ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

Title

Effect of Yoga Practices on Psychological Wellbeing among college students

Authors- Mahesh Narain Tripathi & Dr. Sony Kumari

Research scholar - Mahesh Narain Tripathi

Research Guide - Dr Sony Kumari (M.A., PhD)

(Professor) S-VYASA University, Bangalore

Institutional Address

Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana (SVYASA)

(A University, established under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956 vide

Notification No. F.9-45/2001-U.3 dated 08-05-2001 of the Government of India

Website-www.svyasa.edu.in

Address of Correspondence-
Dr. Sony Kumari(Professor)
Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana (S-VYASA )
No-19,Eknath Bhavan , Gavipuram Circle, K G Nagar
Bangalore
Pin Code- 560019
Email Id- sonykarmanidhi@gmail.com

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1349 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

Title- Effect of Yoga Practices on Psychological Wellbeing among college

students-Randomized Controlled Trial Study
Abstract:
College life of the students is the transitional period from childhood to
adulthood especially in the beginning of college. The students are enrolled in college to get
best outcome with true self. They faces job after completing the college tenure successfully.
Psychological wellbeing (PWB) among college students is inevitable to maintain their track
and positive evaluation in the life. PWB offers for more being well than feeling happy and
satisfied with life. Yoga education is key factor to regulate and govern the affect of positive
functioning and help for being well. Aim: Effect of Yoga practices on psychological
wellbeing among college students . Material and Methods: The study was experimental in
nature based on two group pre test - post test design. A Sample Pool of 180 students was
drawn randomly out of 600 students of college 1st year.100 students were selected randomly
in yoga group and remaining 80 students taken in control group. Ryff Scale of
Psychological Wellbeing (RPWB) scale was used to measure the variables. Data was
collected before and after intervention. Results: Research shows using within group pair
sample t test positive and significant increase (P <0.01) of all the dimensions of positive
functioning in experimental group as compared to control group slightly significant ( P <
0.05) in two domain only. Research also revealed that only two variables have significant
difference between groups (P < 0.05) analysis using independent t test. Conclusion: This
Study indicate that the psychological well-being of the college students have significant
effect for positive functioning in college tenure after the practices of Yoga.

Keywords: Psychological wellbeing, College students and Yoga practices

Introduction:

Yoga is a holistic discipline to suspend the functioning of the mind through self awareness and
easeness. It removes the super imposition and facilitates the sublation. Practice of Yoga leads to
psychological wellbeing of college student (Tripathi Mahesh, et al, 2018, 2019)). Yoga is ancient
Indian science and the way of life for holistic living which includes Asanas, Pranayama and
meditation ((Taimini, 1961; Swami Chinmayananda, 1984).Yoga improves the sense of general

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1350 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

well-being (Satyananda S, 2008). Yoga is a scientific approach that regulates the body, mind
and intellect complex (Nagendra, et al, 2010).

The word ‗Psychological well-being‘ was initially used as early as possible in 16th century
and today this word is synonyms of measuring life growth in 21st century. The literal meaning of
Psychological well-being is related to the happiness, health and prosperity. Eudemonia word was
taken from philosophy of Aristotle consisted of eu and demonia meaning good and sprit
respectively (Mark Chekola, 1974). Initially the concept of wellbeing was guided by balance
between positive and negative affect (Bradburn's, 1969).With advancement of time, life
satisfaction viewed in perspective of cognitive component became affective dimension of
positive functioning (Andrews and McKennell, 1980; Andrews and Withey, 1976; Bryant and
Veroff, 1982; Campbell, Converse, and Rodgers, 1976). Keyes and Ryff, 2002 states that quality
of life and life satisfaction is organized in the category of subjective wellbeing. Quality of life
and life satisfaction (hedonic well-being) with social transformation was changing era to era and
global core question about PWB was puzzling in subfields of psychology (Bryant and Veroff,
1982; Ryff, 1985, 1989a). PWB is more than life satisfaction and quality of life. Buhler's (1935)
basic life tendencies, Erikson‘s (1959) psychosocial stages, and Neugarten's (1973) personality
changes are trajectories of continued growth in the life of human being. PWB is convergence of
multiple dimensions of positive functioning of wellbeing (Ryff, 1989b, 1995). PWB is a
multidimensional model as a defining dimension of wellness which helps to discover the human
potentialities (eudemonic well-being). PWB is unique combination of well articulated
multifaceted domain of positive psychological functioning with six distinct dimensions. These
components includes positive evaluations of oneself and one's past life (Self-Acceptance), a
sense of continued growth and development as a person (Personal Growth), the belief that one's
life is purposeful and meaningful (Purpose in Life), the possession of quality relations with
others (Positive Relations with Others), the capacity to manage effectively one's life and
surrounding world (Environmental Mastery), and a sense of self-determination (Autonomy)
(Ryff, et al, 1995). Moreover, Keyes and Haidt (2003) stated that the level of well being also
indicates the feeling of richness; how the individual is involved in activities to full fill the desired
goal.
College life is the transitional period from childhood to adulthood especially in
the beginning of college. The years spent in college are most stressful periods. These stressors

