used Psalms, 2:7 from the Old
Testament, as a reference point in the New Testament. He applied thi s verse to the
resurrection of Jesus 26J Connecting the New Testament to the Old Testament was a tool
to demonstrate how Jesus fulfill ed the prophecies. It was biblicall y inspired, but even
more, it was paramount because it was anti-Arian. It was poss ible to beget something of
oneself without creating something new; thus, the word could be used to deny Jesus was
a separate creation, a key Arian argument 262 Furthermore, establishing Jesus as the "only
begotten Son of God" made him an unrivaled, so litary figure. This showed Christ came
26l Acts 13:33, Hebrew 1:5; 5:5; it is also referenced in the Gospel of John 1: 14.
from the Father in a way that no human can or will, opposing the Arian view that Jesus
A decisive argument between the proto-orthodox bi shops and Arius and his
followers revolved around the essence of Jesus. To counter any move by the Arians to
interpret the creed in their favor, the bishops included, "Begotten, not made, of one
substance with the father. " Adding, "of one substance with the Father," was intended to
add precision in connection with the term "begotten.,,264 Thi s is another example of the
substance with the Father was a perilous strike to the Arian s who did not invest Jesus
with full divinity. For the council , asserting that Jesus was of the same substance as the
Father marked him as fully divine 265 This orthodox proclamation al so argued that while
fathers naturally existed prior to their sons, the council was deferring to Origen's teaching
of the eternal generation of the Son by the Father. The Father had never been without his
Word or his wisdom; therefore, the Father had never been without his Son 266 Using the
Arians' terminology to counter their own insistence that as the Word, Jesus was a
separate entity, the bi shops were able to unify Jesus and the Father favorably for their
own cause.
Eusebius conceded the usage of this phrase in his letter to his congregation. He
needed to explain why he signed a statement of faith that appeared to contradict his
263 Johnson, 119-120. This also establishes Jesus as the only Son.
original statement. He analyzed the creed from the Council of Nicaea in order to contrive
an argument to defend his action. Eusebius wrote home to his congregation about the
or change of the essence and power of the Father; for the unbegotten
nature of the Father is free from all of these things. But the phrase
"consubstantial with the Father" indicates that the Son of God bears no
similarity with the creatures of God that came into being, but is in every
way made like only to the Father who begot him, and it is not of any other
term itself, expounded in this manner, since I knew of some learned and
di stingui shed bishops and writers among the ancients who made use of the
term homoousios in the doctrinal discuss ion about the Father and the
Son 267
supporting their deci sion to use the term 'lO,llOovolOa(homooli sio s). His justification
rested with a vague reference to the application of the term in ancient times. While the
council' s rationale for the word was based on the need to contradict Arius' teaching,
Eusebius' letter to hi s congregation did not exude confidence in the terminology. The
reason he appeared to accept the tenn lies not in the past lise of the word, but with the
fact that Constantine approved of the word 268 His dispassionate response alludes to hi s
particular words and phrases. For example, "out of nothing," and "once he was not," are
itTelevant since "no divinely inspired Scripture has used the phrases.,,269 Yielding the use
of these phrases provided justification for the council in their process of eliminating any
possibility of an Arian interpretation of the creed they were developing. Step by step,
Eusebius affirmed the council's terminology to his congregation. Aligning himself with
the council and accepting the creed as it was permitted Eusebius to continue as a bishop
in the church and not to be excommunicated for refusing to sign the declaration.
mission to unify the church. If he was to remain in favor with Constantine, he would need
For the Arians, Jesus was not considered God except in name only. For Ariu s,
Jesus was elevated to divinity after modeling a pure life on earth. To counter this
ideology, the council inserted, "God from God, light from light, true God from true God."
27o
This statement affirms Jesus ' position as true God. The image of God as light provided
a metaphor for the divine life; light cannot be touched, but it can be felt. 271 Jesus cannot
270Raymond, Brother John. "Arianism Versus the Council of Nicaea." Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church
(Arian Catholic). hup://arian-catholic.org/arianJarianism_v_nicaea.html (accessed November 28,2009).
be physically touched ; however, the basis of the argument was his presence, or love,
could be felt. It lent a metaphorical meaning to God that the Arians rejected.
