CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management is a term used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring that
classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. The term also implies the
prevention of disruptive behavior. It is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many
teachers; indeed experiencing problems in this area causes some to leave teaching altogether. In 1981
the US National Educational Association reported that 36% of teachers said they would probably not
go into teaching if they had to decide again. A major reason was "negative student attitudes and
discipline".[1]

According to Moskowitz & Hayman (1976), once a teacher loses control of their classroom, it becomes
increasingly more difficult for them to regain that control.[2] Also, research from Berliner (1988) and
Brophy & Good (1986) shows that the time a teacher has to take to correct misbehavior caused by
poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic engagement in the
classroom.[3] From the student’s perspective, effective classroom management involves clear
communication of behavioral and academic expectations as well as a cooperative learning
environment.[4]

Classroom management is closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and respect.

Methodologies remain a matter of passionate debate amongst teachers; approaches vary depending
on the beliefs a teacher holds regarding educational psychology. A large part of traditional
classroom management involves behavior modification, although many teachers see
using behavioral approaches alone as overly simplistic. Many teachers establish rules and procedures
at the beginning of the school year. According to Gootman (2008), rules give students concrete
direction to ensure that our expectation becomes a reality.[5]

They also try to be consistent in enforcing these rules and procedures. Many would also argue for
positive consequences when rules are followed, and negative consequences when rules are broken.
There are newer perspectives on classroom management that attempt to be holistic. One example
is affirmation teaching, which attempts to guide students toward success by helping them see how
their effort pays off in the classroom. It relies upon creating an environment where students are
successful as a result of their own efforts.[6] By creating this type of environment, students are much
more likely to want to do well. Ideally, this transforms a classroom into a community of well-behaved
and self-directed learners.

11 Techniques for Better Classroom Discipline

Here are eleven techniques that you can use in your classroom that will help you achieve
effective group management and control. They have been adapted from an article called: "A
Primer on Classroom Discipline: Principles Old and New" by Thomas R. McDaniel, Phi Delta
Kappan, September 1986.

1. Focusing

Be sure you have the attention of everyone in your classroom before you start your lesson.
Don’t attempt to teach over the chatter of students who are not paying attention.

Inexperienced teachers sometimes think that by beginning their lesson, the class will settle
down. The children will see that things are underway now and it is time to go to work.
Sometimes this works, but the children are also going to think that you are willing to compete
with them, that you don’t mind talking while they talk, or that you are willing to speak louder so
that they can finish their conversation even after you have started the lesson. They get the idea
that you accept their inattention and that it is permissible to talk while you are presenting a
lesson.

The focusing technique means that you will demand their attention before you begin. It means
that you will wait and not start until everyone has settled down. Experienced teachers know
that silence on their part is very effective. They will punctuate their waiting by extending it 3
to 5 seconds after the classroom is completely quiet. Then they begin their lesson using a
quieter voice than normal.

A soft spoken teacher often has a calmer, quieter classroom than one with a stronger voice. Her
students sit still in order to hear what she says.

2. Direct Instruction

Uncertainty increases the level of excitement in the classroom. The technique of direct
instruction is to begin each class by telling the students exactly what will be happening. The
teacher outlines what he and the students will be doing this period. He may set time limits for
some tasks.

An effective way to marry this technique with the first one is to include time at the end of the
period for students to do activities of their choosing. The teacher may finish the description of
the hour’s activities with: “And I think we will have some time at the end of the period for you
to chat with your friends, go to the library, or catch up on work for other classes.”

The teacher is more willing to wait for class attention when he knows there is extra time to
meet his goals and objectives. The students soon realize that the more time the teacher waits
for their attention, the less free time they have at the end of the hour.

3. Monitoring

The key to this principle is to circulate. Get up and get around the room. While your students
are working, make the rounds. Check on their progress.

An effective teacher will make a pass through the whole room about two minutes after the
students have started a written assignment. She checks that each student has started, that the
children are on the correct page, and that everyone has put their names on their papers. The
delay is important. She wants her students to have a problem or two finished so she can check
that answers are correctly labeled or in complete sentences. She provides individualized
instruction as needed.

Students who are not yet quite on task will be quick to get going as they see her approach.
Those that were distracted or slow to get started can be nudged along.

The teacher does not interrupt the class or try to make general announcements unless she
notices that several students have difficulty with the same thing. The teacher uses a quiet voice
and her students appreciate her personal and positive attention.

