QUEEN MARY'S SCHOOL

Soap

RollNo :-

SubmittedBy :- SubmittedTo :-

Khushi dhanariya Mr. Dharmesh sir

 DECELARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled “To Compare

The Foaming Capacity” submitted to Queen Mary’s
School ,(Nandla), Nasirabad, is a record of an original
work done by me by gaining the knowledge related to
the project from certain resources.
 Certificate

That is to certify that khushi dhanariya of class XII

Science has carried out the project work I chemistry

under my supervision and guidance.

All the work related to this study was done by the

Candidates himself and his approach to the subject is
Sincere and scientific.

------------- -------------
signature signature
mrs.satyarupa
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I'd like to express my greatest gratitude to the people who have

helped & supported me throughout my project. I’ m grateful to
Mr. dharmesh My Chemistry Teacher for his continuous support
for the project, from initial advice & encouragement to this day.
Special thanks of mine goes to my colleague who helped me in
completing the project by giving interesting ideas, thoughts &
made this project easy and accurate.
I wish to thanks my parents for their undivided support &
interest who inspired me & encouraged me to go my own way,
without which I would be unable to complete my project. At last
but not the least I want to thanks my friends who appreciated me
for my work & motivated me and finally to God who made all the
things possible .
 INDEX

 INTRODUCTION
 Soap Making Methods
 Melt and Pour Soap
 Cold Process Soap
 Hot Process Soaps
 Rebatching Soaps
 EXPERIMENT 1
 EXPERIMENT 2
INTRODUCTION

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like

stearic, palmitic and oleic acids can be either saturated or
unsaturated. They contain a long hydrocarbon chain of about 10-
20 carbon with one carboxylic acid group as the functional group.
A soap molecule a tadpole shaped structure, whose ends have
different polarities. At one end is the long hydrocarbon chain that
is non-polar and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in water but oil
soluble. At the other end is the short polar carboxylate ion which
is hydrophilic i.e., water soluble but insoluble in oil and grease.

When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap solution that is

colloidal in nature. Agitating it tends to concentrate the solution
on the surface and causes foaming. This helps the soap molecules
make a unimolecular film on the surface of water and to penetrate
the fabric. The long non-polar end of a soap molecule that are
hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt (fat or oil
with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end containing the
carboxylate ion, face the water away from the dirt. A number of
soap molecules surround or encircle dirt and grease in a clustered
structure called 'micelles', which encircles such particles and
emulsify them.
Cleansing action of soaps decreases in hard water. Hard water
contains Calcium and magnesium ions which react with sodium
carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa+Ca2+ (C17H35COO)2 Ca +2Na+ (ppt.)

(Water soluble)

2C17H35COONa+Mg2+ (C17H35COO)2 Mg +2Na+

This hardness can be removed by addition of Sodium Carbonate.

Ca2++ Na2CO3CaCO3+2Na+

Mg2++ Na2CO3 MgCO3 +2Na+

lyophilic:
The word meaning of lyophilic means ‘liquid-loving’ or ‘solvent-
attracting’. This means that in this colloidal solution there is a strong
attraction between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium, i.e., the
dispersed phase has great affinity for the dispersion medium that results
in the extensive solvation of the colloidal particles. In such solids, the
dispersed phase does not easily precipitate and the sols are quite stable.
These sols are reversible in nature. The dispersed phase obtained by the
evaporation can be easily converted to the sol state by simply agitating it
with the dispersion medium. Additional stabilisers are not required during
their preparation. If water is used as the dispersion medium, lyophilic sols
are called hydrophilic sols. Starch, gum, gelatin, egg albumin etc. are
examples of lyophilic sols
Lyophobic:
Lyophobic colloids are liquid hating colloids (Lyo means solvent
and phobic means hating). When these colloids are mixed with the
suitable liquid, very weak force of attraction exists between
colloidal particles and liquid and system does not pass into
colloidal state readily. Therefore, lyophobic sols are difficult to
prepare. Special techniques are employed to prepare these sols.