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1351 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

can throw him off track (Burris, et al, 2009; Chao, 2012). Tenure of College students is whirling
life under the supervision of parenthood. It is beneficial for adults to live a healthy life, making
it an important aspect of one's life in the college years (Molina G, et al, 2011). According to
Chao (2012), college students' stresses have increased tremendously over the past decade.
Research has found that there are increased levels of psychological disturbance among college
students (Bewick, et al, 2010). Students with little support and less than favorable psychological
well-being were found to be more likely to engage in negative activities such as alcohol use,
sedentary behavior, and too little or too much sleep. Life dissatisfaction or even suicidal behavior
has also been documented in students who have a lack of support and poor well-being of one's
self (Chao, 2012).

Literature Review:

As per Hindu epic Mahabharta, Arjuna and Ekalavya with their sturdy determination
mastered in the skills of Archery. Ekalavya surpassed Arjuna in the skills of Archery but suffered
from misfortune by sacrificing his right-hand thumb to the guru Drona as Guru Dakshin.
Psychological well-being (Eudaimonism) lies in living with the true self or true nature and
Eklavya was more with true self (Panguluri Pallavi, 2018).

World Health Organization (updated August 2014) defined PWB as a mental state in which
every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can
work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community.
Hence, PWB helps to achieve the goal of World Health Organization ―healthy mind in a
healthy body in a healthy environment‖ (Shri, 2007).
Adolescents depend on digital world technology like social media which provides unnecessary
information and it brings disturbance in college life. TV, computer, Internet, video games, smart
mobile and other devices connected with it steal the time during college tenure. It means that
children spend much less time doing other activities. Furthermore, messages children receive
from different media influence their behavior and inner happiness. Social media makes people
to be online not ―on life‖. These replace real relationship with others (Impact of media use,
2014).

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1352 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

Technology advancement has given birth for the measurement of Psychological wellbeing in
present century (Dolan and White 2007; Huppert et al. 2005; Kahneman et al. 1999; Seligman
2002; Snyder et al. 2001). Psychological well-being is important in the life of a college student
(Melissa L, et al, 2015). Psychological well-being is the ability to respond in a positive healthy
manner to life‘s challenges using personal, social, spiritual, environmental and physical
resources (Aideyan, 2016).
PWB of adults depends upon the love, care and support given by parents during childhood
(Cooney, et al, 2016). More ever separate study has shown that education is linked with better
PWB (Ryff, et al 2003; Keyes, et al 2002). Education level is more responsible for PWB than
higher status in society (Curhan, et al, 2014). Because education can grants a ―passport‖ for
better social status and take out of poverty also (Card D, 2001). Psychological Wellbeing is also
a predictor of Hooking Up (Allison R & Risman B J, 2013).

Measuring of PWB in college students is essential to remove the confusion of them that only
higher status people can have better wellbeing (Luana, et al, 2012). A gym based physical fitness
training class is helpful in some extent to improve psychological wellbeing (Yan Shi, et al,
2015). In a separate study by (Gaiswinkler L, et al, 2015), Yoga practice is having positive
relation with psychological wellbeing. Social media can also help to promote awareness about
Yoga and Psychological Wellbeing concerned with deeply human centered (Rafael A. Calvo and
Dorian Peters, 2013).