4. Modeling

McDaniel tells us of a saying that goes “Values are caught, not taught.” Teachers who are
courteous, prompt, enthusiastic, in control, patient and organized provide examples for their
students through their own behavior. The “do as I say, not as I do” teachers send mixed
messages that confuse students and invite misbehavior.

If you want students to use quiet voices in your classroom while they work, you too will use a
quiet voice as you move through the room helping youngsters.

5. Non-Verbal Cuing

A standard item in the classroom of the 1950’s was the clerk’s bell. A shiny nickelbell sat on the
teacher’s desk. With one tap of the button on top he had everyone’s attention. Teachers have
shown a lot of ingenuity over the years in making use of non-verbal cues in the classroom.
Some flip light switches. Others keep clickers in their pockets.
Non-verbal cues can also be facial expressions, body posture and hand signals. Care should be
given in choosing the types of cues you use in your classroom. Take time to explain what you
want the students to do when you use your cues.

6. Environmental Control

A classroom can be a warm cheery place. Students enjoy an environment that changes
periodically. Study centers with pictures and color invite enthusiasm for your subject.

Young people like to know about you and your interests. Include personal items in your
classroom. A family picture or a few items from a hobby or collection on your desk will trigger
personal conversations with your students. As they get to know you better, you will see fewer
problems with discipline.

Just as you may want to enrich your classroom, there are times when you may want to
impoverish it as well. You may need a quiet corner with few distractions. Some students will get
caught up in visual exploration. For them, the splash and the color is a siren that pulls them off
task. They may need more “vanilla” and less “rocky-road.” Have a quiet place where you can
steer these youngsters. Let them get their work done first and then come back to explore and
enjoy the rest of the room.

7. Low-Profile Intervention

Most students are sent to the principal’s office as a result of confrontational escalation. The
teacher has called them on a lesser offense, but in the moments that follow, the student and
the teacher are swept up in a verbal maelstrom. Much of this can be avoided when the
teacher’s intervention is quiet and calm.

An effective teacher will take care that the student is not rewarded for misbehavior by
becoming the focus of attention. She monitors the activity in her classroom, moving around the
room. She anticipates problems before they occur. Her approach to a misbehaving student is
inconspicuous. Others in the class are not distracted.

While lecturing to her class this teacher makes effective use of name-dropping. If she sees a
student talking or off task, she simply drops the youngster’s name into her dialogue in a natural
way. “And you see, David, we carry the one to the tens column.” David hears his name and is
drawn back on task. The rest of the class doesn’t seem to notice.

8. Assertive Discipline

This is traditional limit setting authoritarianism. When executed as presented by Lee Canter
(who has made this form a discipline one of the most widely known and practiced) it will
include a good mix of praise. This is high profile discipline. The teacher is the boss and no child
has the right to interfere with the learning of any student. Clear rules are laid out and
consistently enforced.

9. Assertive I-Messages

A component of Assertive Discipline, these I-Messages are statements that the teacher uses
when confronting a student who is misbehaving. They are intended to be clear descriptions of
what the student is suppose to do. The teacher who makes good use of this technique will
focus the child’s attention first and foremost on the behavior he wants, not on the misbehavior.
“I want you to...” or “I need you to...” or “I expect you to...”

The inexperienced teacher may incorrectly try “I want you to stop...” only to discover that this
usually triggers confrontation and denial. The focus is on the misbehavior and the student is
quick to retort: “I wasn’t doing anything!” or “It wasn’t my fault...” or “Since when is there a
rule against...” and escalation has begun.

10. Humanistic I-Messages

These I-messages are expressions of our feelings. Thomas Gordon, creator of Teacher
Effectiveness Training (TET), tells us to structure these messages in three parts. First, include a
description of the child’s behavior. “When you talk while I talk...” Second, relate the effect this
behavior has on the teacher. “...I have to stop my teaching...” And third, let the student know
the feeling that it generates in the teacher. “...which frustrates me.”

A teacher, distracted by a student who was constantly talking while he tried to teach, once
made this powerful expression of feelings: “I cannot imagine what I have done to you that I do
not deserve the respectfrom you that I get from the others in this class. If I have been rude to
you or inconsiderate in any way, please let me know. I feel as though I have somehow offended
you and now you are unwilling to show me respect.” The student did not talk during his lectures
again for many weeks.