Solidifying their argument further, the council also included, "Through whom all
things were made. " Arius asserted that the Old Testament contained passages that
portrayed wisdom as one of God's creations 272 The Arian argument that Jesus was a
creation, was addressed and nullified with the word "begotten." Once this was
establi shed, the Arian argument fall s because Jesus, or God, was the one who created all
things; thus, he could not be a made thing.273 The Nicene fathers looked to Psalms 33:6,
"by the word of the Lord were the heavens established." They understood this to correlate
to the Gospel of John I: I , "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God. " The analysis of these verses further established the unity of the
Father and the Son in both the Old and New Testament.
Acknowledging Jesus' mission on Earth, the creed established his descent from
the realm of the divine into humanity. The words, "came down and became incarnate,"
were meant to be understood literally; rather the use of the words, "came down and
became incarnate," showed the mythical nature of Jesus ' descent into humanity.274 Th is
contradicted the Arian 's belief that Jesus was human and then made divine. Further
compounding Jesus' humanity , the creed emphasized Jesus was a physical part of
hum anity, even though he was also divine. He suffered a physical, human death in order
to save man . The council enunciated Jesus' suffering and then how he "rose agai n on the
272 Proverbs 8:22-31; Sirach 24: 1-9 New American Bible (NAB).
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third day" and "ascended into the heavens" to counter the Gnostic heretics, who argued
Jesus physically did not rise from the dead . The deliberate diction established the
orthodox view of Jesus' di vinity and purpose on Earth based on the New Testament.
The final condemnation of the Arians is in the conclusion of the creed. The
bi shops' desire to cleanse the ir ranks of heretical teachers is clearly noted in the final
submiss ion of the creed. The bishops' use of the word "anathemati zes" emanates the
intensity of their rejection of Arianism and Gnostic teachings. The council of bishops
could not have ended on a clearer note; the written creed states their orthodox beliefs and
Aside from ousting Arian interpretation from a statement of faith, the creed
written by the Council of Nicaea installed salient points of faith for the developing
orthodox faith. Reciting this creed not only confirmed a person's orthodox beli efs, but
also outlined them . Beginning with the statement that Jesus became human for the sake
of man, the creed was based on the New Testament 275 Furthermore, the creed enabled a
speaker to make a personal investment when they recited that Jesus was made man for
"our salvation.,,276 This also attributed the problems, or evils of the world, to man. 277
Equally, thi s makes salvation for man a divine act of God, only available through Jesus,
whi ch, in tum, makes him fully divine.278 Additionally, this statement provides a neat,
codification of God 's plan of salvation for mank ind through Jesus.
According to Socrates Scholasticus,279 all the bishops present, except for five,
subscribed to the confession of faith. Although more hesitated at first, they did concede in
order to avoid excommunication 280 The unyielding bishops did not accept the creed
because they objected to the term 7]o,uoovowO'(homoousios), 'of the same essence,' or
consubstantial, in explaining the relationship between God and Jesus. The dissenters
would not yield that Jesus was not created and of the same substance as God 28 J The
because the word was a Greek philosophical term that Eusebius argued was associated
with the heresy of Sabellius 282 and, more importantly, the term was not used in
scripture 283 These few dissenters could not derail the move towards orthodoxy; the
Nicene Creed set in motion a force that would no longer tolerate dissenters viewed to be
spreading heresy. With the Council of Nicaea, the Orthodox Catholic Church was born.
The creed put forth by the Council of Nicaea was the first formula to be published
Also known as Socrates the Historian. Socrates wrote about the first Council of Nicaea in Ecclesiastical
279
History generations after the council was held.
280 Schaff, Phillip. "NPNF2-02 . Socrates and Sozomenus Ecclesiastical Histories." Christian Classics
Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel .org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.iv.viii.html#ii.iv.viii-Page_10 (accessed
December 3, 2009). The five bishops who rejected the creed were Eusebius of Nicomedia, Theognis of
Nice, Maris of Chalcedon, Theonas of Marmarica, and Secundus of Ptolema'is.
282Schaff, Phillip. "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers Series 2: Volume I. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church
History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine I Christian Classics Ethereal Library."
