Preface

Used wherever the English language is spoken or taught, this book has proved invaluable in
class and as a reference book, both to native English speakers and to students of English as
a second language.

For all such students The New First Aid in English Second Edition
is an essential
companion, helpful alike in cases of difficulty with vocabulary, spelling, syntax, idiom and
correct usage.

Students of English as a second language have found it of immense value both as an aid to
conversation and as a rapid revision course before taking examinations.
A separate answer book is available:

Answers to the New First Aid in English Second Edition (ISBN 0 340 88288 3)

Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon
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© Angus*Maciver: 1938, 1956, 1986, 2004

First published 1938 by Hodder Gibson, a member o f the Hoddei

Headline Group
338 Euston Road
London NW1 3BH
First Aid in English first published 1938
The New First A id in English first published 1956
The New First A id in English Revised first published 1986 and
reprinted 19 times
This second edition first published 2004
Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5
Year 2009 2008 2007 2006
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright
law, no part o f this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
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without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from
the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details o f such
licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the
Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, o f 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W I T 4LP.
Typeset in 1 l/l4pt Garamond IT C by Fakenham Photosetting Limited,
Fakenham, Norfolk
Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd.
A CIP catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library
ISBN (10) 0 340 88287 5
ISBN (13) 978 0 340 88287 0
Contents
The English Language 1
Parts of Speech 1
Number 2
Gender 5
Families 9
Traditional Homes 11
Names 12
Group Terms or Collections 15
Similes 19
Occupations 22
Places 24
Receptacles 25
Sounds and Motions 26
Sounds Made by Objects 30
Classification 32
Gradation 36
Association 38
Analogies 40
It Makes You Think 42
Absurdities 44
Abbreviations 46
Antonyms 50
Synonyms 54
Homonyms and Homophones 57
Verbs 61
Adjectives 65
Adverbs 68
Word Building:
Nouns (Formation of) 72
Adjectives (Formation of) 73
Verbs (Formation of) 74
Adverbs (Formation of) 74
Compound Words (Formation of) 74
Concord 77
Pronouns 80
Conjunctions 85
Prepositions 90
Correction of Sentences 92
The Right Word in the Right Place 94
Contents

Addition of Clauses 98
Replacement 99
Sentences:
Simple to Com plex 100
Com plex to Simple 101
Alphabetical Order 102
Apostrophes 103
Capital Letters 105
Punctuation 106
Diminutives 106
Small Quantities 107
For Reference 107
Proverbs 108
Colloquialism s 111
General Colloquial Expressions 112
Popular Phrases 114
Doubles 115
Colours 116
O ur Five Senses 11 7
Derivations:
Roots 117
Prefixes 119
Suffixes 120
General Knowledge 121
Fastenings 127
Useful Information 128
Various Countries - The Peoples -
Their Languages 129
Origin of Certain Place Names 130
Various Countries and their Capitals' 132
Currencies of Various Countries 132
The Wonders of the World 134
Science Vocabulary 136
Spelling Lists 137
General Tests 141
Tests in Comprehension 163
Standard English Pronunciation 175
Spelling G uide 180
Phrasal Verbs 188
The English Language
English is an international language. It is written and spoken all over the world. It is spoken
in a variety of accents - English, American, West Indian, Indian - but its grammar and most
of its vocabulary remain the same no matter where it is used. The English used in a
newspaper like Jamaica’s Daily Gleaner is much the same as the English in The New York
Times, The Times o f India The Guardian.
or

English has borrowed words from almost every other language. Look at these examples:
card (French) piano (Italian) fox (German) bungalow (Hindi)
canoe (Carib) dictator (Latin) admiral (Arabic)
English has its origins in northern Europe. Its grammar shows its roots in languages like
German and Dutch. A typical English sentence has a Noun or Noun Phrase (Subject)
followed by a Verb and another Noun or Noun Phrase (Object), e.g.
The fat man drove a big red car.
[Subject] [Verb] [Object]

Parts of Speech •
English words can be classified into different parts of speech according to the part they play
in making sentences in the language. Thus, all English words fall into eight main categories:
Nouns
A noun is the name of a person, animal, place or thing, e.g. John, tiger, school,
kettle, honesty.
Verbs
A verb may be said to be a “doing” word, e.g. eat, think, write.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun, e.g. he, she, it.
Adjectives
An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun, e.g. good, fine, red.
Adverbs
An adverb generally modifies a verb, e.g. quietly, here, suddenly.
Prepositions
A preposition shows the relation between one thing and another, e.g. against, for, with.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word used for joining words and clauses, e.g. and, but.
Exclam ations or Interjections
An exclamation or interjection expresses sudden emotion, e.g. Oh! Hello! Stop!

When we wish to express a thought we use words grouped together in a certain order
so that we convey a sensible, definite meaning. This combination of words is termed a
sentence. In conversation or writing, sentences should always be used in order that the
hearer or reader may clearly understand the meaning.
Number
Most nouns have a Singular form used to denote one person or thing and a different
Plural form denoting m ore than one. Pronouns and verbs also have different singular
and plural forms.

Singular Plural Singular Plural

box boxes child children
brush brushes foot feet
fox foxes goose geese
gas gases man men
glass glasses mouse mice
watch watches ox oxen
army armies tooth teeth
city cities woman women
fly flies
lady ladies
calf calves
half
knife
halves
knives
brother j[I brothers
brethren
leaf
life
leaves
lives
person jfL people
persons
loaf loaves
fish |
\ fishes
shelf shelves L fish
thief
wolf
thieves
wolves
genius jI geniuses
L genii
chief chiefs I" halos
halo |
dwarf dwarfs, dwarves L haloes
hoof
reef
hoofs, hooves
reefs
penny j\ pennies
I pence
roof roofs
cargo cargoes
echo echoes
hero heroes
wife wives cod cod
potato potatoes deer deer
banjo banjos dozen dozen
day days grouse grouse
sky skies salmon salmon
. piano pianos sheep sheep
solo solos swine swine
valley valleys trout trout
 Number

Singular Plural Singular Plural

brother-in-law brothers-in-law bye-law bye-laws
by-way by-ways mouse-trap mouse-traps
cupful cupfuls passer-by passers-by
hanger-on hangers-on son-in-law sons-in-law
man-of-war men-of-war spoonful spoonfuls J

The following words have no singular: *

bellows, billiards, gallows, measles, pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, spectacles, thanks,
tidings, tongs, trousers, tweezers, victuals.

Exercises

1. State the plural of:

loaf, man-of-war, piano, sheep, foot, echo, penny, life, deer, ox.
2. Give the singular of:

ladies, thieves, geese, trout, passers-by, mice, knives, teeth, boxes.

3. Fill in the blank spaces - the singular or plural form - as required:

army _________ son-in-law

_________ roofs cargo
_________ women _________ children
cupful _________ _________ flies ■
swine _________ halo
dwarf potatoes
4. Give the plural of:

police-constable, daughter-in-law, step-child, looker-on, housewife, fireman.

5. Give the singular of:

glasses, hoofs, heroes, feet, pence, fish, shelves, cities, men, leaves.
V _______________________________________ J
Number

conti nuetf *'

6. Change all Singulars into Plurals.
a) I heard the echo in the cave. 1) The burglar tried to rob my
b) The lady spoke to the child. shop.
c)The boy went for a loaf. m) The prisoner says that he is
d) The man fed the calf. innocent.
e) The mouse ran into a hole. n) The girl’s hat was on the peg.
f) The knife was lying on the o) The boy robbed a bird’s nest.
table. P) His tooth hurt him badly.
g) The fisherman caught a q) The farmer ploughs his field.
trout. r) The horse is eating a raw
h)The dwarf gave him a stick. carrot.
0 The ship struck the reef. s) The child cried because he
j)My foot troubled me. was tired.
k) It was a man’s boot. t) This is the house in which
I stay.

7. Change all Singulars into Plurals and Verbs into the Past Tense.
a) The rabbit runs from the k) The child runs to the table.
dog. 1)
He is a man of means.
b) The girl wears a blue dress. m) I keep the bird in a cage.
c) The sailor swims to his ship. n) He writes my name.
d) The woman catches o) She tells me so.
the goose. P) He has a sharp knife.
e) The man shoots the deer. q) She takes his pencil.
0 The ox eats the potato. r) The old woman sits on that
g) The lady prefers the rose. seat.
h) The sheep runs in the s) The man walks slowly to his
valley. job.
0 Her foot is badly cut. t) The mouse scampers from
j) The thief steals the valuable the cat.
bag.
J
Gender
Nouns and pronouns belong to one or another of four genders in grammar. These are:
1. Masculine - words denoting male creatures, e.g. boy, king.
2. Feminine - words denoting female creatures, e.g. girl, queen.

3. Common - words denoting creatures of either sex, e.g. child, owner.

4. Neuter - words denoting things of neither sex, e.g. house, box.

Masculine Feminine Masculine Fem inine

abbot abbess bachelor spinster
actor actress beau belle
baron baroness boy girl
count countess bridegroom bride
duke duchess brother sister
emperor empress earl countess
enchanter enchantress father mother
god goddess fiance fiancee
heir heiress friar nun
host hostess gentleman lady
lion lioness he she
marquis marchioness hero heroine
master mistress him her
mayor mayoress husband wife
priest priestess king queen
prince princess lad lass
male female lord lady
man woman masseur masseuse
monk nun Mr Mrs
nephew niece »-
 Gender

Masculine Fem inine Masculine Fem inine

shepherd shepherdess sir madam
sorcerer sorceress son daughter
steward stewardess Sultan Sultana
tiger tigress tutor governess
widower widow uncle aunt
waiter waitress wizard witch
boar sow billy-goat nanny-goat
buck doe buck-rabbit doe-rabbit
bull cow bull-calf cow-calf
bullock heifer cock-sparrow hen-sparrow
cock hen father-in-law mother-in-law
colt filly grandfather grandmother
dog bitch headmaster headmistress
drake duck he-goat she-goat
gander goose landlord landlady
hart hind male-child female-child
hound brach manservant maidservant
ram ewe postman postwoman
sire dam postmaster postmistress
stag hind son-in-law daughter-in-law
stallion mare stepfather stepmother
steer heifer stepson stepdaughter
Alexander Alexandra John Joan
Cecil Cecilia Joseph Josephine
Charles Charlotte Oliver Olive
Christian Christina Patrick Patricia
Clarence Clara Paul Pauline
Francis Frances Robert Roberta
George Georgina Victor Victoria
Henry Henrietta William Wilhelmina □

‘f r
 Gender

Common gender words denote creatures of either sex and the same word may be used
both of m ale and o f fem ale, e.g.
adult, animal, baby, bird, cat, cattle, child, companion, comrade, cousin, darling, dear,
deer, fowl, friend, guardian, guest, infant, juvenile, orphan, owner, parent, passenger,
pig, pupil, relation, relative, scholar, sheep, singer, student, swan, teacher, tourist,
traveller, visitor.

Neuter gender words denote things without life or sex, e.g.

bag, boots, box, bread, butter, chair, chalk, chimney, church, cocoa, coffee, desk,
dishes, door, floor, house, jacket, jotter, kettle, knife, mirror, pencil, pillow, ruler,
school, seat, stairs, street, table.

Exceptions
We often speak of lifeless things as being male or female, e.g.
Sailors refer to their ships as she.
Motorists refer to their cars as she.
Pilots refer to their aeroplanes as she.

Names of things that suggest pow er or dignity are spoken of as if they were m asculine,
e.g.
Time, Winter, Mountains, Sun, Death.

Names of things that suggest beauty or gentleness are spoken of as if they were
feminine, e.g.
Spring, Moon, Liberty, Peace, Nature.

On the other hand, we sometimes refer to a cat, dog, horse and other animals as it.

1. Give the feminine of:

heir, monk, stallion, nephew, gander, waiter, sir, ram, hero, bachelor.
2. Give the masculine of:

witch, filly, cow, maidservant, wife, duck, bride, duchess, aunt.

V ______________________________________ J
 3. State the gender of:
lion, cousin, mistress, friend, pencil, steward, sister, book, child.

4 . Give the feminine of:

headmaster, step-father, son-in-law, billy-goat.

5. Fill in blank spaces - the masculine or feminine form - as required:

a) lion _________ f) bull ______
b) _________ lady g) grandfather ______
c) _________ governess h) _________ hind
d) male _________ i) _________ widow
e) actor _________ j) tomcat ______

6. Give the corresponding feminine of:

Joseph, Henry, Patrick, Charles, John.