Yoga and Psychological Well-Being:

Psychological well-being increases with high leisure time physical activity among college
students. Hence the best well-being and lifestyle was to endorse leisure-time physical activity
into universities (Molinia G, et al, 2011). As the cost of health care increases, the use of non-
traditional complementary alternative treatments, also known as complementary alternative
medicine or therapeutic recreation, has become more prevalent (Sareen, et al, 2007). The use of
such interventions can act as a powerful complementary and/or supplemental treatment to relieve
mental and physical negative symptoms. The practice of yoga is among the empirically
supported treatments that can be both a proactive and reactive measure to enhance psychological
well-being (O‘Neill, 2001). Unterrainer and colleagues (2010) state that amount of spiritual

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1353 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

satisfaction has relation to psychological well-being. Therefore, trusting religious and spiritual
beliefs is a reflection of human personality. According to empirical observation, Spirituality and
Yoga practices increase the dimension of positive functioning among college students
(Mahalingam, et al, 2015).

Yoga is characterized by self- care and inner piece (Nagendra HR, et al, 1977). By practicing
yoga, a person is supposed to reach a state of mental equanimity, where responses to favorable or
unfavorable external events are well under the individual's control, and responses are moderate in
intensity (Telle S, et al, 2000). In a separate study, Yoga can be implemented in troubled time of
college students even with different abilities (Sisk, 2017). Yoga improves wellbeing in healthy
adults (Nagarathna, et al, 2011). According to Banth and Talwar, 2012; Yoga helps for
meaningful life, a component of psychological wellbeing in college students. Yoga and
spirituality is positive correlated with meaning in life among college students (Deb S, et al,
2019).Other study shows about effect of Surya Namaskar, a yogic practice widely practiced
across the globe, helps in environmental mastery in students of college (Anand, et al, 2015).
Yoga has positive effects on physiological level in college student and it provides different ways
to support the subtle aspects of psychological wellbeing (Tripathi Mahesh,et al, 2018,2019).

A combination of ‗stimulating‘ and ‗relaxing‘ practices may be better suitable for

wellbeing of students which is accompanied by reduce in cutaneous blood flow and increase in
sympathetic tone (Telles, Nagarathna, and Nagendra, 1998). While metabolic rate is increased
both during a sitting (Rai, et al , 1994) and a standing yoga posture (Rai and Ram, 1993). Burris,
et al. (2009) found that college administration should adopt the holistic way of practices like
Yoga to strengthen the dimension of psychological wellbeing among students. Yoga is the cause
for life changing during college tenure. Laughter Yoga is also one among strengthening activity
for psychological wellbeing (Miles C, et al, 2016). According to (Gaiswinkler and Unterrainer,
2016), PWB may be an important link to disturbance of mind (Cancalyata) and Yoga has highest
impact on psychological wellbeing.

The present study will examine whether there is an effect of Yoga Practices on Psychological
wellbeing and among college students.

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1354 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

Aim and Objective of the study:

To measure the effect of Yoga practices on psychological wellbeing among college

students using Ryff Scale of Psychological Wellbeing (RPWB)

Hypothesis of the study:

Hypothesis - Yoga practices will have positive effect on psychological wellbeing among college
students.

Null- hypothesis: Yoga practices will NOT have positive effect on psychological wellbeing
among college students

Methodology

Design of study- This study is Randomized control trial with pre-post assessment. The
participants were divided into two groups; first group was in experimental group while other
group in waitlist control group.

Total sample size- The sample size was 100 students (both male and female) in Yoga group and
80 students (both male and female) in control group from a wide variety of disciplines between
age group of 18 to 25. The study was conducted among college students of 1st year in TSR &
TBK College in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, South India.

Variable studied-

Six variables were grouped to measure the psychological well-being among college students.
These are autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations, purpose in life
and self acceptance. Autonomy includes a sense of self-determination, Environmental Mastery,
the capacity to manage effectively one's life and surrounding world; Personal Growth, a sense of
continued growth and development as a person; Positive Relations, the possession of quality
relations with others; Purpose in Life, the belief that one's life is purposeful and meaningful and
Self-Acceptance includes positive evaluations of oneself and one's past life. All variables were
studied using Ryff‗s scales of psychological well-being (RPWB) which is 42 item scale. RPWB
is unique combination of well articulated multifaceted domain of positive psychological
functioning with six distinct dimensions. The internal consistency coefficients are quite high

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1355 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

(between 0.86 and 0.93). The cronbach alpha for each subscale is as: .86 for autonomy, .90 for
environmental mastery, .87 for personal growth, .91 for positive relationships with others, .90 for
purpose in life, and .93 for self-acceptance. The test –retest reliability coefficients are also high
(0.81-0.88). The subscale intercorrelations ranges were from 0.32 to 0.76.