11. Positive Discipline

Use classroom rules that describe the behaviors you want instead of listing things the students
cannot do. Instead of “no-running in the room,” use “move through the building in an orderly
manner.” Instead of “no fighting,“ use “settle conflicts appropriately.” Instead of “no gum
chewing,” use “leave gum at home.” Refer to your rules as expectations. Let your students
know this is how you expect them to behave in your classroom.

Make ample use of praise. When you see good behavior, acknowledge it. This can be done
verbally, of course, but it doesn’t have to be. A nod, a smile or a “thumbs up” will reinforce the
behavior.

Special Education

Teaching Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Planning for Success at School

Addressing Diverse Needs in the Classroom

Establishing a classroom environment that is friendly to students with AD/HD as well as other
diverse needs requires careful planning. Students with AD/HD may appear to be willfully avoiding
work when they lack the skills needed to begin the assignment. Working with these students can
be frustrating at times. Teachers are encouraged to keep a disability perspective: AD/HD is a
disorder that affects students' abilities to begin and follow through on tasks. These students are
not "out to get" the teacher, although it may feel that way to the teacher during a stressful day
at school. Teachers need to be responsive to the educational strengths and needs of individual
students to ensure that appropriate expectations are established. The strategies presented in
this section may assist teachers to minimize their frustration and maximize the students' ability
to learn. Such strategies may be needed to support students with AD/HD throughout the school
years. These strategies can also be helpful to other students in the class.

Many students with AD/HD can benefit from classroom based adaptations and support
throughout their school years. Teachers may wish to use a planning tool to record the support
provided. The AD/HD Accommodation Plan, used in each of the following case studies, is an
example of a planning tool teachers find helpful.

Students with AD/HD who are receiving special education services may require an Individual
Education Plan (IEP). The AD/HD Accommodation/Support Plan could be used as part of the IEP
planning process.