7. Change all masculines into corresponding feminines:

a) The bridegroom is my nephew.
b) My landlord is a widower.
c) The wizard spoke to the prince.
d) The Duke chatted to the man.
e) The heir to the estate is a bachelor.
f) “No, sir,” he replied.
g) The waiter served his own brother.
h) “He was indeed a hero,” said the emperor.
i) The lion sprang at the colt.
j) The master gave instructions to the manservant,
k) “Well!” said his grandfather, “How are you, my little lad?”
1) The steward brought a glass of water to my uncle, who was seasick,
m) The host was extremely puzzled by the twin brothers,
n) The son of a king is termed a prince,
o) The mayor talked to the father of the little boy.
V _____________________________________ ___ _____________________________________ J
 Families

p) The old man told his shepherd to search for the ram.
q) His father-in-law spoke to the manager,
r) He was the stepson of an elderly count,
s) The headmaster rebuked the boy for his conduct,
t) He owned a pet gander called Joseph.

Families
Parents Young
father motfier baby or child
king queen prince or princess
man woman baby or child
bear she-bear cub
billy-goat nanny-goat kid
boar (pig) sow piglet
buck (deer) hind fawn
buck (hare) doe leveret
buck (rabbit) doe rack
bull (cattle) cow calf
bull (elephant) cow calf
bull (seal) cow calf
bull (whale) cow calf
cob (swan) pen cygnet
cock (fowl) hen chicken
cock (pigeon) hen squab
dog bitch Pup
dog (fox) vixen cub
drake duck duckling
eagle eagle eaglet
gander goose gosling
hawk bowess bowet
hold (ferret) jill hob
leopard leopardess cub
lion lioness cub >■
Families

Parents Young
owl owl owlet
ram (sheep) ewe lamb
stag (red deer) hind fawn
stallion (horse) mare foal
tiercel (peregrine) falcon eyas
tiger tigress cub
tomcat queen or tabby cat kitten
wolf she-wolf cub
Adult Young Adult Young
bee grub moth caterpillar
bird nestling salmon parr
butterfly caterpillar toad tadpole
eel elver trout fry
frog tadpole wasp grub □

■ ■t.ih u m Ji.’ ~

1. Name the young of:

fox, eagle, goose, sheep, pig, goat, cow, horse.

2. Name the parent of:

fawn, pup, cygnet, chicken, leveret, kitten, owlet, duckling.

3. Fill in the blank spaces - the name of parent or young - as required:

wolf kid
foal bear
sow lamb
gosling eagle
4 . Give the names for:
a young salmon, a young eel, a young trout, a young bird.
Traditional Homes
Person Home Creature Home
Aborigine humpy badger sett, earth
convict prison bear den
Inuit igloo beaver lodge
king palace bee hive
lumberjack log-cabin bird nest
man/woman house cow byre, cowshed
Maori whare dog kennel
minister manse eagle eyrie
monk monastery fowl coop
noble castle fox earth, lair
Native wigwam or hare form
American tepee horse stable
nun convent lion lair, den
parson parsonage mouse hole, nest
pioneer wagon Pig sty
priest (eastern) temple otter holt
prisoner cell owl barn, tree
soldier barracks or rabbit (tame) hutch
camp rabbit (wild) burrow, warren
Swiss (herdsman) chalet sheep pen, fold
traveller caravan snail shell
vicar vicarage spider web
Zulu kraal squirrel drey
tiger lair
wasp nest, vespiary

Exercises

1. Name the homes of:

king, minister, lumberjack, parson, monk, Native American, Inuit, Zulu.

2. Whom would you expect to find living in the following?

convent, palace, barracks, cell, vicarage.
3. Name the homes of the following creatures:
cow, dog, eagle, bee, pig, fox, wild rabbit, wasp, bird, lion.
4. What creatures live in the following places?
drey, hutch, pen, form, stable.
Names
First or Christian o r Given Names: names given to children at their christening,
baptism or naming ceremony, usually different for boys and girls. Many are names of
Biblical characters and ancient heroes and heroines. Most have shortened forms -
so-called ‘pet’ names.

Male First Names Matthew (Matt)

Adam Michael (Mike, Mick)
Ahmed Mohammed
Alan Nelson
Alfred (Alf, Fred) Oliver
Ali Patrick (Pat, Paddy)
Andrew (Andy, Drew) Peter (Pete)
Anthony (Tony) Philip (Phil)
Antonio Ranjit
Ben Ricardo
Brian Richard (Dick, Richie)
Carlton Robert (Bob, Bobby, Robin, Bert)
Charles (Charlie) Samuel (Sam, Sammy)
Christopher (Chris, Kit) Shiva
Daniel (Dan, Danny) Stephen (Steve)
David (Dave) Vishnu
Dev Wesley (Wes)
Edward (Ed, Ned, Ted) William (Bill, Will)
Errol
Fem ale First Names
Ethan
Alice
Francis (Frank)
Amanda (Mandy)
Garry
Amy
George
Andrea
Gordon
Angela (Angie)
Harry
Ann (Annie, Nan, Nancy)
Hugh (Hughie)
Barbara (Babs)
Jack
Bernice
James (Jamie, Jim, Jimmy) r*ojfiin
John (Johnny)
Catherine (Cathie, Kate, Kitty)
Joseph(Joe, Joey)
Cecilia (Cis, Cissie)
Joshua (Josh)
Charlotte
Laurence (Larry)
Chloe
Lewis
Christina (Chrissie, Tina)
Liam
Devi
Luke
Dorothy (Dot, Dolly)
Marcus
Eleanor (Ella, Ellie, Nell) >-
 Names

Fem ale First Names Margaret (Marjory, Maggie, Peggy)

Elizabeth (Betty, Liz, Lizzie) Maria
Emily Marion
Emma Mary (May, Molly)
Fiona Megan
Florence (Flo, Flossie) Mia
Grace Mina
Hannah Olivia
Helen (Nell) Rebecca (Becky)
Holly Rose (Rosie)
Jane (Jean, Jeanie) Sameera
Janet (Jenny, Jess Jessie) Sarah (Sally, Sadie)
Jessica (Jess) Sophie
Judith (Judy) Susan (Sue, Susie)
Julia (Julie) Victoria (Vicky)
Katherine (Kathy, Katie) Violet (Vi)
Kim Winifred
Lauren Yasmin
Lilian (Lily) Yvonne
Lucy Zoe □

Many first names have a meaning in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Gaelic or Old English e.g.
Amanda - lovable; Katherine - pure; Charles - manly; Christopher - carrier of Christ;
Clement - merciful; Cyril - lordly; Donald - world chief; Ethel - noble; Fiona - fair;
Hilary - cheerful; Margaret - pearl; Peter - rock; Philip - lover of horses;
Stephen - crown; Zoe - life.

Surnames: a child’s last name is usually the family name of the child’s father. On marriage
a woman normally takes the surname of her husband, though nowadays some do not.
Note, however, that in China the surname is not the last, but the first name (see page 14).
Many surnames were formed as shown below:

♦ From O ccupations: Archer, Baker, Clark, Cook, Farmer, Fisher, Hunter, Mason,
Miller, Porter, Shepard, Slater, Smith, Taylor, Wright.

♦ From Places: Burns, Cape, England, Forest, Ford, Hall, Hamilton, Hill, Lake,
London, Mills, Scotland, Stirling, Wells, Woods.
♦ From Animals: Bullock, Fox, Hare, Hart, Hogg, Lamb, Lyon, Wolfe.

♦ From Birds: Drake, Nightingale, Peacock, Swan, Wren.

♦ From Colours: Black, Blue, Brown, Grey, Green, White.

♦ From Qualities of Mind or Body: Blyth, Bright, Gay, Good, Hardie, Little, Merry,
Noble, Short, Small, Smart, Strong, Young.
Names

Names in other countries

In Kenya the word arap in a name means “son o f”, e.g. the former President of Kenya is
named Daniel Toroitich arap Moi. Similarly in other districts the Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru and
Embu tribes use wa meaning “son o f” or “daughter of”.
In Arabic-speaking countries, parents are often known by their relation to their children.
Thus, Abu means “father of”; Oom means “mother of”. Thus:

Abu Ahmed = the father of Ahmed

Oom Ali = the mother of Ali
In a similar way, children are often known by their relation to their parents by the use of
bin (son of) and binte (daughter of). Thus:

Ahmed bin Fuad = Ahmed, son of Faud

Faridah binte Hussein = Faridah, daughter of Hussein

In Singapore Indian names would include S/O (Son of) or D/O (Daughter of), e.g.
Selvarajoo S/O Velu or Saraswethy D/O Rajoo.
Chinese names are written with the family name first, e.g. the Prime Minister of Singapore is
the Honourable Goh Chok Tong, Goh being the family name. An interesting fact about
Chinese names is that the second name denotes the generation. As an example take the
name Tan Wu Cheng. Tan is the family name, Wu the generation name and Cheng the
personal name. Should Mr Tan have a brother or brothers they will all bear the same family
name, Tan, followed by the generation name Wu followed by their own personal name,
Cheng or Ling or any other given name.
In Iceland the boy or girl would, in addition to their own personal name, be given their
father’s name with the addition of son or daughter, e.g. Magnus’ father was called John so
Magnus Johnson would be the boy’s name.
Group Terms or Collections
Animate
an army of ants a herd of cattle
an army of soldiers a host of angels
a band of musicians a litter of cubs
a bench of bishops a litter of pups
a bench of magistrates a nest of rabbits
a bevy of ladies a pack of rascals
a board of directors a pack of wolves
a brood of chickens a plague of insects
a building of rooks a plague of locusts
a choir of singers u a pride of lions
a class of pupils, students a school of whales
a company of actors a shoal of herring
a covey of grouse a staff of servants
a crew of sailors a staff of teachers
a drove of cattle a stud of horses
a flock of birds a swarm of bees
a flock of sheep a swarm of insects
a gaggle of geese a team of horses
a gang of labourers a team of oxen
a gang of thieves a team of players
a group of friends a troop of monkeys
a herd of buffaloes a troupe of dancers

Inanimate
a bale of cotton, wool a forest of trees
a batch of bread a hail of fire
a bouquet of flowers a hedge of bushes
a bunch of grapes a library of books
a bundle of rags a pack of cards
a chest of drawers a rope of pearls
a clump of trees a set of china, clubs, tools
a cluster of diamonds, stars a sheaf of corn
a clutch of eggs a stack of hay
a collection of pictures a string of beads
a crate of fruit a suit of clothes
a fleet of cars, ships 1 a suite of furniture, rooms
a flight of aeroplanes, steps a tuft of grass
Group Terms or Collections

People

at a concert audience
in church congregation
in the street crowd, throng
in a riot mob
in a rowdy scene rabble
at a sporting event crowd

Less Com m on Exam ples

a baren of mules a rag of colts

a bevy of quails a siege of herons
a cast of hawks a skulk of foxes
a cete of badgers a sloth of bears
a clowder of cats a smuck of jellyfish
a covert of coots a stand of plovers
a down of hares a string of horses
a fall of woodcocks a tribe of goats
a field of runners a,watch of nightingales
a flight of doves a wisp of snipe
a flight of swallows
a gang of elks a budget of papers
a gathering of clans a bunch of bananas
a herd of antelopes a cast of flowerpots
a herd of cranes a crate of crockery
a host of sparrows a fusillade of shots
a kindle of kittens a galaxy of stars
a labour of moles ' a group of islands
a leap of leopards a nest of machine guns
a muster of peacocks a peal of bells
a nest of mice a punnet of strawberries
a nide of pheasants a sheaf of arrows
a pace of asses a shock of wheat
a paddling of ducks a skein of silk
a posse of sheriff’s men a skein of wool
a truss of hay
 Group Terms or Collections

Exercises ' v ' ^ r- j-1' & ■■ * * • ,

“
"sWj ^*£i'-y m m
1. A number of sheep together is called a flock. What name is given to a number of:
singers, ships, wolves, trees, bees, whales, thieves, players, pups?
2. Of what are these collections?

army, mob, sheaf, bundle, clutch.

3. Supply the missing word:

a) a of cars f) a of herring
b) a of servants g) a of cattle
c) a of angels h) a of directors
d) a of grapes i) a of chickens
e) a of monkeys j) a of books
4. Insert the most suitable word in each of the following:

a) a litter of f) a cluster of
b) a band of g) a stack of
c) a building of h) a skein of
d) a plague of i) a crew of
e) a bouquet of j) an army of
5. Give one word for a number of people:
a) at a concert; d) in a riot;
b) in church; e) in a rowdy scene;
c) in the street; f) at a football match.
6. The following words represent a definite number:
single, couple, brace, pair, dozen.
Place the words in the phrases best suited to their use:
a) a eggs d) a of boots
b) a of chairs e) a ticket
c) a of grouse
7. At my uncle’s farm I saw:

a) a of sheep d) a of cattle
b) a of pups e) a of chickens

J
c) a of bees f) a of geese
v _
Group Terms or Collections

Exercises

8. Insert the most suitable words in the following sentences:

a) He was greeted at the station by a _________ of friends.
b) A _________ of thieves had broken into the premises.
c) The old shepherd carefully counted h is_________ of sheep.
d) An__________ of ants moved slowly across our path.
e) The fishermen saw signs of the presence of a _________ of herring.
f) At the evening service, the ministerpreached to a large_________ .
g) The attackers were met by a __________ of bullets.
h) His whole_________ of cattle had been affected by the drought.
i) The travellers were hotly pursued by a _________ of wolves.
j) He attended a meeting of th e ________of directors.