All items are answered using a six-point Likert scale format ranging from strongly disagree to
strongly agree. Scoring is given as 1 for strongly disagree to 6 for strongly agree. Total 20 items
starting from 3, 5, 10, 13,14,15,16,17,18,19, 23, 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 39, 41 are reverse
scored

Intervention- The intervention consisted of 8 weeks Yoga practices comprising of Kriyas,

loosening practices, breathing practices, Surya Namaskar, Asanas (physical postures),
Pranayama (breathing regulations) and Dhyan (meditation) apart from didactic and interactive
sessions on philosophical concepts of yoga. The waitlist group has followed their regular college
activities. The practices of yoga were given for 50 minutes and 6 days a week.

Data Analysis: data analysis was done using S.P.S.S 10 Version.

Result and Discussion:

The obtained data was systematically tabulated and organized and analyzed by within group
paired sample t test and between group independent t tests. . The obtained results are presented
in Table-1 and Table-2.

Table1- within group test yoga and control –Paired sample t test

Yoga Control

Variables Pr- Post- % of P value Pr- Post- % of mean P value

mean+- mean+- mean mean mean
SD SD +-SD +-SD

Ryfd1 27.79+- 33.55+- 20.72 25.23 25.26 0.12

.001 .856
5.3 4.8 +-4.3 +-3.9

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1356 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

Ryfd2 27.61+- 34.38+- 24.52 24.96 25.34+ 1.52

.001 -3.4 .211
4.7 4.9 +-3.5

Ryfd3 29.20+- 36.05+- 23.45 27.45+ 27.80+ 1.28

.001 -5.04 -5.05 .020
6.03 4.5

Ryfd4 29.61+- 36.67+- 23.84 25.85+ 26.13+ 1.08

.001 -6.1 -6.1 .107
5.5 4.3

Ryfd5 28.95+- 36.02+- 24.42 26.73+ 26.66+ 0.26

.001 -5.4 -5.4 .772
5.5 4.4

Ryf d6 29.70+- 35.48+- 19.46 25.29+ 25.94+ 2.57

.001 -5.2 -5.3 .042
5.4 4.3

Table 2- Between group-Independent t Test

Variables Pre-P value Post-P value

Ryfd1 .051 .021
Ryfd2 .001 .000
Ryfd3 .076 .298
Ryfd4 .604 .003
Ryfd5 .654 .157
Ryf d6 .305 .254

Data was normally distributed, hence we have conducted parametric test, in within groups and
between groups. Paired sample t test shows significant improvement in autonomy (Ryf d1) in
terms of mean value has increased from 27.79 to 33.55 (20.72%) (p<.01), in environmental
mastery (Ryf d2) 27.61 to 34.38 (24.52%) (p<.01), in personal growth (Ryfd3) 29.20 to 36.05
(23.45%)(p<.01), in positive relations ( Ryf d4) 29.61 to 36.67( 23.84%)(p<.01), in purpose in
life ( Ryf d5) 28.95 to 36.02 (24.42%) (p<.01) and in self acceptance (Ryf d6)29.70 to

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1357 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

35.48(19.46 %)(p<.01). All subscales of Ryff’s PWB have shown positive and significant impact
in experimental group using Yoga as an intervention [Table 1].

In control group, test shows the change of mean value from 25.23 to 25.26 (0.12 %) (p=.856)
in d1, 24.96 to 25.34 (1.52%) (p=.211) in d2, 27.45 to 27.8 (1.28%) (p=.020) in d3, 25.85 to
26.13 (1.08%) (p=.107) in d4, 26.73 to 26.66 (0.26%) (p=.772) in d5 and 25.29 to 25.94 (2.57%)
(p=.042) in d6. Control group has significant change only in personal growth (d3) and self
acceptance (d6) (P < 0.05) while other domain is not significant (p>.05) [Table 1].

In between group analysis using independent sample t test showed the p value (pre=.051, post
=.021) for d1, (pre =.001, post=.000) for d2, (pre=.076, post=.298) for d3, (pre=.604, post=.003)
for d4, (pre =.654, post=.157) for d5 and (pre=.305, post=.254) for d6. It is evident from Table 2
that autonomy (d1) and positive relation (d4) also has significant improvements between groups
(P < .05).

The study of Table-1 indicated that Yoga practices are effective and positive in improving the
psychological wellbeing among college students. Therefore, according to this study, hypothesis 1
is accepted, and null hypothesis rejected. Yoga practices have positive effect on all domain of
psychological wellbeing among college students, whereas control group does not have positive
effect on all domain of psychological wellbeing among college students while between group
two domains is having significant change.