For more information on developing IEPs see Individual Education Planning: A Resource for
Teachers, (Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, 1995).
Classroom Based Strategies
Structure classroom activities that require active learning and a high response rate from students.
When an instructional style that enables students to actively participate in learning is used, students
are more likely to remain on task during instruction. On the other hand, when students are required
to sit and listen for long periods of time, students with AD/HD may display more inattentive and/or
disruptive behaviour. The following strategies can be used to maximize student involvement in
learning:
provide students with an outline or skeleton of information that will be presented in lecture style and
ask them to fill it in as the class proceeds,
provide students with individual white boards, chalk boards, or response cards so that when the
teacher is working with a large group, each student can be expected to respond,
structure partner activities so that students can read orally, question each other, confirm
understanding, or assist each other to remain on task, and
encourage students to demonstrate understanding of learning outcomes in a variety of ways including
oral presentations, audio or video taped projects such as radio plays or news reports,dramatizations
of factual information.
Teach students organization skills that will help them to complete assignments.
Teachers confronted with students who can not seem to keep track of belongings and assignments
may wish to try the following organizational system. While elements of this system could be used
with individual students who require support, it is more likely to be successful if the whole class uses
it regularly. In some cases, whole schools have decided to use some of these strategies to provide
consistency for students across subjects and grades.
Establish the use of one large binder for all subjects with pocket dividers for each subject and hole
punched pencil case for writing tools. A smaller binder with two pocket dividers could be used for
primary students.
Ensure that each student also has an agenda inside the binder. At the end of each class or day, post
homework and tests and ask students to record required homework in their agendas. A buddy system
to check the completion of each agenda and the inclusion in backpacks of materials required to
complete homework can help to ensure students take home what they need.
Assignments posted on flip chart paper or in an assignment binder at the back of the classroom can
become a permanent record which students can consult when they have missed classes or are having
trouble understanding or remembering what to do. An agenda of daily activities posted on the board
can be an added visual organizer.
Encourage students to use a backpack to carry the binder. Ask them to take the backpack from school
to home and back again everyday so that it becomes a daily routine. If no assigned work is to be
completed, the homework could be to organize the binder and backpack. Secondary students who are
required to move from class to class may opt to keep all materials in a large pack, rather than in a
locker, to reduce the possibility of losing necessary materials.
Provide students with a "day at a glance" that can be used as a checklist on their desk as assignments
are completed.
Post a list of required materials on the inside of student lockers to encourage them to maintain a
supply of materials needed.
Use strategies to maximize positive interaction with students and minimize opportunities for
disruptive behaviour.
Move around the classroom.
Look around the classroom. Provide immediate, specific feedback on learning and behavioural
progress whenever possible.
Establish eye contact with most students prior to giving instructions to the class.
Talk to individuals and groups of students to build rapport and to establish and expand understanding
of the learning outcomes.
Comment on positive, rather than negative behaviour, whenever possible. Make comments specific to
expected behaviours (e.g. I see that your outline is almost compete - good work!).
When verbal reprimands are necessary, move comfortably close to the student and use a soft, firm
voice to specifically describe the behaviour that is required. Avoid publicly criticizing students.
Clearly communicate rules and behavioural expectations and establish classroom routines.
"I didn't know we were supposed to do that!" is a common cry heard by teachers everywhere. While
it may seem that students are being purposely noncompliant, many students, especially those with
AD/HD, have difficulty with short term memory which can affect their ability to carry out verbally
presented directions. Students with AD/HD can be taught to monitor their own behaviour. The
challenge for a teacher is to provide structure while helping to develop in the child a sense of control
in life. The following strategies can provide external structures for students who have difficulty
internally regulating their behaviour:
Involve students in establishing three to five basic classroom rules, state them positively and post
them in the room. Provide opportunities for students to role play positive and negative examples of
these rules on a regular basis to ensure that rules are reviewed often and all students understand the
expectations.
Provide positive reinforcement for following classroom rules. In addition to ensuring that appropriate
behaviour is sociallyreinforced through positive comments and gestures, teachers may elect to use
activity reinforcers (e.g. choice of activity to reinforce a predetermined number of positive
behaviours) or tangible reinforcers (e.g. stickers). Reinforcers should be changed regularly to maintain
effectiveness.
Establish a hierarchy of consequences to be used when classroom rules are repeatedly broken. Ensure
that students are aware of these consequences and make every effort to use them consistently and in
a timely manner. Positive reinforcers should always outnumber consequences by at least a two to one
ratio.
Pair students with a buddy with whom to consult when the teacher is busy with other students.
Supply students with a list of alternative activities to do while they wait for the teacher's attention if
their buddy cannot help them out.
Develop a routine for transitions between activities and classes. The routine could include a
forewarning (we will put away the math manipulatives in five minutes), an appropriate chant or song,
and established steps to follow. For older students, recorded music could serve the function of the
chant or song.
Model organizational skills by designating places for students' belongings, classroom materials,
incoming assignments, etc. in the classroom; use self-talk to model personal organizational strategies
and teach students to use positive self talk to help them organize their tasks.
Provide Multi-Sensory Instruction
Using teaching strategies that combine more than one modality can enhance the student's ability to
remember and understand information and directions. The following are examples of multi-sensory
strategies:
using songs or chants to teach math facts,
presenting instructions orally and on an overhead projection,
using webbing as a note-taking strategy to enhance understanding of concepts,
using tactile/kinesthetic learning activities such as math manipulatives and computers, and
providing opportunities for meaningful movement such as involving students in role plays,
experiments and other "hands-on" activities.
Establish a physical plan that maximizes productivity.
The following strategies may help teachers to establish productive work spaces for all students:
If using a seating plan, ask students for input (list 3-4 classmates you would like to sit beside; try to
choose people you think enable you to do your best work); then try to establish the plan so that each
student can sit beside one or two of the students they prefer.
Establish quiet "office areas" away from others that students can elect to use if they require privacy or
quiet to concentrate.
Provide an additional desk or two in the room so that students have the option of moving from one
desk to another for different activities or to avoid specific distractions.