9. The following definitions represent num eral words; for example, an aeroplane
with one set of wings is called a m onoplane.

How many can you recognise and properly name?

a) one person singing
b) a single eye-glass
c) a fabled animal with one horn
d) a two-wheeled cycle
e) a two-footed animal
f ) an aeroplane with two sets of wings
g) a piece of music written for two performers
h) two babies born at the same time
i) a combat between two people
j) a three-legged stand or support
k) three persons singing together
1) a three-wheeled cycle
m) a four-footed animal
n) four persons singing together
o) a period of ten years
p) a period of a hundred years
q) a person aged one hundred years
r) a Roman commander of one hundred men
s) creatures said to have one hundred feet
Similes
Similes compare things which are alike in some respect, although they may be different
in their general nature.

1. Similes showing distinctive qualities of creatures:

as agile as a monkey as meek as a lamb
as blind as a bat as obstinate as a mule
as brave as a lion as old as Methuselah
as bright as a lark as patient as Job
as busy as an ant as playful as a kitten
as busy as a bee as playful as a puppy
as calm as a cat as pleased as Punch
as crafty as a fox as plump as a partridge
as cunning as a fox as poor as a church mouse
as devoted as a mother as proud as a peacock
as fast as a deer as quiet as a mouse
as fast as a hare as red as a turkey-cock
as fat as a pig as sick as a dog
as feeble as a child as silly as a sheep
as fierce as a lion as slippery as an eel
as flat as a flounder as slow as a snail
as fleet as a gazelle as slow as a tortoise
as frisky as a lamb as sober as a judge
as frisky as a two-year-old as stolid as a cow
as gentle as a dove as strong as a horse
as gentle as a lamb as strong as an ox
as graceful as a swan as sure-footed as a goat
as hairy as a gorilla as swift as a deer
as happy as a king as swift as a hare
as happy as a lark as swift as a hawk
as happy as a sandboy as tall as a giant
as harmless as a dove as tenacious as a bulldog
as heavy as an elephant as tender as a chicken
as hungry as a hunter as tender as a shepherd
as hungry as a wolf as thick as thieves
as industrious as a beaver as timid as a mouse
as like as two herring as timid as a rabbit
as loyal as an apostle as wise as an owl
as mad as a hatter as wise as Solomon
as mad as a March hare as white as a ghost
Similes

2. Similes showing special qualities of things:

as black as coal as neat as a new pin
as black as soot as old as the hills
as bold as brass as open as day
as bright as a button as pale as death
as brittle as glass as plain as a pikestaff
as brown as a berry as purple as the heather
as changeable as the weather as quick as lightning
as clean as a whistle as regular as the clock
as clear as a bell as right as rain
as clear as crystal as round as a barrel
as cold as charity as round as an orange
as cold as ice as safe as houses
as cool as a cucumber as sharp as a needle
as dead as a doornail as sharp as a razor
as deaf as a doorpost as silent as the grave
as drunk as a lord as smooth as glass
as dry as a bone as smooth as velvet
as dull as dishwater as soft as butter
as easy as ABC as soft as down
as easy as winking as soft as putty
as fat as butter as sound as a bell
as fit as a fiddle as sour as vinegar
as flat as a pancake as steady as a rock
as fresh as a daisy as stiff as a poker
as fresh as paint as straight as an arrow
as good as gold as straight as a ramrod
as green as grass as sturdy as an oak
as hard as iron as sweet as honey
as hard as nails as thin as a rake
as heavy as lead as tough as leather
as hot as a furnace as ugly as sin
as keen as mustard as warm as wool
as large as life as weak as water
as light as a feather as white as a sheet
as alike as two peas as white as snow
 Similes

Exercises P S » |» - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ‘‘ S i M E
Iggyl .
___

1. We say “as black as coal”. Supply the missing words in the following:

a) as sharp as f) as slippery as
b) as keen as _ g) as swift a s __
c) as brave as h) as clear a s __
d) as sweet as i) as light a s ___
e) as cold as _
2. Complete the following:
a) as as a monkey f) as as a rock .
b) as as a flounder g) as as iron
c) as as Punch h) as as a new pin
d) as as a chicken i) as as a rabbit
e) as as a bee j) as as the hills

3. Complete the following sentences with suitable words:

a) The coward was trembling like a _________ .
b) His hands were as cold a s _________ .
c) The man could swim like a _________ .
d) The baby was as good a s ________ .
e) The boy ran like th e _________ .
4. Pick out (by underlining) the best simile in the following:
Exam ple: As dry as (a tree, an egg, a bone, an apple).
a) As flat as (a kettle, a pancake, aloaf, a saucer).
b) As steady as (a rock, a book, a box, a table).
c) As fast as (a child, a tortoise, a herring, a deer).
d) As proud as (a lamb, a daisy, a peacock, a rabbit).
e) As happy as (a giraffe, a lark, a lobster, a serpent).
5. Add what you consider the most suitable word:
a) The lake shone like a _________ .
b) The smooth sea was like_________ .
c) The water was as clear a s ________ .
d) The boy climbed the tree like a ___________ .
e) His terrified companion stuck to him like a __________.
Occupations
Describe in a sentence the occupations o f the following:
artist conductor journalist postman/woman
athlete confectioner judge reporter
barber decorator lawyer sailor
blacksmith dentist locksmith sculptor
butcher detective magistrate secretary
cabinet-maker doctor mason shepherd
caddie engineer matron shopkeeper
caretaker explorer mechanic soldier
carpenter farmer miner stationer
cashier florist minister steeplejack
chauffeur gamekeeper newsagent surgeon
chemist glazier nurse tailor
cleaner greengrocer optician teacher
clown grocer physician
coastguard hairdresser pilot
cobbler ironmonger plumber
computer jockey police officer
programmer joiner porter
With whom do you associate the following?
anvil handcuffs razor spectacles
awl harness rifle telescope
barrow knife roofs ticket-punch
baton lancet safety lamp tins
briefcase mail saw tractor
cleaver palette scales trumpet
forceps plane sheep ward
furnace plough shovel wig
glasscutter prescription solder
gun pulpit spanner
Name the chief persons connected with the following:
army hospital Police Station school
church navy Post Office ship
college newspaper prison Sunday School
committee orchestra railway station team of players
court of law Parliament Salvation Army workshop
 Occupations

on Occupations
1. What am I called?
a) I build stone houses.
b) I carry bags at the railway station.
c) I write stories for newspapers.
d) I ride horses in races.
e) I prepare and sell meat.
2. Many shopkeepers draw attention to their places of business by hanging special
signs above their shopdoors. What special sign is displayed by
a) a bootmaker; d) a hairdresser; g) a pawnbroker;
b) a chemist; e) a locksmith; h) a saddler;
c) a fishmonger; f) an optician; i) a watchmaker?

In each of the following give one word for a person who

a) attends to people’s teeth; g) looks after people’s eyes;
b) carves in stone; h) cares for patients in hospital;
c) searches for new lands; 0 repairs boots and shoes;
d) draws plans for buildings; j) sells from door to door;
e) flies an aeroplane; k) studies the stars;
f) investigates crime; 1) conducts sales by bidding.
4 . Arrange the following as you see them advertised in shop windows:
best assorted, good fresh, fine ripe, splendid cooking, sweet juicy,
young spring.
apples, chocolates, herring, onions, oranges, tomatoes.
Places
Worship
abbey, cathedral, chapel, church, convent, gurdwara, kirk, mandir, monastery, mosque,
pagoda, priory, synagogue, tabernacle, temple.

Business
What are the places called where the following are made?

beer, bread, films, flour, iron goods, leather, money, paper, ships, whisky.

Name particular places where the following are sold:

bread, clothes, fish, flowers, fruit, general foodstuffs, meat, milk, newspapers, poultry,
spectacles, sweets and chocolates, tobacco, vegetables, writing materials.

Sport
Give particular names of the places where the following are played:

badminton, bowls, boxing, cricket, croquet, football, golf, hockey, putting, rugby,
running, skating, sleighing, tennis, wrestling.

General
Give the particular names of the places connected with the following:

W here W here
aeroplanes are kept historical relics are shown
bees are kept law is meted out
birds are kept operations are performed
bull-fighting is held orphans are kept
cars are kept people are buried
chickens are hatched people lunch for payment
cooks prepare food plays are shown
criminals are kept pupils are educated
doctors receive their patients rooks build their nests
films are shown soldiers are stationed
fish are kept water is stored
fruit trees grow wild animals are kept
gas is stored young plants and flowers are
grain is stored reared
grapes are grown young trees are grown
___________________________________________________________________________ :____________________

Receptacles
It is interesting to note the types of containers used to hold and carry foodstuffs, e.g.
bag - cocoa, coffee, rice, sago, sugar;
barrel - apples, beer, oil;
box - apples, butter, currants, fish;
chest - tea, cloves;
sack - flour, potatoes.
~— »Mtjjjui———...............
Exercises Igflgi I"
■ .!................ .... W # -J i

1. Name the contents you would expect to find in the following:

barrel case jug sheath

basin cask keg still
basket cellar kettle tank
bath compact kitbag tankard
bin cup library teapot
boiler cupboard packet Thermos (vacuum)
bottle decanter pan flask
bowl drum pitcher till
box envelope pocket-book trunk
briefcase flagon portfolio tub
butt flask pot tumbler
caddy gasometer punnet urn
can goblet purse vase
canister hamper safe vat
carafe handbag satchel wallet
carton jar scabbard wardrobe
2. In what receptacles or containers would you expect to find the following?

Example: tea - caddy.

money _ jam _ sword
water _ coal _ flowers
sauce _ letter _ wine
V J
 Sourras and Motions
All creatures make sounds and move in a fashion peculiar to their species. Their
O u ts ta n d in g characf^stics are described by the common adjectives.

Creature Sound Motion Common Adjective

ape gibbers swings ungainly
ass brays jogs stupid
bear growls lumbers clumsy
bee hums flits busy
beetle drones crawls horrid
bull . bellows charges angry
cat purrs steals sleek
cow lows wanders stolid
deer bells bounds fallow
dog barks runs faithful
donkey brays trots obstinate
elephant trumpets ambles ponderous
frog croaks leaps . clammy
horse neighs ♦gallops noble
hound bays bounds gallant
hyena screams prowls cunning
lamb bleats frisks gentle
lion roars prowls tawny
monkey chatters climbs agile
mouse squeaks scampers timid
person talks walks average
Pig grunts trots fat
rabbit squeals leaps timid
serpent hisses glides loathsome
wolf howls • lopes lean
bird whistles flies swift
cock crows struts proud
crow caws flaps black
curlew pipes flits P’ lonely
duck quacks waddles waddling
eagle screams swoops proud
hen cackles struts domestic
lark sings soars gentle
owl hoots flits tawny >-
 Sounds $nd Motions

Creature Sound Motion Common Adjective

parrot screeches flits saucy
pigeon coos flutters gentle
robin chirps hops little #
seagull screams glides tireless
sparrow chirps flits little
swallow twitters dives swift
turkey gobbles struts plump
wren warbles hops tiny □

aquiline - like an eagle ferine - like a wild beast

asinine - like an ass leonine - like a lion
bovine - like a cow or ox lupine - like a wolf
canine - like a dog ovine - like a sheep
corvine - like a crow piscine - like a fish
elephantine - like an elephant porcine - like a pig
equine - like a horse tigrine - like a tiger *
feline - like a cat vulpine - like a fox
Certain words are used in im itation of the sounds made by creatures, e.g.
ass - hee-haw duck - quack
cat - me-ow hen - cluck •
cock - cock-a-doodle-do owl - tu-whoo
• cow - moo rook - caw
cuckoo - cuckop sheep - baa
dog - woof c sparrow - tweet-tweet
The following verbs are obtained from the habits of creatures:

to ape - to imitate foolishly

to badger - to worry or tease o
to crow - to boast or swagger
to dog - to follow or track
to duck - to dip or plunge
to ferret - to search out
to fox - to act cunningly
to hound - to pursue relentlessly
to ram - to drive or push into
to wolf - to eat greedily
Sounds and Motions

Exercises ore mm and Motions - '• ■ -■- t . K - • 1 : ■ -■• v -i;i '

1. Animals make different sounds, e.g. The dog barks.

What sounds are made by the following animals?
donkey, elephant, horse, pig, wolf, monkey deer, cow, bear, hyena.