Conclusion:

We can conclude from the above results and discussion that Yoga enhances the psychological
wellbeing among college students. It should be noted that yoga practices contains Asanas,
Pranayama (regulated breathing) and Meditation which enhances self-regulation, self –care and
self-aware to increase the dimensions of positive functioning. If we assume psychological
wellbeing as positive functioning of students then yoga-based training will have effect on overall
performance of students. In future effect of yoga can be examined with longer duration of
intervention.

Financial support and sponsorship:

Nil

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1358 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

Conflict of interest:

There are no conflicts of interest

Reference:

1. Aideyan, D.O.(2016).Psychological health and wellbeing.In O.G Oshodin & C.O Idehen
(Eds.) Ecleptic concepts in health education. Benin. Root & Associates
2. Anand Sharad Godse, Bhaskar R Shejwal, and Amruta Anand Godse. Effects of
suryanamaskar on relaxation among college students with high stress in Pune, India. Int J
Yoga. 2015
3. Allison, R., & Risman, B. J. (2013). A double standard for ―Hooking Up‖: How far have we
come toward gender e quality? Social Science Research, 42, 1191-1206
doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.04.006
4. A Rosemary. Abbott, George B. Ploubidis, Felicia A. Huppert, Diana Kuh,Tim J. Croudace.
An Evaluation of the Precision of Measurement of Ryff‘s Psychological Well-Being Scales
in a Population Sample. 2010 Jul; 97(3): 357–373.Published online 2009 Sep 1. doi:
10.1007/s11205-009-9506-x
5. Abbott, R. A., Ploubidis, G. B., Huppert, F. A., Kuh, D., Wadsworth, M. E., & Croudace, T.
J. (2006). Psychometric evaluation and predictive validity of Ryff‘s psychological well-being
items in a UK birth cohort sample of women. Health and quality of life outcomes, 4(76).
6. An, J. S., & Cooney, T. M. (2016). Psychological well-being in mid to late life: The role of
generativity development and parent–child relationships across the lifespan. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 410–421.)
7. Andrews, F. M., & McKennell, A. C. (1980). Measures of self-reported well-being. Social
Indicators Research, 8, 127-156
8. Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. (1976). Social indicators of well-being: America's
perception of life quality. New York: Plenum
9. Baker F. The basics of item response theory. College Park: University of Maryland: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Assessment & Evaluation; 2001.
10. Baker F, Kim S. Item response theory: parameter estimation techniques. 2. New York:
Taylor & Francis; 2004.

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1359 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

11. Banth S, Talwar C. Anasakti, the Hindu ideal, and its relationship to well-being and
orientations to happiness. J Relig Health. 2012 Sep;51(3):934-46. doi: 10.1007/s10943-010-
9402-3.
12. Bartholomew DJ, Knott M. Latent variable models and factor analysis. London: Arnold
Publishers; 1999.
13. Buhler, C. (1935). The curve of life as studied in biographies. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 19, 405-409.
14. Bradburn , N.M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine
15. Bryant, F. B., & Veroff, J. (1982). The structure of psychological wellbeing: A
sociohistorical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 653-673.
16. Brim O, Ryff CD, Kessler RC, editors. How healthy are we? Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press; 2004.
17. Burris, J.L., Brechting, E.H., Salsman, J. And Carlson, C.R. (2009). Factors associated with
the psychological well-being and distress of university students. Journal of American College
Health, 57(5), 536-543.
18. Burns, R. A., & Machin, M. A. (2009). Investigating the structural validity of ryff‘s
psychological well-being scales across two samples. Social indicators research, (in press).
19. Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., & Rodgers, W. L. (1976). The quality of American life:
Perceptions, evaluations, and satisfactions. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
20. Carr D. The fulfillment of career dreams at midlife. Does it matter for women‘s mental
health? Journal of Health and Social Behaviour. 1997;38(33):1–344.
21. Card, D. (2001). Estimating the return to schooling: Progress on some persistent econometric
problems. Econometrica, 69(5), 1127-1160
22. Cheng ST, Chan AC. Measuring psychological well-being in the Chinese. Personality and
Individual Differences. 2005; 38:1307–1316. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.08.013.