Soap Making Methods

There are many ways to make soap. When people talk about the
soap “Grandma used to make,” they’re not talking about the pretty
and colorful creations you see lining the windows of upscale
salons and boutiques today. This article will discuss the basic
types of soap; it is not meant to be a “How To” article on making
soap. There are some great books, such as “The Soapmakers
Companion” by Susan Miller Cavitch.

Melt and Pour Soap

Technically, all hand made soap is “Glycerin Soap.” In many
commercial soaps, all the extra glycerin (formed naturally by the
cold process soapmaking method) is harvested out. Thus, all
handmade soap is glycerin rich (since hand made soapmakers don’t
harvest out glycerin in their soap).
In today’s market, the term “Glycerin Soap” is commonly used to
refer to clear soap. Generally, the clear soap has extra glycerin
added to it to produce a very nourishing, moisturizing bar.
Glycerin is a “humectant.” It draws moisture to itself; the theory
is that if you wash with glycerin soap, a thin layer of glycerin will
remain, drawing moisture to your skin.
Clear soap base can be purchased in large blocks to be melted
down, colored and fragranced, and placed into molds (or used to
make loaves of soap to be sliced). This type of soap is called “Melt
and Pour” and the artistry of melt and pour is called “Soap
Casting.” Melt and Pour soap making is gaining in popularity
because of its ease of use. There are no significant safety measures
(other than basic common sense – don’t put your hand in the hot
soap, don’t cut your finger off with the knife etc…) needed for
soapcasting. Children can do it. It’s a great outlet for creative
types.
You can also make clear soap from scratch. This method involves
all the aspects of cold process soapmaking, but takes it a few steps
further by adding alcohol for clarity and a glycerin and sugar mix
to suspend and enhance the clarity. It is a dangerous process
because of the alcohol vapors. If you wish to make clear soap
(which will not melt down like melt and pour – it’s one pour only
soap), please read “Making Transparent Soap” by Catherine
Failor. This is an excellent resource for anyone wishing to make
clear soap from scratch.
View our Melt and Pour Soap making tutorial.

Cold Process Soap

The type of soap Grandma made is called “Cold Process” soap
(commonly referred to as “CP” soap). It is made by combining fatty
acids and sodium hydroxide (lye) together. Fatty acids can be
almost any oil – from beef tallow to olive oil to hemp oil. The
combinations for making your own personal recipe are endless.

Cold process soapmaking is a combinations of an art and science.

The condensed version of this type of soapmaking is that there is a
certain proportion of lye (sodium hydroxide) and water to fatty
acids that forms a chemical reaction called “saponifaction.”
During saponification, the oils and lye mix and become soap – the
process takes approximately six weeks to fully complete.
Cold process soapmaking requires the use of lye and the use of
safety equipment, such as goggles and gloves. Please do not
attempt to make cold process soap without researching the method
thoroughly. Cold process soap is known for its hard, long lasting
quality. Depending on the oils used, the bar can have great lather
(coconut oil has excellent lathering properties), be incredibly mild
(olive oil is renowned for its gentle qualities) or be very
moisturizing (with the addition of oils, such as shea and cocoa
butter or hemp oil).
View some easy Cold Process Soap recipes.
Hot Process Soaps
There are variations on the cold process method. Hot process soap
is an interesting take on the cold process method. The simple
explanation is that you take all your ingredients, and add them to
a pot (that is then placed over a heat source, such as a stove) and
stir frequently until the soap goes through various stages. The
excess water is evaporated off and the soap is ready to use once
cooled. For more information on Hot Process soap making, there
are some interesting articles in The Saponifier and on Melanie
Dunstan’s website.

Rebatching Soaps

Rebatching, also called French milled, or Triple milled soap, is

another form of cold process soapmaking. You make your cold
process soap from scratch, grate it up, place it over a heat source,
in a kettle, with a little liquid (water works very well), and the
mixture melts down into a mushy mess that you add colorant and
fragrance too. This method is often used to preserve the scent or
the healing properties of some essential oils.
EXPERIMEN 1
Aim:To compare the foaming capacities of five different
commercial soaps.

Apparatus:5 test tubes, 5 conical flasks (100 ml), test

tube stand, Bunsen burner and stop watch.