2. Write the names of the creatures:

The bays. The croaks.

The hisses. The purrs.
The crows. The gobbles.
The bleats. The roars.
The caws. The quacks.

Describe the movements of the following, e.g. The horse gallops.

The frog The duck

The monkey The lamb
The wolf The lark
The seagull The bear

Apply the most fitting adjective:

sleek, cunning, obstinate, fat, tireless, loathsome, gentle, faithful.

The mule. The fox.
The pig. The lamb.
The dog. The cat.
The serpent. The seagull.

What is meant by calling a person

a) an ape h) a fox o) a rabbit
b) an ass i) a goat P) a sheep
c) a bear j) a horse q) a snail
d) a bull k) a hound r) a swine
e) a dog 1) a lamb s) a tortoise
f) a donkey m) a lion t) a viper
g) an elephant n) a pig U) a wolf?
 Sounds and Motions

Exercises on Sounds and Motions continued!

6. Which creatures were the speakers thinking of when they said?

a) “The man bellowed with rage.”
b) “He has the hump today.”
c) “We were stung by his remarks.”
d) “Don’t crow so loudly.”
e) “The officer barked an order.”
f) “The witch spoke in a croaky voice.”
g) “He grunted in reply.”
h) “The girls were chattering in the hall.”
i) “Why are you galloping along the corridor?”
j) “The boy howled when he was caught.”
k) “The wicked old woman cackled loudly as she stirred the pot.’
1) “The lecturer’s voice droned on and on.”
m) “The little girl screeched with delight.”
n) “The captain snorted in disgust.”
o) “The curious child prowled about the room.”
p) “Loud hooting interrupted the speech.”

7. Explain the words underlined in the following sentences:

a) He had an aquiline nose.
b) The burglar walked with a feline tread.
c) The yokel had a bovine look.
d) He was scolded for his asinine conduct.
e) They had the appearance of sharp canine teeth.
What feeling is expressed by
a) a chuckle e) a hoot 0 a sigh
b) a groan f) a howl j) a sniff
c) a growl g) a roar k) a snort
d) a grunt h) a screech 1) a squeal?

Complete the following:

On a recent visit to a large farm I heard various animal sounds. I heard

a cock_________ cows_________
pigs_________ ducks _________
horses r:-, lambs_________
turkeys . ■ • and a dog_________
Sounds made by Objects
Note that the words have been formed to resemble the sounds made by the objects.
babble of a stream ping of a bullet
bang of a door popping of corks
beat of a drum purr of an engine
blare of a trumpet rattling of dishes
blast of an explosion report of a rifle
booming of a gun ring of metal
bubbling of water ring of a telephone
buzz of a saw ringing of bells
call of a bugle roar of a torrent
chime of a bell (large) rumble of a train
chime of a clock rustle of silk
chug of an engine rustling of leaves
clang of an anvil scrape of a bow
clang of a bell screeching of brakes
clanking of chains shriek of a whistle
clatter of hoofs shuffling of feet
clink of a coin sighing of the wind
crack of a whip singing of the kettle
crackling of wood skirl of the bagpipes
creak of a hinge slam of a door
crinkle of paper splutter of an engine
dripping of water swish of skirts
grinding of brakes throb of an engine
gurgle of a stream thunder of hoofs
hissing of steam tick of a clock
hoot of a horn tinkle of a bell (small)
howling of the wind tinkle of glass
jangling of chains toot of a horn
jingle of coins tramp of feet
lapping of water twang of a bow
lash of a whip wail of a siren
murmur of a stream whack of a cane
patter of feet whirring of wings
patter of rain whoosh of a rocket
pealing of bells
 Sounds made by Objects

Exercises

1. Insert suitable words in the blank spaces.

Example: The beat of a drum.
T h e_________ of a hinge. The of a whip,
T h e_________ of brakes. The of steam,
T h e_________ of feet. The of silk,
T h e_________ of a bugle. The of a clock.
2. Supply the missing words.
Example: The clatter of hoofs.
The pealing o f _________ The popping of
The booming o f _________ The skirl of the
The crinkle of _________ The throb of an
The slam of a The toot of a
3. Use the right words in the following:
A boiling kettle_________ .
Frying fat_________ in the pan.
Coins_________ in the bag.
The heavy bar fell with a _
Suddenly we heard th e __ of hoofs.
We were awakened by the _ of the big church clock,
The passengers heard the loud_______ of brakes.
The rude boy_________ the door behind him.
The north wind in the chimney.
I heard th e ____ of a rifle.
The rain______ on the window.
Thunder

Complete the following by adding a sentence which indicates the cause of the
sound. The first is done for you:
a) Toot! Toot! The sound of a car horn warned us of danger.
b) Bang! _______________________________________________________________
c) Boom! ______________________________________________________________
d) Crash! _______________________________________________________________
e) Plop! ________________________________________________________________
0 Rat-tat-tat!
8) Splash! __
h) Tick-tock!
0 Ting-a-ling!
Classification
All things on earth may be divided into two classes:

♦ Animate (living things).

♦ Inanim ate (things having no life).

1. The anim ate or living things consist of creatures and plants. Creatures can eat, grow
and move about from place to place, e.g. animals including people, birds, fishes, insects,
reptiles. Plants are fixed by means of roots and although they can absorb food and grow
they cannot move about from place to place, e.g. trees, flowers, vegetables.

2. The inanim ate o r things having no life are fixed, cannot eat, cannot grow and
cannot move about from place to place, e.g. stone, cloth, knife.
Every object can be placed in a certain general class either because of its resemblance to
other things or because of its purpose or use. The following are general classes:
animals, birds, insects, fishes, reptiles, flowers, fruits, trees, vegetables, minerals, liquids,
apparel, occupations, places, utensils, ships, games, vehicles, cereals, coins, instruments.

( on Classification ' ....

1. Write one name for each of the following groups, e.g.
iron, lead, copper: m etals
a) lion, bear, goat, mouse
b) jacket, blouse, trousers, skirt
c) canary, eagle, pigeon, magpie
d) lawyer, butcher, engineer, doctor
e) beetle, ant, bee, locust
f) bus, car, lorry, wagon
g) daffodil, tulip, violet, crocus
h) cup, saucer, bowl, plate
0 flounder, haddock, trout, herring
j) autumn, winter, spring, summer
j) shoes, Wellingtons, boots, slippers
1) potato, carrot, beetroot, turnip
m) hawthorn, palm, beech, chestnut
n) bread, butter, meat, porridge
o) mango, orange, banana, lemon
P) water, milk, brine, paraffin
q) wheat, maize, oats, barley
0 aunt, uncle, niece, cousin
s) twelve, seven, twenty, eight
t) football, hockey, rugby, cricket
 Classification

E S H S H on C^^fication contmyad • ' jf ¥ .y jf ]

2. In the following lists of words, one word seems out of place. Underline the word
you consider is not in the same class. The first is done for you.
(1) rose, hibiscus, poinsettia, tomato, carnation
(2) hen, hare, duck, goose, turkey
(3) pine, oak, violet, rhododendron, ash
4
( ) slate, gold, silver, iron, lead
(5) potato, lemon, maize, cauliflower, spinach
6
( ) granite, cement, limestone, marble, whinstone
(7) oats, wheat, loaf, sugarcane, barley
(8) salmon, whale, snapper, trout, mullet
(9) diamond, emerald, pearl, ruby, sapphire
(10) Mumbai, London, Washington, Islamabad, Kingston
(11) Ireland, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Cyprus, Mexico
(12) tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, biscuit
(13) rain, sleet, snow, heat, hail
(14) bacon, milk, cheese, butter, bread
(15) shield, lance, dagger, gun, spear
(16) bus, tractor, yacht, train, lorry
(17) cottage, mansion, palace, bungalow, warehouse
(18) tomatoes, journeys, excursions, voyages, trips
(19) birch, maize, maple, chestnut, pine
(20) man, boy, master, princess, uncle
(21) rose, palm, orchid, lily, primrose
(22) Marcus, Maria, Martin, Mohammed, Melvyn
(23) cupboard, kitchen, bathroom, bedroom, hall
(24) orange, potato, cherry, apple, banana
(25) beer, milk, cotton, wine, water
(26) boy, wagon, kitten, girl, puppy
(27) plate, cup, saucer, bowl, fork
(28) radiator, saxophone, trumpet, piano, guitar
(29) Pakistan, Spain, Delhi, Brazil, Malaysia
(30) elephant, tiger, giraffe, crocodile, horse
(31) salt, sauce, plate, mustard, pepper
(32) spinster, lady, niece, uncle, sister
(33) chair, carpet, wardrobe, stool, table
(34) baker, butcher, fisherman, barber, cook
(35) pigeon, parrot, penguin, sparrow, swallow
(36) basket, purse, kettle, trunk, scabbard
J
Classification

E xe rcises on Classification continui!

Put a line under one of the same kind as the first three in each line. The first is
done for you.
(1) cap, balmoral, hat face, book, turban, coat, hatchet
(2) jug, teapot, cup bowl, loaf, hammer, key, door
(3) stork, hen, eagle egg, butterfly, owl, nest, mouse
4
( ) tulip, daisy, violet foot, cup, brush, rose, scissors
(5) eye, nose, mouth hand, leg, knee, arm, ear
(6) tin, copper, zinc basin, iron, marble, corn, carrot
(7) tuna, swordfish, mackerel gate, street, orange, ship, trout
(3) chair, table, stool sofa, pot, door, car, tub
(9) buffalo, monkey, rat wasp, parrot, lion, canary
(10) apple, banana, plum peach, violet, onion, hawthorn
(11) iron, lead, copper marble, coal, slate, zinc
(12) ant, mosquito, moth rabbit, fly, dog, snake
(13) Nairobi, London, Kingston Trinidad, Scotland, Kenya, Abuja
(14) steamer, yacht, submarine aeroplane, trawler, motor, train
(15) caramel, cake, ice-cream book, pencil, toffee, ruler
(16) flamingo, buzzard, kite grasshopper, fox, penguin, seal
(17) frock, jacket, coat blouse, curtain, sheet, carpet
(18) car, train, taxi bicycle, steamer, canoe, seaplane
(19) tuna, salmon, snapper vulture, barracuda, snail, cat
(20) tennis, hockey, golf darts, volleyball, boxing, whist
(21) tulip, geranium, lily paw-paw, potato, rose, diamond
(22) cocoa, coffee, water bread, soup, pepper, sugar
(23) violin, piano, harp drum, bugle, guitar, trombone
(24) cabbage, carrot, potato lilac, yam, pine, turkey
(25) barber, florist, tailor miner, driver, cameraman, shoemaker
(26) ankle, foot, knee head, wrist, thigh, nose
(27) box, vase, bowl notebook, window, bin, hoe
(28) terrier, collie, greyhound tiger, spaniel, hyena, lion
(29) sandals, shoes, boots gloves, trousers, slippers, pockets
(30) oak, pine, fir teak, lettuce, poinsettia, shark
 Classification

E J J B f H i J l c % jC fa s § if^ i» ^ n fin u € ^ ’ . 4 jr^ £ d ? srl^ l * *" ~ tT / JM

4. Underline the word (in brackets) which has a sim ilar m eaning to the first three
words in each line. The first is done for you.
a) cost, fee, charge (money. price, purse, silver)
b) mount, soar, rise (depart, arrive, retire, ascend)
c) hail, greet, salute (alarm, habit, welcome, ignore)
d) vigilant, alert, wary (aloft, believe, attempt, watchful)
e) notice, perceive, behold (provide, observe, advise, obtain)
0 concluded, finished, ended (commenced, allowed, completed, carried)
8) peace, calm, rest (quietness, worry, agitated, movement)
h) support, help, aid (abandon, remedy, assist, ignore)
0 walked, tramped, marched (chuckled, plodded, glanced, knocked)
D conquer, defeat, overcome (bully, retire, vanquish, submit)
k) edge, border, fringe (margin, centre, interior, cover)
0 occupied, diligent, busy (lazy, helpless, indolent, industrious)
m) hinder, retard, delay (progress, obstruct, reveal, select)
n) vagabond, wanderer, tramp (milliner, caddie, collector, vagrant)
o) desert, forsake, leave (protect, abandon, pursue, arrive)
P) serious, sober, solemn (blunt, grave, tired, insulted)
q) weep, cry, wail (deafen, bite, whimper, frighten)
r) pleased, happy, delighted (friendly, agreeable, kind, cheerful)
s) stupid, silly, foolish (stylish, trivial, absurd, helpless)
t) annoy, pester, torment (deceive, irritate, influence, hinder)
J
Gradation
There are five words in each row. You are asked to place them in order of size (smallest
first). The first is done for you.
1. boy, baby, man, child, youth
baby, child, boy, youth, man

2. ten, one, million, thousand, hundred

3- litre, millilitre, decalitre, decilitre, hectolitre

4. year, millennium, century, month, day

5. minute, week, second, hour, day

6. cow, cat, elephant, sheep, mouse

7. kettle, cup, pail, teapot, tub

8. mansion, hut, bungalow, cottage, palace

9. metre, centimetre, kilometre, millimetre

10. shark, sardine, whale, cod, snapper

11. hen, pigeon, robin, ostrich, turkey

12. city, country, town, continent, village

13. bean, pea, cabbage, onion, turnip

14. ocean, river, spring, stream, sea

 Gradation

15. banana, paw-paw, orange, cherry, melon

16. piano, trombone, pipe-organ, violin, flute

17. wallet, purse, safe, vault, handbag

18. fly, midge, ant, wasp, butterfly

19- sentence, letter, paragraph, word, chapter

Here are some harder examples. Grade each group of five words according to the word
in the bracket (least first):
(sound) giggled, laughed, smiled, guffawed, chuckled

(feeling) punched, touched, battered, tapped, knocked

(speed) strode, galloped, trotted, cantered, walked

(sound) shrieked, talked, shouted, whispered, roared

(feeling) fingered, slapped, patted, caressed, walloped

(speed) marched, sauntered, strode, walked, shuffled

(sound) crooned, hummed, lilted, yodelled, sang

(tim e) looked, stared, glimpsed, gazed, glanced

Association
Underline the two words in the-brackets which are associated with (or part of) the first
word in bold type. The first is done for you.