23. Chekola, M (1974). The Concept of Happiness, Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan University.
24. Clarke PJ, Marshall VW, Ryff CD, Wheaton B. Measuring psychological well-being in the
Canadian study of health and aging. International Psychogeriatrics. 2001; 13(Suppl. 1):79–
90. doi: 10.1017/S1041610202008013.
25. Curhan, Cynthia S. Levine, Hazel Rose Markus, Shinobu Kitayama, Jiyoung Park, Mayumi
Karasawa,Norito Kawakami, Gayle D. Love, Christopher L. Coe, Yuri Miyamoto, and Carol

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1360 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

D. Ryff‘ Social Psychological and Personality Science -Subjective and Objective

Hierarchies and Their Relations to Psychological Well-Being: A U.S./Japan Comparison;
Katherine B.;2014, Vol. 5(8) 855-864 ,DOI: 10.1177/194855061453846
26. Datey K. K. Stress and heart diseases and how to control it with newer techniques -
biofeedback and Savanasana, Paper presented at the International seminar on stress in Health
and Diseases. Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University, 1977.
27. Dierendonck D. The construct validity of Ryff‘s scales of psychological well-being and its
extension with spiritual well-being. Personality and Individual Differences. 2004; 36:629–
643. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00122-3.
28. Dierendonck D, Dario Dı′az D, Rodrı′guez-Carvajal R, Blanco A, Moreno-Jimenez B. Ryff‘s
six-factor model of psychological well-being, a Spanish exploration. Social Indicators
Research. 2008; 87(3):473–479. doi: 10.1007/s11205-007-9174-7.
29. Deb S , Thomas S , Bose A , Aswathi T . Happiness, Meaning, and Satisfaction in Life as
Perceived by Indian University Students and Their Association with Spirituality. Journal of
Religion and Health [08 Apr 2019].
30. Deci EL, Ryan RM. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New
York: Plenum; 1985.
31. Deci EL, Ryan RM. The ―what‖ and ―why‖ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-
determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry. 2000;11:227–268. doi:
10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.
32. Dolan P, White M. How can measures of subjective well-being be used to inform public
policy? Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2007;2(1):71–85. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-
6916.2007.00030.x
33. Dorothy A. Sisk, Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being, Psychology
Research, October 2017, Vol. 7, No. 10, 530-535, doi:10.17265/2159-5542/2017.10.002
34. ELSA. English longitudinal study of ageing. From www.ifs.org.uk/elsa.
35. Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues, 1,18-164.
36. Fava GA, Ruini C, Rafanelli C, Finos L, Salmaso L, Mangelli L, et al. Well-being therapy of
generalized anxiety disorder. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 2005;74(1):26–30. doi:
10.1159/000082023.

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1361 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

37. Gaiswinkler L, Unterrainer HF .The relationship between yoga involvement, mindfulness

and psychological well-being. 2016 Jun; 26:123-7. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2016.03.011.
38. Gaiswinkler L, Unterrainer HF, Fink A, Kapfhammer HP; The relationship between Yoga
Immersion, psychological well-being and psychiatric symptoms[Article in
German];Neuropsychiatr. 2015;29(1):29-35. doi: 10.1007/s40211-015-0139-9.
39. Huppert FA, Keverne B, Bayliss N, editors. The science of well-being. Oxford: Oxford
University Press; 2005.
40. Huppert FA, Marks N, Clark A, Siegrist J, Stutzer A, Vittersø J, Wahrendorf J. Measuring
well-being across Europe: Description of the ESS well-being module and preliminary
findings. Social Indicators Research. 2009;91(3):301–315. doi: 10.1007/s11205-008-9346-0.
Impact of media use on children and youth. (2003, May-June). Retrieved October 14, 2013 ,
from The National Center for Biotechnology Information:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792691/
41. Jöreskog KG. New developments in LISREL: Analysis of ordinal variables using polychoric
correlations and weighted least squares. Quality & Quantity. 1990;24:387–404. doi:
10.1007/BF00152012. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
42. Jöreskog, K. G. & Sörbom, D. (2004). LISREL 8.7. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software
International, Inc.
43. Kafka GJ, Kozma A. The construct validity of Ryff‘s scales of psychological well-being
(SPWB) and their relationship to measures of subjective well-being. Social Indicators
Research. 2002;57:171–190. doi: 10.1023/A:1014451725204. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
44. Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N, editors. Well-being: the foundations of hedonic
psychology.New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 1999. [Google Scholar]
45. Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical
encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 1007–1022.)
46. Keyes, D.L. and Haidt, J. (2003). Flourihing: Positive Psychology and the Life well-lived.
Washington, DC; American Psychological Association
47. Kumar S, Nagendra HR, Manjunath NK, Naveen KV, Telles S. Meditation on OM:
Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science. Int J Yoga. 2010;3:2–5
48. Layard R. Happiness: lessons from a new Science. London: Penguin; 2005. [Google Scholar]