Try allowing students to use headphones to listen to taped material to reduce the distractions caused
by other activities in the classroom.
Monitor teacher movement and seat students who have difficulty paying attention so that their
proximity to the teacher is maximized.
Seat students who are having the most difficulty close to peers who will model positive behaviour and
away from distracting stimuli such as windows, pencil sharpener or heating vents.
Consider the impact of lighting, heat and other possible distracters for specific students and assist
them to select productive locations.
Individualized Strategies
In some cases, students with AD/HD will require individualized support, in addition to some of the
accommodations listed above, to achieve success in the classroom. Specialized personnel such as
learning assistance teachers, resource teachers or behavioural consultants should be involved in
program planning for these students. For some students this planning may include the development
of an Individual Education Plan (IEP).
Make an Accommodation Plan
Identify and carefully describe Target Behaviours
Direct observation can serve as a key source of information about a student's behaviour and
performance in a given setting. Observations are non judgmental descriptions of what a child actually
does, as well as events that occur just prior to (i.e., antecedents) and just after (i.e., consequences)
that behaviour.
Clearly describe specific behaviours that must be increased or decreased in order for the student to
achieve success. Priorize these behaviours and make a plan to address a manageable number of them.
Measure the frequency of target behaviours
Classroom teachers will want to use efficient, time-saving data collection systems. The data collected
should reflect what the child actually does, what is happening in the environment when the behaviour
occurs, the consequences of the behaviour, as well as the frequency. Observe the student several
times and in different situations and compare the behaviours you see in each situation before you
draw any conclusions. This data can be used for planning interventions as well as for providing
information to medical professionals that may lead to a diagnosis.
To optimize the accuracy of your data collection, consider the following:
deciding on two or three behaviours to observe and document, based on your experience with the
student and discussions with other school staff or parents;
using a simple system for recording each incident of target behaviour you wish to observe with simple
uncomplicated observation codes;
focusing emphasis on factual information, avoiding opinion or reflection as much as possible;
establishing consistency in recording procedures, especially if more than one person is involved in
recording observations
analyzing the function of the behaviour by noting the context just preceding and following the target
behaviour.
Varying the environmental conditions such as where the students is sitting, beside whom the student
is sitting, and in what type of activity the student is engaged can add further depth to the
observational data.
Specialist teachers, trained classroom assistants or volunteers could take more detailed observational
data.
Involve the student in setting goals to reduce or increase the target behaviours and establishing a
system to monitor and reinforce the behavioural change.
A critical part of the plan should include teaching the student appropriate behaviours to replace those
that are being reduced. Some inappropriate behaviours are well established and frequent practice
and reinforcement of more productive responses may be necessary for positive change. These
replacement behaviours must be relevant and effective for the student.
A response cost system could be established in which points or tokens are awarded for meeting the
goals of the behavioural plan and withdrawn when goals of the plan are not met. Points or tokens
could then be used to "buy" privileges (e.g. computer time, preferred activities) or tangibles (e.g.
sports cards, stickers, pencils). In some cases, parents and teachers may wish to collaborate to
establish home rewards (e.g. family pizza night, choice of video rental, time to play video games) to
reinforce points earned at school.
Include some behaviours in which the student is certain to succeed when setting reinforcers so the
student achieves a feeling of success.
Accommodating the student with AD/HD
In many cases, students with AD/HD will require adaptations to instructional strategies or assessment
to ensure progress in school. Some students with AD/HD may require modifications to curricular
outcomes in specific subject areas.
Adaptations
A student who is provided with accommodations or supports in order to achieve the learning
outcomes of the provincial curriculum is considered to be receivingadaptations. Students who receive
adaptations in credit courses in the graduation years are eligible to receive a Dogwood Certificate
upon completion of British Columbia Graduation requirements. Adaptations required by students
with AD/HD could include, but are not limited to:
Adaptations to Lesson Presentation
giving a structured overview before the lesson
using visual aids, demonstrations, simulations and manipulatives to ensure that students understand
concepts presented
using an overhead projector and keeping each overhead for later review by the student
colour coding with chalk or pens to add emphasis
providing a copy of teacher or peer notes to allow student to focus on listening
providing "turn and talk" or activity breaks to assist the student's ability to focus on instruction
providing a written outline or frame for students to fill in
enabling the student to tape record material presented verbally
using computer assisted instruction
establishing routines that enable the student to check understanding with a peer
including a variety of activities for the student in each lesson
collaborative planning with the learning assistance teacher to pre-teach key vocabulary and concepts
Adaptations to Assignments, Projects and Tests
giving instructions visually and verbally,
pairing students to check work
breaking large assignments into smaller parts and providing feedback and reinforcement as each part
is completed,
providing additional time to complete assignments or tests,
encouraging the use of manipulatives to understand mathematical concepts,
providing checklists, outlines, advanced organizers, etc. to assist in assignment completion,
supplying reading materials at independent reading level,
requiring the completion of fewer examples in drill and practice activities while maintaining the
conceptual difficulty of the assignment,
providing audio tape to assist students to focus on the material to be read and to maximize
understanding.
using computer assisted drill and practice or simulation activities,
enabling students to demonstrate understanding using a variety of media including oral
presentations, audio or video taped assignments, bulletin board displays, dramatizations, and
demonstrations,
enabling students to word process, rather than write, assignments
giving frequent shorter quizzes rather than longer tests that require a great deal of memorization,
giving tests and exams orally or on audio tape,
enabling students to audio record test answers on tape,
using a calculator or tables of basic facts to enable students who have difficulty memorizing to work
on higher level concepts in math and science
Organizational Supports
assist the student to set short term goals and provide opportunities for self-evaluation of progress
toward those goals
teach the student to use an agenda, checklists, advanced organizers and other structural supports to
assist in self management
teach the student to keep track of materials by using strategies such as tying a pencil to the desk,
attaching a pen to clothing with a key ring, etc.
establish specific places for all belongings and reinforce student for putting materials away properly
colour code binder dividers or duotangs to that they match the subject area texts or support
materials; use the same color coding on the student's schedule
encourage the student to use a "Lazy Susan" inside the desk or locker to avoid things getting lost in
the back
set up a regular communication system to provide structure and support that is consistent between
parents and teachers.