1. boot ("sleeve, heel, handle, sole, paper)

2. chair (saucer, poker, arm, tongs, leg)

3. bed (mattress, carpet, ribbon, blanket, blouse)

4. bath (book, soap, glove, vase, sponge)

5. room (flour, ceiling, drum, floor, vegetable)

6. tree (wall, trunk, chalk, bough, lamp)
7. clock (hands, wristlet, face, shovel, cushion)
8 . flower (purse, stem, seat, lard, petals)

9. bird (sheet, wings, beak, canoe, factory)

10. bee (sting, mirror, bread, honey, banana)

11. knife (acorn, blade, opposite, handle, coat)

12. kettle (spout, plate, butter, basket, lid)
13. window (spoon, glass, pillow, bullet, curtains)
14. car (chart, anvil, engine, tyres, grate)
15. sun (rays, harbour, sermon, heat, crescent)
16. bottle (handle, paper, chimney, neck, cork)
17. rifle (barrel, trigger, candle, mirror, arrow)
18. fork (cellar, prongs, beggar, handle, blade)
19. fish (fodder, arms, gills, mutton, fins)
20. torch (bulb, furnace, battery, meter, grate)
21. door (model, knob, disease, drawer, hinges)
22. bicycle (pedals, hangar, bowl, pump, gangway)

23- pillow (rug, slip, cloak, bolster, pinafore)

24. ship (hood, melody, bridge, trolley, bow)
25. aeroplane (funnel, wings, tail, tunnel, paddle)
26. horse (bridle, crystal, branch, mane, horns)
 Association

27. fire (errand, smoke, boots, comb, flame)

28. piano (buttons, fatigue, keys, pedals, pencil)

29. potato (forest, peelings, bark, gown, chips)

30. hat (crown, glue, pouch, brim, pocket)

31. vehicle (velvet, brakes, wheels, cotton, scissors)

32. window (cords, pane, basin, inventor, easel)

33. boot (knuckle, hatchet, upper, jacket, tongue)

34. pipe (granite, towel, packet, bowl, stem)

35. tree (fork, telegraph, foliage, muslin, cabbage)

36. fruit (marble, core, turnip, rind, salmon)

37. school (horse, teacher, parrot, article, book)
38. house (compartment, gable, cock-pit, scuppers, eaves)

39. telephone (paragraph, scabbard, receiver, needle, booth)

40. barrel (fatigue, staves, square, hoops, spokes)

Here are more examples with particular reference to parts of our body and their
actions:
ear (deafness, cantered, listening, noticed, tumbled)

m outh (pushed, strode, glancing, tasting, chewing)

nose (smiled, sniffed, walked, odour, roared)

eye (sang, lashes, laughed, blinked, swinging)

face (folded, smile, yodelled, grin, toddled)

head (muttered, sauntered, ache, flying, nodding)

arm s (trotted, mumbled, folded, waving, chanted)

hands (writing, strolling, kicking, wink, clasp)

legs (crooned, crossed, fingered, smiling, running)

feet (dancing, waving, paddling, shouting, grinning)

39
Analogies
Put in the suitable words in the spaces below:

Exam ple: Little is to big as dw arf is to giant.

1. Spider is to fly as cat is to

2. Sheep is to m utton as pig is to

3. Steam er is to p ier as train is to
4 . Boy is to girl as is to wom an.

5. Ju n e is to Ju ly as is to May.

6. High is to low as is to down.

7. North is to as east is to west.

8 . Uncle is to as aunt is to niece.

9. Soldier is to as sailor is to navy.

10. is to donkey as neigh is to horse.

11. is to hand as toe is to foot.
12. are to birds as scales are to fish.
13. Tear is to sorrow as sm ile is to

14. Wrist is to arm as ankle is to •

15. One is to ten as ten is to •

16. Arrow is to bow as is to rifle.

17. Cat is to kitten as is to pup.
18. Foot is to m an as is to horse.

19- Father is to as m other is to daughter.

2 0. Artist is to as au th or is to book.
2 1. W ater is to as liquid is to solid.
22. is to cygnet as pig is to piglet.

23. is to herring as school is to whales.

24. is to hive as cow is to cowshed.
25. Wing is to bird as fin is to

26. Rich is to poor as ancient is to

27. One is to single as two is to
28. Flock is to sheep as is to cattle.

29. Here is to there as is to that.

30. Day is to week as is to year.

31. Eat is to as go is to went.

32. Oil is to as tea is to caddy.

33. Steam is to as sm oke is to fire.

34. is to sty as horse is to stable.

35. is to cold as seldom is to often.

36. is to fish as air is to bird.

37. Table is to wood as window is to

38. Food is to hungry as drink is to

39. Statue is to sculptor as book is to

40. Wheel is to spoke as flower is to
41. Nose is to sm ell as is to taste.

42. Wrist is to cuff as is to collar.

43. Walk is to legs as is to wings.

44. Island is to sea as is to land.

45. Knife is to as gun is to shoot.

46. Picture is to as carpet is to floor.

47. Graceful is to as polite is to rude.

48. Descend is to as ascend is to height.

49. is to pipes as electricity is to wires.

50. is to church as tow er is to castle.

51. is to forest as sheep is to flock.

52. is to egg as rind is to orange.

53. Constable is to thief as gam ekeeper is to

54. W hisper is to shout as walk is to

55. Hearing is to ear as sight is to

It Makes You Think
1. Here is a list of Christmas presents which arrived at the Browns’ house:

diary, razor, knitting-bag, chocolates, saw, cigarettes, grapes and a

fishing-rod.
a) Mr Brown has a beard, likes woodwork, but does not smoke.
b) Mrs Brown is ill in bed, but able to sit up and use her hands.
c) Joh n Brown is twenty years old, clean-shaven, and does not like fishing.
d) Mary Brown is twelve years old, keen on writing, and fond of sweets.

Distribute the presents on the above list to each member of the family.

2. On one side of my street the homes all have odd numbers, ending with the baker’s
which is No. 17. On the other side the numbers are all even, ending with the draper’s
which is No. 18. Fred Thomson is my next-door-neighbour and his house is No. 10. You
pass my house when walking from the draper’s to Fred’s house.

What number is my house?

3. A policeman was on his rounds one night when he saw a man with a box under his arm
come out of a house and hurry down the street. Later the constable found that some
jewels had been stolen from the house. The officer remembered that the man he had
seen wore a long black coat. He had also noticed that the man had a beard and was lame
in his right leg. Next day the following four men were detained:
Joh n Smith - bearded, long black coat, lame in left leg.
Tom Taylor - bearded, short black coat, lame in right leg.
Ja ck Jo n es - lame in left leg, short black coat, bearded.
Jim Baker - long black coat, lame in right leg, bearded.

If you were the policeman, whom would you consider guilty?

 It Makes You Think

4. The sentences below, when properly arranged, form a short story Indicate their correct
order by numbering them from 1 to 5 within the brackets:
( ) The lad was cast ashore on a lonely island near the scene of the tragedy.
( ) After many exciting adventures he returned to England none the worse for his
experience.
( ) Robinson Crusoe went to sea when he was nineteen years of age.
( ) Luckily he managed to obtain from the wreck many things which proved useful
to him during his stay on the island.
( ) On his first voyage, the ship encountered a terrible storm and foundered on a
rock.

5. In a very dark cupboard there is a heap of twenty socks, all of the same size, ten of
which are grey and ten blue. How m any socks m ust you pick up in order to make
sure that you obtain a pair o f the sam e colour?

6. My clock has gone wrong and chimes three times at one o’clock, four times at two
o ’clock, and so on. It is also half-an-hour fast. What is the co rrect tim e when the
clock has just chim ed eight?
7. Tom is twice as old as Mary, but he is two years younger than Jim. What is Mary’s age if
Jim will be twenty years old in two years’ time?

An Odd Word or Two

Where does a man buy a cap for his knee,
Or a key for a lock of his hair?
Should his eyes be called an academy
Because there are pupils there?
In the crown of his head what gems are found?
Who crosses the bridge of his nose?
Can he use, if a picture requires to be hung,
The nails on the ends of his toes?
If the crook of his elbow is put in gaol,
I’d say, “What did he do?”
But how does he sharpen his shoulder-blades?
I’m hanged if I know. Do you?
Absurdities
Anything which is absurd is utterly foolish and unreasonable. Can you explain what is
absurd in the following?

1. I had six pencils altogether and gave away three of them to my litde brother. I had nine
pencils left.

2. To sweeten his tea the boy put a spoonful of salt in it.

3. The man is not so tall as he was when a baby.

4. The express train sped along swiftly and silently as it had square wheels.

5 . I hope to attend the concert which took place last week.

6. The witness was asked, “Were you near the horse when it kicked you?”

7. A tramp, wishing to lengthen his blanket, took a bit off the top and added it to the
bottom.

8. “Kind sir! Please give me a copper as I am deaf and dumb,” cried the old beggar.

9- “Keep moving, please! If everybody was to stand there, how would the rest of the
people manage to get past?”

10. The storm, which began yesterday, has continued for three days without a break.
11. “The elephant is a bonnie bird,
It flits from bough to bough,
It makes its nest in the rhubarb tree,
And whistles like a cow.”
12. “’Twas in the month of Liverpool,
In the city of July,
The rain was snowing heavily,
And the streets were very dry.”

13. Two Inuit were having a chat. The weather was so cold that, when one of them spoke,
his words froze into blocks of ice. The other had to melt the blocks on a frying pan in
order to find out what his friend had been saying to him.

14. One day at the seaside a man dived from a high platform. When he was half-way down
he suddenly noticed that the tide was out and that he would strike his head on the
rocks below. This frightened him so much that he changed his mind and jumped back
to the platform.
 Absurdities

15. A father wrote to his son, “I enclose a postal order. If you do not receive this letter,
please let me know at once.”

16. A magician was showing his favourite trick. From the roof of the stage hung a long
rope, at the end of which was a hook. An assistant entered and placed a pail of water
on the hook. Waving his hands and shouting some strange words, the conjurer covered
the pail of water with a magic cloth. A few seconds later he snatched the cloth away
and, lo and behold! the pail had disappeared and the water was left hanging on the
hook.