Christian Classics Ethereal Library. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schafflnpnf201.iii.xii.vii.html(accessed
December 5, 2009). Sabellius argued that the separation of Father, Son and Holy Spirit in the trinity exists
in name only. God chose to reveal himself in different ways, but it was always the same God.
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284
authority for the church that did not exist prior to the council Once a formulary was
established for all believers, anyone who did not fall in line was excommunicated. With
the support of Constantine, these dissenters could also be exiled from the empire with the
accusation they were causing turmoil and dissention-the reason Constantine initially
The Nicene Creed is innovative in three ways: it brings the church into a position
of cooperation, it is a universal creed that trumps any local creeds, and it uses
philosophical language within a profession of faith that articulates the Christian faith in
the language of scripture 285 Furthermore, the moti vation of the council is lucid in the
final lines where the bishops affirm their mission by effacing all those who oppose the
developed statement.
The prob lem with the Council of Nicaea goes to the heart of early Christianity.
flexibility to understand and interpret the scripture and the person of Christ in different
ways, yet still remaining under the umbrella of Christianity. Rather than allowing debate
to arise and be resolved naturally in the church, future emperors and bishops relied on
violence to subdue all opposition. 287 The council was beneficial for creating unity in the
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further refined and developed its orthodox statements of faith during the subsequent
centuries.
(
70
Conclusion
Constantine called the Council of Nicaea to maintain the integrity of his empire.
He recognized the potential hidden in Christian communities. They were devoted, and
desirous to please God , who they believed came to earth for their salvation. If
Constantine could tap into this devotion, he could gain stability in his empire. To achieve
his goal, his first step was to end the persecution against the Christians. Hi s second step
was to restore sacred relics and buildings to parishes and allow bishops to return to their
gained more than the church leaders ' support. Christians looked to Constantine as a
blessed emperor, blessed by God for saving them from destruction. His plan was
flawless-Christianity was the shield he needed to protect his empire from turmoil.
Constantine mistakenly presumed the church was strong and stab le-his shield
was actually tense and brittle. Fissures existed along major theological fault lines.
Discrepancies existed in how a bishop, or another church leader, should live his life and
on the divinity of Jesus. A lack of respect existed among bi shops who were viewed as
weak when they escaped the clutches of martyrdom or handed over sacred relics to
oppressors during the persecution. When bishops who escaped persecution returned to
their parishes, some believers denied their authority to resume their duties as bishops.
This strained the church's ability to sustain a large empire of faithful followers. If these
followers were allowed to split, the shield would splinter, and Constantine could
encounter civil war within his empire. Further rigidity existed in the inability to concede
71
countering theologies. It was becoming evident Christianity could only support one
clearly defined belief. When more existed, turmoil threatened to snap the shield's shell.
repurposed this tool. It was no longer a defensive tool, but an offensive weapon. By
calling all the bishops together to formulate an orthodoxy, the shield transformed into a
sword, slicing away at heretical teachings that did not conform to the guidelines
established by the council. The Nicene Creed attempted to eradicate Christians who
failed to acknowledge the divinity of Jesus and the Trinity. The established creed set
forth prescribed words and phrases that prohibited an alternative interpretation. Slashing
the opposition, the Nicene Creed instituted a method to determine whether Christians
adhered to the accepted conventions of the church. Those who did not were
excommunicated and banished from the empire. This action prevented skirmishes from
threatening the stability of the Christian church and prevented physical conflict from
properly. Not a pass ive, defensi ve emperor, Constantine could not depend on a shield to
solely protect his assets. He needed a weapon to strike out at opposition and quash
turmoil in his empire. The proclamations and statement of faith that emerged from the
first Nicene Council provided Constantine with the sword he needed to annihilate
opposition that challenged his empire. The outcome of the council was twofold; it marked
the beginning of establishing orthodoxy in the church, and it attacked sects of Christianity
that did not conform. While the council did not eradicate the diverse sects that existed in
72
the empire, it set the precedent for striking out at believers and sects that failed to
recognize the accepted doctrine of fa ith. Constantine's success in calling the Council of
Nicaea should not be measured by the doctrine that emerged, but rather by the decline of
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