Compensatory Skills
teach the use of a word processing with spell checker
teach the use of a calculator
provide instruction and practice in using study skills and learning strategies
provide instruction and support in using self monitoring strategies
provide social skills instruction in and opportunities to role play and transfer appropriate social skills
teach the use of a timer to increase time on task and assignment completion

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

This knowledge includes knowing what teaching approaches fit the content, and likewise, knowing
how elements of the content can be arranged for better teaching. This knowledge is different from
the knowledge of a disciplinary expert and also from the general pedagogical knowledge shared by
teachers across disciplines. PCK is concerned with the representation and formulation of concepts,
pedagogical techniques, knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn, knowledge of
students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology. It also involves knowledge of teaching
strategies that incorporate appropriate conceptual representations, to address learner difficulties and
misconceptions and foster meaningful understanding. It also includes knowledge of what the students
bring to the learning situation, knowledge that might be either facilitative or dysfunctional for the
particular learning task at hand. This knowledge of students includes their strategies, prior
conceptions (both “naïve” and instructionally produced); misconceptions students are likely to have
about a particular domain and potential misapplications of prior knowledge.

PCK exists at the intersection of content and pedagogy. Thus it does not refer to a simple
consideration of content and pedagogy, together but in isolation; but rather to an amalgam of content
and pedagogy thus enabling transformation of content into pedagogically powerful forms. PCK
represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular aspects of
subject matter are organized, adapted, and represented for instruction. Shulman argued that having
knowledge of subject matter and general pedagogical strategies, though necessary, were not
sufficient for capturing the knowledge of good teachers. To characterize the complex ways in which
teachers think about how particular content should be taught, he argued for “pedagogical content
knowledge” as the content knowledge that deals with the teaching process, including the “the ways of
representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (p. 9). If teachers
were to be successful they would have to confront both issues (of content and pedagogy)
simultaneously, by embodying “the aspects of content most germane to its teachability” (Shulman,
1986, p. 9). At the heart of PCK is the manner in which subject matter is transformed for teaching. This
occurs when the teacher interprets the subject matter, finding different ways to represent it and
make it accessible to learners.

The Nature of Pedagogical Content Knowledge

In addition to teachers' subject matter (content) knowledge and their general knowledge of
instructional methods (pedagogical knowledge), pedagogical content knowledge was originally
suggested as a third major component of teaching expertise, by Lee Shulman (1986; 1987) and his
colleagues and students (e.g. Carlsen, 1987; Grossman, Wilson, & Shulman, 1989; Gudmundsdottir,
1987a, 1987b; Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987; Marks, 1990). This idea represents a new, broader
perspective in our understanding of teaching and learning, and a special issue of the Journal of
Teacher Education (Ashton, 1990) was devoted to this topic.
Pedagogical content knowledge is a type of knowledge that is unique to teachers, and is based on the
manner in which teachers relate their pedagogical knowledge (what they know about teaching) to
their subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach). It is the integration or the
synthesis of teachers' pedagogical knowledge and their subject matter knowledge that comprises
pedagogical content knowledge. According to Shulman (1986) pedagogical content knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge is a form of knowledge that makes science teachers teachers rather
than scientists (Gudmundsdottir, 1987a, b). Teachers differ from scientists, not necessarily in the
quality or quantity of their subject matter knowledge, but in how that knowledge is organized and
used. In other words, an experienced science teacher's knowledge of science is organized from
a teaching perspective and is used as a basis for helping students to understand specific concepts. A
scientist's knowledge, on the other hand, is organized from a research perspective and is used as a
basis for developing new knowledge in the field. This idea has been documented in Biology by
Hauslein, Good, & Cummins (1992), in a comparison of the organization of subject matter knowledge
among groups of experienced science teachers, experienced research scientists, novice science
teachers, subject area science majors, and preservice science teachers. Hauslein et al. found that
science majors and preservice teachers both showed similar, loosely organized subject matter
knowledge; and that the subject matter knowledge of the novice and experienced teachers and the
research scientists was much deeper and more complex. However, compared to the researchers (who
showed a flexible subject matter structure), the teachers showed a more fixed structure,
hypothesized to result from curriculum constraints.