17. It is much safer to travel in a car than in a train, because in a train accident hundreds of
people may be injured, while in a car accident there are never more than a few people
injured.
18. The proud owner said to his friend, “This clock is so old that the moving shadow of the
pendulum has worn away the wood at the back.”
19. In some countries it is against the law for a man to marry his widow’s sister.
20. Old John Smith lived in a small cottage, which stood on the top of a barren hill and
faced the east. From the foot of the hill a grassy plain stretched in every direction as far
as the eye could see. On the evening of John’s thirtieth birthday, while he was sitting
on the front door-step, watching the setting sun, he noticed a horseman riding down
to the cottage. The trees made it difficult for him to see clearly, but he perceived that
the horseman had only one arm. When, however, he got a closer view, he recognised
the visitor as his son James, who had left home some twenty years before. On seeing
his father, James immediately dismounted, ran towards him, and threw his arms round
his neck.
Abbreviations
An abbreviation is the shortening of a word to fewer letters. These letters are used in place of
a word for brevity. It used to be customary to mark abbreviations with a full stop, but now it
is quite correct to omit them. In some cases using the stop helps to avoid confusion, e.g. A.l.
Abbreviation Word in Full Meaning
@ at

AA Automobile Association

AD Anno Domini In the year of our Lord

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

a.m. ante meridiem Before noon

A.l First class (of ships)

BA Bachelor of Arts
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BC Before Christ
BD Bachelor of Divinity
BL Bachelor of Law
BMA British Medical Association

BSc Bachelor of Science

C centigrade or Celsius
CA Chartered Accountant
ChB Bachelor of Surgery
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CID Criminal Investigation Department
CNN Cable News Network
Co. Company or County
c.o.d. cash on delivery
DIY do-it-yourself
do ditto
Dr Doctor
DV Deo volente God willing

eg- exempli gratia for example

ER Elizabeth Regina Queen Elizabeth II

Esq. Esquire

etc. et cetera and the rest

EU European Union

F Fahrenheit

ff following

FIFA International Football Federation

 Abbreviations

Abbreviation Word in Full Meaning 1

GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education
GDP gross domestic product
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
HE His or Her Excellency
HH His Holiness
HM His or Her Majesty
HMS His or Her Majesty’s Ship or Service
hp horse-power
HRH His or Her Royal Highness
IDD International Direct Dialling
i.e. id est that is
IMF International Monetary Fund
inst. instant this month
IOU I owe you

JP Justice of the Peace

km kilometre
LA Los Angeles
lat. latitude
Ibw leg before wicket
LLB Bachelor of Laws
Ltd Limited
MA Master of Arts
MBA Master of Business Administration
MP Member of Parliament
mph miles per hour
Mr Mister
Mrs Mistress
Ms title for a woman (neither
Miss nor Mrs)

NASA National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

nb nota bene note well, take note
No numero number
NYC New York City
OHMS On His or Her Majesty’s Service
OK all correct
OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief
......... r
Abbreviations

Abbreviation Word in Full Meaning

PAYE Pay as You Earn

per cent per centum in each hundred

PIA Pakistan International Airlines

PM Prime Minister

p.m. post meridiem after noon

PO Post Office

PP pages
Pres. President
PS post scriptum written after

PTO Please turn over

RAC Royal Automobile Club

RAF Royal Air Force
RAM Random Access Memory
RC Roman Catholic
RIP Requiescat in pace may he or she rest in peace

RN Royal Navy
ROM read-only memory
RSVP repondez, s ’il vousplait reply, if you please
SA Salvation Army
SCE Scottish Certificate of Education
ss Steam-ship or Sailing-ship
TA Territorial Army
TUC Trades Union Congress
UK United Kingdom
ult. ultimo last month
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation ,

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s

Emergency Fund

USA United States of America

V versus against
VAT Value Added Tax
viz. videlicet namely
WP word processing / processor
WWW world wide web
YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association
YWCA Young Women’s Christian Association
 Abbreviations

Contractions
auto automobile photo photograph
bus omnibus piano pianoforte
cello violoncello plane aeroplane
exam examination pram perambulator
gym gymnasium prom promenade
mag magazine specs spectacles
phone telephone

1. a) What do the following abbreviations mean?

BSc, BBC, IDD, MP, PO, b c , MA, HRH, lbw, HMS
b) Often abbreviations are used in letter-writing. Give the meaning of the following:
a.m., inst., ult., Esq., Mr, p.m., St

2. Give customary abbreviations for:

a) Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, January, February, August,
September, October, November, December.
b) Ounces, pounds (weight), hundredweights, pints, gallons, seconds, minutes,
hours, inches, feet, yards, miles.
c) Millimetres, centimetres, metres, kilometres, millilitres, centilitres, litres,
milligrams, grammes, kilograms, millions.
3. Write the following with all abbreviated terms in full:
a) Robt. Brown, Esq., 74 Abbey Rd, Glasgow, UK.
b) Dr Thos. Smith, MF! a brother of the famous Harley St surgeon who recently
toured the USA, was married on the 4th inst. in St Margaret’s Chapel,
Westminster.
4. Write the following sentences, using the customary abbreviations:
a) William Miller of Her Majesty’s Ship Newcastlewas awarded the Victoria Cross
for gallantry in action.
b) Mister George Woods, a well-known local Justice of the Peace, was appointed
managing director of Messieurs Cook and Company, Limited.

5. Where contractions have been used in the following sentences, give the
words in full:
a) We boarded a train as the bus was full.
b) The specs were discovered in the pram.
c) I saw his photo in a weekly mag.
d) He phoned for news of the missing plane.
e) The exam was held in the gym.
V J
Antonyms
Words Opposite in Meaning
Give the words opposite in meaning to the following:

abroad condemn expand here motorist

absence confined failure hero mountain
accept confirm faint heroic moving
adult contract fair hide multiply
alive correct fair play high narrow
ancestor coward false hollow native
ancient curse familiar home near
answer damp famous honest never
arrive dark fancy hot new
asleep day far humble night
assemble deep fat ignorant noise
back defeat feeble immense none
backward defend fertile inferior north
bad deny few innocent nowhere
barren depart first join numerous
beautiful depth flow junior often
bent die foe juvenile old
better difficult foolish land opaque
big dirty foreign last open
bitter disperse found late out
black divide free lean past
bless down freedom liberty peace
bold drunk friend light pedestrian
bottom dry front live permanent
bow dull frown long plain
bright dwarf full lost pleasant
broad early future loud plural
buy east gaunt love polite
captive easy generous low poor
captivity ebb giant mad poverty
cheap educated go maximum powerful
chubby empty good merry praise
clean enemy guilty minimum present
clever entrance hard minority private
coarse evening hate miser prosperity
cold ever heavy miserable proud
come everywhere height modern purchase
conceal exit hell morning question >-
 Antonyms

quiet shallow spacious tame victory

rapid short spendthrift temporary wane
refuse show stale there war
retire shut stationary these wax
retreat singular steep those weak
reveal slovenly stern timid wealth
rich slow straight tiny west
right small strong top wet
rude smart stupid transparent white
sadness smooth success truth wild
safety sober summer ugly wise
seldom soft superior unite worse
selfish solid sweet vacant wrong
sell sour take vague young
senior south tall valley youth

Give the words opposite in meaning to the following:

By adding a Prefix
advantage direct legible order safe
approve essential like patient sane
audible fair lock perfect screw
aware famous loyal pleasure selfish
behave fire modest poisonous sense
comfortable happy moral polite tidy
common human mortal possible transitive
connect just necessary proper trust
content kind noble pure twist
convenient known normal regular visible
correct legal obey reverent wise
By changing the Prefix
ascend, encourage, export, exterior, external, increase, inside.
By changing the Suffix
careful, cheerful, joyful, merciful, pitiful, useful.
Antonyms

The following may be said to be Opposites:

author reader judge prisoner

detective criminal king subject
doctor patient lawyer client
driver passenger leader follower
employer employee parent child
gamekeeper poacher shopkeeper customer
guardian ward speaker listener
host guest teacher pupil
hunter quarry

Exercises | on Arttonyrrts -

1. Write words opposite in meaning to:

success, visible, praise, transparent, fair play, arrive, nowhere, barren,

ancient, wise.
2. Give the opposites (by prefix) of the following:

audible, behave, known, legible, modest, noble, obedient, regular, sense, pleasant.
3. In the spaces provided write the opposites of each of the following:

a) north f) possible
b) entrance g) often
c) rough h) enemy
d) pedestrian i) bitter
e) guilty j) senior

4 . Give the opposites of the adjectives in the following phrases:

a) a bright boy d) a bright colour g) a bright light
b) a stormy day e) a stormy sea h) a stormy meeting
c) a wild boy f) a wild horse i) a wild flower

5. State the opposites of:

a) an armed man d) a false gift g) a soft answer
b) I am sorry e) a heavy load h) a mighty army
c) to keep step f) to sing in tune i) she was dark
 Antonyms

on Antonyms continued

6. In the spaces provided write the opposites of the words underlined:

Example: The ball was solid - hollow
a) It was a beautiful dress _________
b) Tuesday was a very sunny day _________
c) The ascent of the hill took two hours _________
d) He has a temporary post _________
e) She purchased the toy _________
f) He is a lazy fellow _________
g) There was an abundance of fruit _________
h) He gave an intelligent answer _________
i) The sea was rough _________
j) It was very fertile land _________
7. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with a word which is the opposite of
the word underlined:
a) Read the question and then write your_________ .
b) The polar bear which escaped from the zoo was soon_________ .
c) Last year the well was empty but this year it is _________ .
d) A polite boy is much thought of: there is nothing to be gained by
being_________ .
e) I suddenly remembered that I had my spectacles.

8. Rewrite the following sentences, putting in words opposite in meaning to those

underlined:
a) In the morning the sun rises in the east.
b) The hero was praised for his fair plav.
c) The fancy box was big and heavy.
d) Profits on superior articles made him rich.
e) The mighty army advanced after its success.
V
Synonyms
Words similar in meaning

abandon leave enormous gigantic

abode dwelling extended enlarged
abundant plentiful exterior outside
accused blamed fall drop
acute sharp famous noted
adhere stick fatigue weariness
affectionate loving feeble weak
aid help gap hole
ally friend glance look
amazement wonder gravely sternly
ancient old greeted saluted
assemble gather grope feel
astonish surprise gruff harsh
asunder apart halt stop
blank empty heroic brave
bright shining hoax trick
broad wide imitate copy
caution care insolent rude
circular round intention purpose
coarse rough interior inside
commence begin join unite
comprehend understand lament grieve
conceal hide lean thin
constable policeman lofty high
conversation talk loyal true
courage bravery mad insane
cunning sly malady disease
curb control margin edge
custom habit mariner sailor
deceive cheat marsh swamp
difficult hard maximum most
disaster calamity meagre scanty
dusk twilight minimum least
elude escape moan groan
emperor king modern new
enemy foe moisture dampness >-
 Synonyms

mute dumb robust strong

myth fable scene sight
nimble agile shrine tomb
noisy rowdy sleek smooth
odour smell slender slim
omen sign small little
option choice squirming wriggling
peculiar strange steed horse
persuade coax stern strict
plume feather stubborn obstinate
powerful strong sturdy strong
profit gain surrender yield
prohibit forbid suspended hung
prompt quick terror fear
protect guard tested tried
puny weak thrust pushed
purchase buy tranquil peaceful
quaint odd transparent clear
quantity amount unite join
queer peculiar vacant empty
raiment clothes valour bravery
ramble roam vanquish defeat
rank position wealth riches
rapid quick wicked sinful
regret sorrow withdraw retire
remedy cure wrath anger
residence dwelling wretched miserable
reveal show yearly annually
roam wander □

Exercises on Synonyms
1. Give words similar in meaning to the following:

comprehend, empty, sufficient, vicinity, attempted, enemies, risky, purchase,

perceive, modern.
Synonyms

Exercises on Synonymscontinued
Z 5 ]

2. In the spaces provided write words similar in meaning:

a) bright f) peculiar
b) convenient 8) lofty
c) disappear h) unite
d) hoax 0 margin
e) valour i) wrath

3. Place the words in their proper positions in the sentence:

(handsome - pretty) The girl admired th e __ prince.

(proud - vain) The king laughed at the little
girl.
(fat - stout) A woman should not eat meat.
(feeble - weak) tea will not refresh the
old lady.
(hot - sultry) On a __ day don’t drink liquids.
(old - antique) T h e ___ man was fond o f _______ furniture.
(loving - tender) Her hands had prepared a ___
chicken.
(sad - dull) The day was _______ and we felt quite

4. Give short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the
following:

learn, teach; invent, discover; possible, probable; accept, except.