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1362 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

49. Lindfors P, Berntsson L, Lundberg U. Factor structure of Ryff‘s psychological well-being

scales in Swedish female and male white-collar workers. Personality and Individual
Differences. 2006;40(6):1213–1222. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.016. [CrossRef] [Google
Scholar]
50. Luana Giatti, Lidyane do Valle Camelo, Jôsi Fernandes de Castro Rodrigues & Sandhi Maria
Barreto .Reliability of the MacArthur scale of subjective social status - Brazilian
Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil), December 2012BMC Public Health
12(1):1096DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-1096
51. Mahalingam, Craighead J, Gomathi. Yoga Practices and Psychological Well-being of
Student Nurses. Nurs J India. 2015 Mar;106(2):84-87
52. Mahesh Narain Tripathi, Sony Kumari, and Tikhe Sham Ganpat. Psychophysiological effects
of yoga on stress in college students;2018,J Educ Health Promot.
53. Mahesh Narain Tripathi, Sony Kumari, and Tikhe Sham Ganpat; Yoga for Stress
Management in Environmental Health Engineering Students; 2019; OA Journal - Life
54. Marks N, Shah H. A well-being manifesto for a flourishing society. In: Huppert FA, Bayliss
N, Keverne B, editors. The science of well-being. Oxford: Oxford University Press;
2005.[Google Scholar]
55. McDonald RP. Test theory: a unified treatment. Manwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates;
1999.[Google Scholar]
56. McGregor I, Little BR. Personal projects, happiness and meaning: On doing well and being
yourself. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998; 74:494–512. doi:
10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.494.[PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
57. McKinley NM. Women and objectified body consciousness: Mothers‘ and daughters‘ body
experience in cultural, developmental, and familial context. Developmental Psychology.
1999;35(3):760–769. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.35.3.760. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google
Scholar]
58. Miles C, Tait E, Schure MB, Hollis M. Effect of Laughter Yoga on Psychological Well-being
and Physiological Measures. Adv Mind Body Med. 2016 winter; 30(1):12-20.
59. Molina García, J. J., Castillo, I. I., & Queralt, A. A. (2011); Leisure-time physical activity
and psychological well-being in university students; Psychological Reports, 109(2), 453-
460; doi:10.2466/06.10.13.PR0.109.5.453-460

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1363 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

60. Muthén B. A general structural equation model with dichotomous, ordered categorical and
continuous latent variable indicators. Psychometrika. 1984; 49:115–132. doi:
10.1007/BF02294210.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
61. Muthén, L., & Muthén, B. (1998–2004). Mplus user guide. (Third ed.). Los Angeles, CA:
Muthén & Muthén.
62. Nagendra HR, Nagarathna R. New Perspective in stress management, Bangalore, India:
Vivekananda Kendra Parkashana; 1977.
63. Neugarten, B. L. (1973). Personality change in late life: A developmental perspective. In C.
Eisdorfer & M. P. Lawton (Eds.), The psychology of adult development and aging (pp.311-
335). Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.
64. Narasimhan L, Nagarathna R, Nagendra H. Effect of integrated yogic practices on positive
and negative emotions in healthy adults. Int J Yoga. 2011 Jan;4(1):13-9. doi: 10.4103/0973-
6131.78174.
65. O'Neill, R. D. (2001). An exploratory study that analyzes the viability of Hatha-Yoga as
preventive health care in the managed care environment; International Journal of Yoga
Therapy, 11, 35-48
66. Panguluri Pallavi ; PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING CONCEPTS ANDHINDU EPICS-
RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA; 2018 JETIR April 2018, Volume 5, Issue 4
67. Rafael A. Calvo and Dorian Peters ;( 2013) Promoting Psychological Wellbeing: Loftier
Goals
68. for New Technologies; IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE,
69. Rai L, Ram K. (1993). Energy Expenditure and Ventilatory Responses During Virasana- a
Yogic Standing Posture. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 37(1), 45-50.
70. Rai L, Ram K, Kant U, Madan S.K., and Sharma S.K. (1994). Energy Expenditure and
Ventilatory Responses During Siddhasana - A Yogic Seated Posture. Indian Journal of
Physiology and Pharmacology, 38(1), 29-33.
71. Ryff, C. D. (1985). Adult personality development and the motivation for personal growth. In
D. Kleiber & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Vol. 4. Motivation
and adulthood (pp. 55-92). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1364 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