EFFECTIVE TEACHER

The effective teacher must be a leader who can inspire and influence students
through expert and referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his subject well and
is kind and respectful toward his students. He also has high standards and expectations coexisting
with encouragement, support, and flexibility. This teacher empowers students and gets them to do
things of which they did not think they were capable. This teacher has students who surpass him.

The effective teacher is a provocateur who probes, prods, asks incessant why questions, poses
problems, throws curves, plays "devil's advocate", and stimulates frustration and conflict all in an
attempt to "bust bubbles and plant seeds" so that tidy and stereotypical explanations are unmasked
and discarded.
The effective teacher exemplifies what Maxine Green calls teacher as stranger . By keeping students
at a healthy emotional distance, this teacher can, through continuous reflection, employ greater
objectivity in her ability to balance the needs of individuals with the needs of the class as a whole.
This allows the teacher to not only determine what those needs are but also how they can be
accommodated to by innovative approaches.
The effective teacher models enthusiasm not only for his subject but also for teaching and learning in
general. By showing exuberance, a positive attitude, excitement, and passion, the effective teacher
makes it clear to his students that he would prefer to be nowhere else. Effective teachers value their
craft and project this value to all in their presence.

The effective teacher is an innovator who changes strategies, techniques, texts, and materials when
better ones are found and/or when existing ones no longer provide a substantive learning experience
for her students. This teacher also employs a combination of lecture-discussion, simulation, service
learning, cooperative learning, visual media, role-playing, guest speakers, and debates, and whatever
is age and grade appropriate in order to accommodate diverse learning styles and to present the
subject from different angles to facilitate insights and connections. This teacher values and uses
students' ideas about how to enhance their own learning.

An effective teacher loves to teach. The single most important quality that every teacher should
possess is a love and passion for teaching young people. Unfortunately, there are teachers who do not
love what they do. This single factor can destroy a teacher’s effectiveness quicker than anything
else. Teachers who do not enjoy their job cannot possibly be effective day in and day out. There are
too many discouraging factors associated with teaching that is difficult enough on a teacher who
absolutely loves what they do, much less on one who doesn’t have the drive, passion, or enthusiasm
for it. On top of that, kids are smarter than what we give them credit for. They will spot a fake sooner
than anyone and thus destroy any credibility that the teacher may have.

An effective teacher demonstrates a caring attitude. Even teachers who love their job can struggle in
this area, not because they don’t care, but because they get caught up so much in the day to day
routine of teaching that they can forget that their students have lives outside of school. Taking the
time to get to know a student on a personal level takes a lot of time and dedication. There is also a
line that no teacher wants to cross where their relationship becomes too personal. Elite teachers
know how to balance this without crossing that line and once a student believes the teacher truly
cares for them, then there is no limit to what that student can achieve.

An effective teacher can relate to his or her students. The best teachers work hard to figure out how
to relate to each of their students. Common interest can be hard to find, but exceptional teachers will
find a way to connect with their students even if they have to fake it. For instance, you may have a
student who is a Lego fanatic. You can relate to that student if you do something as simple as ordering
a Lego catalog and then going through it and discussing it with that student. Even if you have no
actual interest in Lego’s, the student will think you do and thus naturally create a connection.

An effective teacher is willing to think outside the box. There is no one set cookie cutter way to teach.
A cookie cutter approach would likely be boring for both teachers and students. What makes teaching
so exciting is that kids learn differently, and we have to find and utilize different strategies
and differentiated learning to reach every student. What works for one student, will not work for
every student. Teachers have to be willing to be creative and adaptive in their lessons, thinking
outside the box on a continual basis. If you try to teach every concept in the same manner, there will
be students who miss out on key factors because they aren’t wired to learn that way.