5. Use similar words in place of the words underlined:

a) The bucket dropped into the well.
b) “Don’t conceal your real feelings.”
c) I was astonished to find the house vacant.
d) He alters his plans annually.
Homonyms and Homophones
A Homonym is a word having the same sound, and perhaps the same spelling, as
another, but with a different meaning. Where the spelling of the words is different the
words may also be known as Homophones (sounding the same). The following
homonyms are all of the homophone variety.

air heir flour flower

aisle isle, I’ll foul fowl
allowed aloud gait gate
ate eight gamble gambol
bail bale gilt guilt
ball bawl grate great
bare bear groan grown
beach beech hail hale
bell belle hair hare
blew blue hear here
boar bore heard herd
board bored higher hire
bough bow him hymn
boy buoy hoard horde
buy by, bye hole whole
ceiling sealing holy wholly
cellar seller hour our
cereal serial key quay
cheap cheep knew new
check cheque knight night
coarse course knot not
core corps knows nose
council counsel leak leek
crews cruise lightening lightning
currant current loan lone
dear deer loot lute
die dye made maid
draft draught mail male
ewe you, yew main mane
faint feint mare mayor
fair fare meat meet
feat feet medal meddle
flew flue
Homonyms and Homophones

missed mist scene seen

muscle mussel scent sent, cent
oar ore sea see
pail pale seam seem
pain pane sew so, sow
pair pare, pear sight site
pause paws soar sore
peace piece sole soul
peal peel son sun
peer pier stair stare
place plaice stake steak
plain plane stationary stationery
plum plumb steal steel
pores pours stile style
practice practise tail tale
praise prays, preys tears tiers
principal principle their there
profit prophet threw through
rains reigns, reins throne thrown
raise rays, raze tide tied
read reed time thyme
real reel to too, two
right, rite wright, write told tolled
ring wring vain vane, vein
road rode, rowed vale veil
root route waist waste
rose rows wait weight
rye wry weak week
sail sale wood would □

Exercises [•on Homonyms arid Homophones

I. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the
following:

bear, bare, flower, flour, too, two, ate, eight, write, right.
 Homonyms and Homophones

Exercises . contiruiedHr
2. Cross out the wrong words:
She bought some (steak, stake).
The bicycle was for (sail, sale).
We must (hire, higher) a car.
The (hole, whole) army marched into the town.
The boy broke a (pane, pain) of glass.
We walked to the golf (coarse, course).
(Their, There) books are on the desks.
The girl had to (wait, weight) till four o’clock.
The wounded soldier uttered a loud (grown, groan).
The joiner (bored, board) a small (whole, hole) in the (wood, would).
3. Give sentences, one for each word, showing clearly the meaning of each of the
following words:

pause, paws, steal, steel, heard, herd, reign, rain, their, there.
4. Insert the words in their proper places:
(allowed - aloud) It is n ot___________to speak_________ in class.
(maid - made) T h e_________ admitted that she had__________a mistake.
(piece - peace) He will give n o _________ until he receives a __________of cake.
(scent - sent) “Did you get th e _________ I __________you?”
(stair- stare) I saw him _________ at the man on the__________.
(waist - waste) “_________ not, want not,” said the woman with
the thin_________ .

5. Medal, horde, gambol, guilt, prophet, gamble, meddle, profit, gilt, hoard.
From the above list insert the correct words in the following sentences:
A _________ of coins was found under the floor.
The business man made a large_________ on the deal.
He was told not t o _________ with the toys.
I saw the lambs_________ in the field.
His name was printed in large_________ letters.
Homonyms and Homophones

E xercises o n Homonyms ari

6. The answers are words that are pronounced alike but differ in meaning, e.g.
no nay
. cry of a horse neigh
a female sheep
a)
an evergreen tree
sandy shore
b)
kind of tree
guided
c) . a metal
opens lock
d)
. harbour
flat land
e)
joiner’s tool
suffering
f) 1 piece of glass
something round
8)
shout loudly
' rough
h)
. place for golf
front of ship
0
branch of tree
gain
j)
foretells future
a flight of steps
k)
. to look fixedly
sixty minutes
1)
belonging to us
quietness
m)
a part of anything *
a stupid person
n)
no empty space
‘ in that place
o)
. belonging to them
V J
Verbs
Verbs are doing words we say, giving doing a very broad meaning. Words for being
done, even existing (doing nothing) are verbs. Sometimes a verb consists of one word,
sometimes of two or m ore, e.g.
a) Dogs bark. g) No words were spoken.
b) Tom laughed. h) Guestswill be invited.
c) IsMary there? i) The tigershould have waited.
d) Go away! j) My house was being repaired.
e) The day will come k) You must have been joking.
f) The jetis landing.
Note One of the words in the verb is the m ain verb: the others are auxiliaries (helpers).
Underline the verbs in the following sentences:
1. Rain fell yesterday. 7. Uncle may be coming today.
2. Day is dawning. 8. We should have been patient.
3. It is sunny today. 9. You should not have been told.
4. We have been robbed. 10. They are not looking well.
5. I do not smoke. 11. The sheep were worried by dogs.
6. I could hardly see. 12. I was worried till you came.
Form s and Parts o f Verbs Different forms have different uses, for e.g.
singular and plural subjects A dog barks
; dogs bark
different pronoun subjects I think thinks
; he
present, past, future tense (time) I walk-, walked-, shall walk
I I
continuous, completed action We are looking-, have looked.
we

The Infinitive (e.g. to bark, to look) is the basic form from which most other parts of most
verbs can be formed.
The Present and Past Participles are partly verb and partly adjective.

The Present Participle is formed by adding -ing to the infinitive and is used with parts of
the verb to be
to form continuous tenses, as in We are looking (look + ing).
The Past Participle is usually formed by adding -ed to the infinitive and is used with parts
of the verb to have to form perfect (completed action) tenses, as in We have looked (look
+ ed). Irregular verbs form their past participle in other ways. Examples are listed below.

Some participles also serve purely as adjectives, e.g. A dazzling light; your story was
amusing ; my heart is broken-, cracked cups.
Verbs

Tenses Except in the case of the verb to be,

the Present Tense has the same form as the
infinitive (unless the subject is he, she, it
or a noun, when or -s -esis added). To form the
Future Tense we place shall will
or in front of the infinitive. To form the Past Tense of
regular verbs we add -ed
to the infinitive. So we have:
Infinitive Present Tense Future Tense Past Tense
(to) look (I, they) look (I, we) shall look (I, etc.) looked
(he, it) looks (you, etc.) will look

Thus in regular verbs the same form serves both the Past Tense, (I) looked, and the Past
Participle (I have) looked.
Many irregular verbs, however, form them differently. Here are a few of them:

Present Past Past Present Past Past

Tense Tense Participle Tense Tense Participle
am was been choose chose chosen
f arise arose arisen come came come
Ldrive drove driven do did done
awake awoke awakened drink drank drunk
bear bore borne eat ate eaten
beat beat beaten fall fell fallen
'begin began begun fly flew flown
ring rang rung forget forgot forgotten
sing sang sung freeze froze frozen
■swim swam swum give gave given
fbite bit bitten go went gone
[hide hid hidden lie lay lain
blow blew blown f ride rode ridden
grow grew grown I write wrote written
know knew known run ran run
.draw drew drawn shake shook shaken
f break broke broken tear tore torn
Ispeak spoke spoken

Errors
One of the worst errors in speech (and writing) is the use of the Past Participle instead of
the Past Tense (e.g. Iseen you; they done that), and the Past Tense instead of the Past
Participle (e.g. Have you broke it; they have went).
To tune your ear to the correct usage
give each of the above Past Tenses a subject (e.g. Tom drove ) and say it aloud; then put a
subject with have, has had
or in front of the Past Participle (e.g. I had
driven) and say
it aloud.
 Verbs

■ ~ r _ -— i----------------- ------------------------------- r. ry,. ■

. ■■■ ‘ •-. vTT
mmm
1. Give the past tense of:
arise, break, cut, fall, keep, say, shake, drink, bite, choose.

2. Give the past participle of:

bear, drive, fly, give, hurt, ride, sell, speak, come, swim.
3. Give the present tense of:
ate, beaten, froze, hidden, blew, spoken, awoke, sold, lost.

4 . a) Give the present participle of:

throw, give, spring, fire, begin,
b) Give the present infinitive of:
burn, speak, stand, sweep, drive.

5. Give the past tense and past participle of:

am, do, forget, grow, write, sing, tear, hide, go, begin.
6. Complete the following table:
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
I rise I rose I have risen

I forget I I have

I cut

I sing

I blow

7. Fill in each space correctly with one of these words:

rise, rose, raise, risen, raised.
a) H e_________ his hand to greet his friend.
b) Yesterday the boy_________ at five o’clock.
c) I saw him __ from his seat.
d) She tried to _the lid.
e) The sun had __ in the sky.
8. Use the correct part of the verbs in the blank spaces:
(go) She had_______________________ for a walk.
(see) H e_________ his uncle yesterday.
(fall) The old man___________ asleep in his chair.
(awake) He was_________ by the noise.
(dream) The boy was________________ about pirates.

'HV 1
Verbs

In each of the sentences below there are groups of two words within brackets.
One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word.

1. We (drank, drunk) our tea before we (sung, sang) the carol.

2. After he had (ran, run) about 5 kilometres, he (sank, sunk) to the ground.
3. Some cloth is (wove, woven) from wool which has (grown, grew) on sheep.

4. He had (gave, given) me the parcel before he was (took, taken) a prisoner.

5. The timid creature was (drove, driven) into a narrow valley where it was (slew, slain) by
the cruel tiger.
6. The vessel (sank, sunk) before they had (swam, swum) a great distance.

7. The tree had (fell, fallen) across the road and many of its branches were (broke,
broken).
8. By the time the sun had (rose, risen) the aeroplane had (flown, flew) across the sea.

9- No sooner had he (spoke, spoken) than a deer (sprang, sprung) into our path.
10. He (began, begun) to look for the toy which he had (gave, given) to his brother.

11. The man had (threw, thrown) away the purse which was (stole, stolen) from
the lady.
12. The jacket had been well (wore, worn) and the cloth had (shrank, shrunk).

13. After we had (ate, eaten) our supper we went to the pond which was (froze,
frozen) over.

14. The picture was (drawn, drew) by a famous and wealthy artist who had (rose, risen)
from poverty

15. They had just (went, gone) when we were (saw, seen) by our friends.

16. A nest had (fell, fallen) to the ground, where it had been (blew, blown) by the wind.

17. The bell (rang, rung) just after I had (wrote, written) the letter.
Adjectives
An Adjective is a word which qualifies or adds to the meaning of a noun. (An old form
for Adjective was Ad-noun.)
Adjectives may be divided into three main classes.

1. Descriptive Adjectives
Good, bad, hard, soft, old, young, pale, red.
Example: The old man caught a bad cold.
2. Adjective o f Quantity
a) Definite (including numerals)
One, seven, twenty, second, fifth, both, double.
Example: Both players scored three goals in the second game.

b) Indefinite
All, any, few, many, much, several, some.
Example: We met several boys who had caught som e fish.
3. Adjectives o f Distinction
a) Dem onstrative
This, that, these, those, yon, yonder.
Example: This stone was found on yonder hill.
b) Interrogative
Which, what, whose.
Example: Which book do you want?
c) Distributive
Each, every, either, neither.
Example: He could go home by either route.

-S' j
Exercises
_____

Underline the Adjectives in the following sentences:

1. The tall gentleman wore a blue overcoat.

2. Little Jim was a delicate boy with pale cheeks.
3. The weather was wet and foggy.
4. The ugly old witch spoke in a hoarse cracked voice.
5. The lost ball was found near the wooden gate.
Adjectives

Comparison of Adjectives
Adjectives can have three degrees-. Positive, Com parative, Superlative.
The Positive is simply descriptive, describing a noun or pronoun, e.g. a short holiday;
beautiful hats; clever pupils; this is broken.
The Com parative is used in comparing some creature, thing or group with one other
(creature, thing or group), e.g. the taller of the two;tallerthan the rest; mice are smaller
than rats. If the positive is a short word the comparative is usually formed by adding -er
to
the positive, e.g. fast-er; great-er.

The Superlative is used in comparing some creature, thing or group with m ore than one
other, e.g. thetallest of the three; thewisest
of men. It is usually formed by adding to -est
the positive, if a short word. When one thing or creature is compared with more than one
other treated as a group, the comparative is used, e.g. Tom is taller
than the rest o f the
class.
Adjectives of three syllables or more and most adjectives of two syllables form their
comparative by placing more in front of the positive, and the superlative by placing most in
front.

Some adjectives have quite different words for the comparative and superlative.
Positive Com parative Superlative Positive Com parative Superlative
a) Small word in positive
big bigger biggest late later latest
fast faster fastest long longer longest
happy happier happiest small smaller smallest
great greater greatest tall taller tallest
clever cleverer cleverest narrow narrower narrowest
Different word for comparative and superlative
bad worse worst little less least
far farther farthest many more most
good better best much more most
Positive Com parative Superlative
c) Longer word in positive
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
careful more careful most careful
comfortable more comfortable most comfortable
ignorant more ignorant most ignorant
 Adjectives

Exercises

1. Give the comparatives and superlatives of:

many, hot, bad, famous, little.
2. Write the comparatives of:
fast, good, gracious, tall, beautiful.

3. Write the superlatives of:

thin, much, comfortable, handsome.
4. Complete the following table:
Positive Comparative Superlative
long longer longest

far

good

generous

late

cautious

5. State whether the following words are positive, comparative or superlative:

nearest, better, far, more certain, surest, larger, most wonderful, bad,
shorter, biggest.