72. Ryff CD(1989a). Beyond Ponce de Leon and life satisfaction: New directions in quest of
successful aging. International Journal of Behavioural Development. 1989;12:35–55. doi:
10.1177/016502548901200102.
73. Ryff CD(1989b). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of
psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1989;57:1069–
1081. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069.
74. Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 4, 99-104.
75. Ryff CD, Dienberg Love G, Urry HL, Muller D, Rosenkranz MA, Friedman EM, et al.
Psychological well-being and ill-being: Do they have distinct or mirrored biological
correlates? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 2006;75:85–95. doi: 10.1159/000090892.
76. Ryff CD, Keyes CL. The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology. 1995;69(4):719–727. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719.
77. Ryff, C. D., Keyes, C. L. M., & Hughes, D. L. (2003). Status inequalities, perceived
discrimination, and eudaimonic well-being: Do the challenges of minority life hone purpose
and growth? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 275-291.
78. Satyananda S, Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha. 4thRevised edition. Munger, Bihar, India:
Yoga Publications Trust; 2008
79. Sareen, S., Kumari, V., Gajebasia, K.S., & Gajebasia, N.K. (2007); Yoga: A tool for
improving
80. the quality of life in chronic pancreatitis; World Journal of Gastroenterology, 13 (3), 391-
397.
81. Seligman, M. (2002). Authentic happiness: Nicholas Brealey.
82. Snyder CR, Lopez SJ, editors. Handbook of positive psychology. USA: Oxford University
Press, Inc.; 2001. [Google Scholar]
83. Springer KW, Hauser RM. An assessment of the construct validity of Ryff‘s scales of
psychological well-being: Method, mode and measurement effects. Social Science Research.
2006;35:1079–1101.[Google Scholar]
84. Sweet, J. A., & Bumpass, L. L. (1996). The national survey of families and households—
Waves 1 and 2: Data description and documentation. From
http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/nsfh/home.htm.

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1365 http://adalyajournal.com/

ADALYA JOURNAL ISSN NO: 1301-2746

85. Swami Chinmayananda (1984). Mandukya Upanisat. Sachin Publishers: Bombay

86. Takane Y, Leeuw J. On the relationship between item response theory and factor analysis of
discretized variables. Psychometrika. 1987;52:393–408. doi: 10.1007/BF02294363.
87. Taimini IK, The science of yoga. The Theosophical Publishing House: Madras; 1961.
88. Telles S, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR, Autonomic changes while mentally repeating two
syllables – one meaningful and the other neutral. Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology.1998; 42(1): 57-63
89. Telles S, Reddy SK, Nagendra HR. Oxygen consumption and respiration following two yoga
relaxation techniques. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2000; 25:221-7.
90. Shri, R. (2007) Well-being and Alternative Therapies In R. Singh, & R. Shyam (Eds),
Psychology of Well-being (pp. 381-389). New Delhi Global Vision Publishing House
91. Unterrainer, H. F., Ladenhauf, K. H., Wallner-Liebmann, S. J., & Fink, A. (2010);
Dimensions of religious/Spiritual Well-Being and their relation to personality and
psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 192-197.
92. Wadsworth ME. The imprint of time: childhood, history, and adult life. Oxford: Clarendon
Press; 1991. [Google Scholar]
93. Wadsworth ME, Butterworth SL, Hardy RJ, Kuh D, Richards M, Langenberg C, et al. The
life course prospective design: An example of benefits and problems associated with study
longevity. Social Science and Medicine. 2003;57(11):2193–2205. doi: 10.1016/S0277-
9536(03)00083-2
94. Wadsworth ME, Kuh D, Richards M, Hardy RJ. Cohort profile: The 1946 national birth
cohort (MRC National Survey of Health and Development) International Journal of
Epidemiology. 2006;31(1):49–54.
95. Yan Shi, Gang He, Stephen H. Wong, FACSM, Bo Wang; Effects Of Physical Fitness
Training On Psychological Wellbeing Among College Students With Varied Exercise
Experiences;American college of sports medicine;12/13/2015 10:06:24 PM;

Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2019 1366 http://adalyajournal.com/