An effective teacher is an excellent communicator.To be the best possible teacher you must be
aneffective communicator. However, in this area you are not just limited to being a skilled
communicator to your students although that is a must. You must also be a strong communicator
with parents of your students as well as your faculty/staff team within in your building. If you have a
difficulty communicating with any of these three groups, then you limit your overall effectiveness as a
teacher.
An effective teacher is proactive rather than reactive. This can be one of most difficult aspects for a
teacher to conquer. Intense planning and organization can ultimately make your job all the more less
difficult. Teachers who plan ahead, looking for aspects that they might have issues with, and
proactively looking for solutions to solve those problems will have less stress on them, than those
teachers who wait until a problem arises and then tries to address it. Being proactive does not replace
being adaptive. No matter how well you plan, there will be surprises. However, being proactive can
cut down on these surprises tremendously, thus making you more effective overall.

An effective teacher strives to be better. A teacher who has grown complacent in what they do is the
most ineffective kind of teacher. Any teacher who is not looking for new and better teaching
strategies isn’t being an effective teacher. No matter how long you have taught, you should always
want to grow as a teacher. Every year there is new research, new technology, and new educational
tools that could make you a better teacher. Seek out professional development opportunities and try
to apply something new to your class every year.

An effective teacher uses a variety of media in their lessons. Like it or not we are in the 21st century,
and this generation of students was born in the digital age. These students have been bombarded
by technological advances unlike any other generation. They have embraced it, and if we as teachers
do not, then we are falling behind. This is not to say that we should eliminate textbooks and
worksheets completely, but effective teachers are not afraid to implement other forms of media
within their lessons.

An effective teacher challenges their students. The most effective teachers, are often the ones that
many students think are the most difficult. This is because they challenge their students and push
them harder than the average teacher does. These are the teachers who are often students’ least
favorite teachers at the time, but then later on in life they are the ones that we all remember and
want to thank, because of how well they prepared us for life after our time with them. Being an
effective teacher does not mean you are easy. It means that you challenge every one of your students
and maximize your time with them so that they learn more than they ever thought they could learn.

An effective teacher understands the content that they teach and knows how to explain that content
in a manner that their students understand. There are teachers who do not know the content well
enough to effectively teach it. There are teachers who are truly experts on the content, but struggle to
effectively explain it to their students. The highly effective teacher both understands the content and
explains it on level. This can be a difficult skill to accomplish, but the teachers who can, maximize their
effectiveness as a teacher.
Toward a True partnership: Tips for Teachers and Administrators

It is imperative that we end the adversarial relationship between teachers and administrators if we
are to reach the goal of ensuring that all students graduate from our systems fully prepared for
college and the global workforce. Thus, I offer the following suggestions.

For Teachers

 Catch yourself before stereotyping administrators in general, and yours in particular. Trust is a
two-way street. To improve trust, you have to participate, and a good place to begin is to stop
yourself when these reactions arise automatically.

 Use administrators’ personal names with their titles (Mr. Smith, Dr. Jones), or better yet, their
first names (Don, Donna) instead of just saying “Smith” or “Jones.” This will make the person
more human, both to you and to others.

 Presume positive intentions for students; do not presume negative intentions for staff. This is
a tough one, because as my friend’s letter pointed out, we tend to malign those with whom
we disagree, especially if there is a history of disagreement.
  Realize that administrative leaders have a moral imperative to put student needs before staff
preferences. Try to break out of an adversarial pattern of thinking, especially before it
becomes words you speak.

For Administrators

 Catch yourself before you pigeonhole individual teachers based on negative expectations you
might have about them due to your history together. People can change – you can, the
teacher can. As the leader, rebuilding trust must start with you.

 Use teachers’ personal names, either with their titles (Mr. Smith, Dr. Jones) or their first
names (Don, Donna) instead of just saying “Smith” or “Jones.” This helps you connect as
people rather than job titles.

 Do not stereotype teachers who are union members. Think back to your own teaching days:
teachers may feel that you have forgotten what those days were like. Consider what common
ground you can find between the teachers’ concerns — whether they are citing the contract or
not — and the goals of your initiative for students.

 Do not vilify teachers who disagree with you. Offer private forums for those who may appear
to be intent on derailing your agenda in public; invite them to talk with you offline. A
respectful, private conversation can unearth the personal agenda behind a behavior you find
problematic.