Materials Required:5 different samples of soap

and distilled water

Theory:

The foaming capacity of a soap sample depends upon the nature of

soap and its concentration. This can be compared for various
samples of soaps by taking the same concentration of solution and
shaking them.
The foam is formed and the time taken for disappearances of foam
in all cases is compared. The lesser the time taken by a solution for
the disappearance of foam, the lower is its foaming capacity.
Procedure:
 Five conical flasks (100 ml each) are taken and
numbered 1 to 5.
 In each of these flasks equal amounts (say 5 gm) of
the given samples of soap shavings or granules are
taken and 50 ml of distilled water is added.
 Each conical flask is heated few minutes to dissolve
all the soap completely.
 In a test-tube stand, five big clean and dry test tubes
are taken and numbered 1 to 5
 One ml of the five soap solution is then poured in the
test tubes of corresponding number.
 10 ml. of distilled water is then added to each test
tube.
 Test tube no 1 is then shaken vigorously 5 times.
 The foam would be formed in the empty space above
the container. Stop watch is started immediately and
the time taken for the disappearance of foam is noted.
 Similarly the other test tubes are shaken vigorously
for equal number of times (i.e., 5 times) with
approximately with the same force and the time taken
for the disappearance of foam in each case is recorded.
Observation: Amount of each soap sample taken = 5
gm.
Amount of distilled water taken = 50 ml.
Volume of each soap solution taken = 1 ml.
Volume of distilled water added = 10 ml.

S. No. SoapSample Timetaken(seconds)

1. Dove 11’42”
2. Lux 3’28”
3. Tetmosol 5’10”
4. Santoor 15’32”

5. Cinthol 9’40”

Conclusions: The soap for which the time taken for the
disappearance of foam is highest has maximum foaming capacity
and is the best quality soap among the soaps tested
EXPERIMENT 2

Aim: Study the effect of the addition of Sodium Carbonate

(Washing Soda) on the foaming capacity of different soap
solutions.

Apparatus:3 test tubes, test tube stand, Bunsen burner

and stop watch.

Materials Required:0.5 g sample of soap, water

(distilled & tap both) and M/10 Na2CO3 solution.

Theory:
When sodium or potassium soaps are put into water containing calcium and
magnesium ions (Hard water), results in formation of scum which applies grey
appearance on the cloth. To achieve the same washing or cleaning action, more soap
must be added.

2C17H35COONa +Ca2+ (C17H35COO)2 Ca +2Na+

(Water soluble) (scum)
Hard water is water that has high mineral content (mainly
calcium and magnesium ions) (in contrast with soft water). Hard
water minerals primarily consist of calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium
(Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes other dissolved compounds
such as bicarbonates and sulphates. Calcium usually enters the
water as either calcium carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of
limestone and chalk, or calcium sulphate (CaSO4), in the form of
other mineral deposits. When Na2CO3 is added to tap water the
calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) ions precipitate as their
carbonates .i.e. foaming capacity of soap increases.

Ca2++ Na2CO3 CaCO3+ 2Na+

Mg2+ + Na2CO3 MgCO3 +2Na+

Procedure:
 Dissolve 0.5g of soap and dissolve it in 50 ml of distilled
water.
 Take three test tubes and add distilled water in first, tap
water in second and third test tube.
 Add 5 ml of M/10 sodium carbonate to third test tube.
 To above test tubes add soap solutions separately.
 Now shake first test tubes for formation of foam.
 Now start the stop watch to calculate time taken for
disappearance of foam.
 Similarly, perform the experiment with other soap solutions.
 Record the observations in a tabular form.

Observation:

Amount of each soap sample taken = 0. 5 gm.

Amount of distilled water taken = 50 ml.

Volume of each soap solution taken = 1 ml.

Volume of distilled water added = 10 ml.

S.NO. Water used Time taken(second)
1. 10.00 ml distilled 8.30 hrs
Water
2. 10ml of tap water (B) 6.30hrs

3. 5.00 ml of tap 7.30 hrs

Water and 5.00 ml
M/ 10 Na2CO3(C)

Conclusions: Foaming capacity of soap in

maximum in distilled water. The foaming capacity of soap
increases on the addition of Sodium Carbonate.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

o www.SlideShare.com

o Chemistry NCERT

o www.SCRIBED.com