6. Correct the following sentences:

a) James was the biggest of the twins.
b) A more kinder lady you could not meet.
c) The best team won the football match.
d) Fred was the most fast of all the runners.
e) Who is the tallest, Jack or Betty?
f) He proved to be the ignorantest person.
g) Of the two, I like George best.
h) A badder boy I have never known.
i) The sailor lifted the thinnest end of the rope,
j) The patient made the wonderfulest recovery.
V ______________________________ _________________________________ J
Adverbs
An Adverb is a word which modifies or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
Adverbs may be divided, according to their use, into the following classes:

a) Time - before, now, since, then, already, soon, seldom.

Example: We have met before.
b) Place - here, there, everywhere, nowhere.
Example: They came here yesterday.

c) M aimer - badly, easily, slowly, well.

Example: The tall boy won easily.

d) Degree - almost, much, only, quite, very, rather.

Example: The old lady walked very slowly

e) Number - once, twice.

Example: They ran tw ice round the park.

f) Questioning - where, when, how

Example: When did you see him?

g) Affirmation and Negation - yes, certainly, no, not.

Example: She can certainly swim.
I have n ot read the book.

(Many adverbs are often used as connecting words and therefore become conjunctions. You
will read about them on page 85.)
The majority of Adverbs are formed from corresponding Adjectives by adding “-ly”,
e.g. quickly, bravely, seriously, happily, clearly, slowly, quietly, angrily, fatally, suitably.

6n Adverbs
Underline the Adverbs in the following sentences:
1. Dinner will soon be ready.
2. There lay the object of our search.
3. The man walked slowly across the field.
4. The apples were quite good.
5. I once saw an eagle kill a rabbit.
6. Where did you find that knife?
7. He can certainly boast about his adventures.
8. The story ended happily.
J
 Adverbs

Comparison of Adverbs
Adverbs are compared in the same way as Adjectives. As most adverbs are two-syllable
words or longer they generally form the Comparative and Superlative by adding m ore and
m ost to the Positive.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Regular (i)
early earlier earliest
fast faster fastest
long longer longest
soon sooner soonest
Regular (ii)
bitterly more bitterly most bitterly
bravely more bravely most bravely
briefly more briefly most briefly
carefully more carefully most carefully
clearly more clearly most clearly
cruelly more cruelly most cruelly
easily more easily most easily
freely more freely most freely
greedily more greedily most greedily
happily more happily most happily
loudly more loudly most loudly
quickly more qu&ickly most quickly
slowly more slowly most slowly
willingly more willingly most willingly
Irregular
badly worse worst
far farther farthest
forth further furthest
ill worse worst
late later last
much more most
well better best
Adverbs

Some Common Verbs with Suitable Adverbs

Verbs Adverbs
acted quickly, suddenly, warily
answered correctly, immediately, angrily
ate greedily, hungrily, quickly, slowly
bled freely, profusely, slightly
bowed humbly, respectfully, stiffly
caressed fondly, gently, lovingly
charged bravely, desperately, furiously
chuckled artfully, gleefully, happily
crept quietly, silently, softly, stealthily
decided carefully, eventually, immediately
explained briefly, clearly, concisely
fell heavily, quickly, suddenly
flogged brutally, cruelly, unmercifully
fought bravely, furiously, gamely
frowned angrily, sulkily
injured accidentally, fatally, seriously, slightly
left hurriedly, quietly, suddenly
listened anxiously, attentively, carefully
lost badly, heavily, sportingly
mumbled angrily, inaudibly, indistinctly
pondered deeply, seriously, thoughtfully
pulled hastily, strongly, vigorously
ran hurriedly, quickly, rapidly, slowly
remembered clearly, distinctly, faintly, slightly
sang loudly, softly, sweetly, tunefully
shone brightly, brilliantly, clearly, dimly
shouted frantically, joyfully, jubilantly, loudly, suddenly
slept fitfully, lightly, soundly <
smiled broadly, happily, ruefully
sneered insolently, impudently, tauntingly
spent foolishly, freely, recklessly, sparingly
spoke clearly, distinctly, earnestly, loudly, plainly, slowly
sprang hurriedly, lightly, quickly, suddenly
staggered awkwardly, drunkenly, weakly
strove bravely, desperately, manfully
stuttered excitedly, haltingly, painfully
trembled fearfully, frightfully, visibly
waited patiently, anxiously
 Adverbs

Verbs Adverbs
walked clumsily, haltingly, quickly, slowly, smartly
wept bitterly, distractedly, sadly, touchingly
whispered audibly, quietly, softly
yielded stubbornly, weakly, willingly □

Exercises on Adverbs

1. In the spaces provided place the following adverbs:

heavily, furiously, silently, soundly, immediately, sparingly, broadly, patiently.
He charged _________ He decided _________
He slept _________ He crept _________
He spent _________ He fell _________
He smiled _________ He waited _________
2. Add any suitable adverb to the following sentences:
The girl sings _________ The clerk wrote _________
The lion roars _________ The river flows _________
The artist paints _________ The stars shine _________
The child sleeps _________ The horse gallops _________
The cat walks The man frowns
3. Give the comparatives and superlatives of:
soon, briefly, well, early, clearly.
4. Write the comparatives of:
long, badly, carefully, late, freely.
5. State the superlatives of:
fast, quickly, sick, easily, forth.
6. Complete the following table:
Positive Comparative Superlative
long

happily

late

willingly

ill

71
Word Building
Form Nouns from:

able civilise famous magic sad

absent clean favourite manly satisfy
abundant collect feed marry scene
accurate commence fierce merry school
acquaint compare fly mission scientific
act conclude fragrant mock secure
admire confident free moral see
adopt confuse friend mountain select
advertise content grand move serene
allow create great music serve
amuse credit grow occupy shade
angry cruel happy oppose sick
anxious curious hate persuade simple
appear dark hero please speak
applaud deceive high proclaim steal
apply decent holy profess stream
approve decide imagine prosper strike
arrive deep imitate proud strong
ascend defend inform prove succeed
assist depart injure provide superior
attend describe interfere punctual tell
attract destroy introduce punish think
bag develop invent pursue thrive
beautiful discover invite ready typical
beg divide judge real vain
begin do just rebel various
behave encourage know receive visit
believe enjoy laugh recognise war
bitter enter lazy relieve warm
boy equal learn remember weak
brave exceed like renew weary
breathe exhaust listen repeat weigh
bright expect live repent wide
cash explain long resent wise
child faithful lose reveal worthy
choose false loyal revive young
 Word Building

Form Adjectives from:

ability critic heat notice strength

accident cruelty height oak study
admire custom hero obey success
adventure danger hope occasion sun
affection deceive imagine oppose sympathy
angel decide industry ornament talk
anger describe inform parent terror
anxiety destroy introduce patience thirst
athlete disaster iron peace thought
attract distance Italy peril tide
autumn duty joy person tire
beauty energy law picture trouble
bible enjoy learn pity truth
boy exceed length please type
brass expression life poet union
breath faith love poison value
Britain fame luxury pride vanity
care fashion man prosper variety
caution father marvel quarrel victory
centre fault meddle rag voice
change favour melody reason volcano
charity fire mercy science Wales
child five metal sense war
choir fool mine shadow water
choose force mischief shower wave
circle forget mock silk weary
collect fortune mountain silver west
colony France mourn sister winter
comfort friend move skill' wisdom
conclude giant music sorrow wit
continent girl mystery south wood
courage gold nation spire wool
coward grace nature spirit worth
craft grief neglect star wretch
credit harm noise stop year
crime hate north storm youth
Word Building

Form Verbs from:

able courage frost long shelf

actor creator full magnet short
banishment critic glass moisture simple
bath custom glory nation soft
beauty dark gold obedience solution
blood deed grass peril song
bright description grief pleasure spark
broad dictation growth proof speech
camp education horror provision strong
circle false imitation pure success
circulation fat joy relief terror
civil fertile just resident thought
clean fine knee resolution tight
cloth food knowledge rich tomb
colony force large roll trial
composition friend life sharp wide

Form Adverbs from:

ability happy joy sweet true

critic heavy pure terror weary
faith horror simple thought wide

Compound Words
A word in its simplest form is called a Prim ary Word, e.g. table, board, egg. If we
combine two Primary Words to form one word we get a Compound Word,
e.g. tablecloth, blackboard, eggcup.

Form Compound Words from the following:

ache cup guard maid pot strong

ball day gun man room table
black door hat master safe tea
board dust heart mat school time
boot egg house milk servant tomb
cart fall jam mill shed tooth
church fire lace out shop thrift
cloth fly lamp _ Pick son water
coal foot life piece spend wife
craft gentle light pond stand witch
cry grand load post stone yard
 Word Building

Exercises on Word ! .. '-"r":?': 'V •

1. Make a noun corresponding to each of the following words:

a) please f) encourage
b) prove g) strong
c) know h) real
d) proud i) just
e) choose j) give

2. Give nouns formed from:

select, grow, bag, act, receive, invite, succeed, repent, divide.
3. By adding a suffix, form a noun from each of the following:
astonish, coward, critic, trick, assist, free, inform, loyal, invent, sick.
4 . Make an adjective corresponding to each of the following words:
Britain, heat, expense, anger, faith, height, fashion, boy, vanity, sense.

Give adjectives from:

a) decide f) mystery
b) bible g) voice
c) talk h) nation
d) circle i) winter
e) attract j) peril

Give a verb corresponding to each of the following words:

Example: Solution - solve.

a) knee f) tight
b) strong 8) grief
c) description h) large
d) gold i) glory
e) custom j) food

7. Give verbs from:

obedient, sweet, education, fat, life, composition, civil, tomb, bath, pure.
Word Building

8. Form adverbs from:

anger, tune, excitement, freedom, anxiety, frantic, worry, serious, fool, silence.

9. Complete the following compound words:

board milk grand
hat cup post
lamp cloth ball
tooth book stool
10. Complete the following table:
Adjective Noun Verb
long length lengthen

strong

broad

glad

able

wide

11. Make sentences, two for each word, using the following words
a) as nouns;
b) as adjectives:

brick, chief, diamond, garden, iron, light, music, sole, square, summer, young.

12. Write sentences, two for each word, using each of the following words first as a
noun and then as a verb:

brush, cycle, fire, heat, hope, notice, sail, saw, spring, step, turn, wave.
13. What part of speech is the word round in each of the following sentences?
a) It was a large round table. _________
b) The tourist played a round of golf. _________
c) The speaker turned round. _________
d) The boy ran quickly round the field. _________
e) The horses must round this corner. _________
v j
Concord
Concord means agreement or harmony. In grammar we apply this word as meaning
perfect agreement between subject and verb. This is shown by the subject and verb
having the same person and number.
1. When the subject is singular, the verb is singular, e.g.
a) He writes. b) She swims. c) The baby cries.
2. When the subject is plural, the verb is plural, e.g.
a) We write. b) They swim. c) The babies cry.

3. Expressions such as each of, one of, neither of,every one of, not one of and words
such as each, every, none, anybody, everybody and nobody must be followed by
verbs in the singular, e.g.
a) Each o f the boys has a toy.
b) One o f the ladies is married.
c) Neither of the brothers was present.
d) Is either of the sisters coming?
e) Every one o f us knows that it is wrong.
f) Not one o f the girls has a skipping rope.
g) Each man was searched.
h) Every child has a secret ambition.
i) Anybody is admitted to the caves.
j) Everybody was delighted at the close,
k) Nobody is displeased with the result.
1) None of the ships was lost.
4. A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by with or like or as well as is
followed by a singular verb, e.g.
a) The boy, with several others, was late for school.
b) Alice, like Rose, is tall for her age.
c) Tom, as well as Fred, rises early in the morning.
5. When a verb has two singular subjects connected by and the verb is
plural, e.g.
a) The cat and the dog were great friends.
b) The farmer and his wife are jolly people.
Concord

6. When a verb has one o r m ore plural subjects connected by and, the verb is plural,
e.g.
a) The officer and his men w ere crossing the field.
b) The boys and the girls are sure of their work.
7. Two singular subjects separated by ‘'either_________ or”, “neither__________nor”
take a singular verb, e.g.
a) Either one o r the other has blundered.
b) Either he or she is right.
c) Neither Grace n or Helen knows anything about it.
d) Neither he nor she w rites well.
8. Subjects separated by “either {plural) or”, “neither(plural) nor”, “b o th _________ and”,
also “all_________ but”, take a plural verb, e.g.
a) Either the boys or the girls are to blame.
b) N either the pirates n or the sailors w ere afraid of battle.
c) Both Hugh and Sam w ere standing.
d) All but James are going to the picnic.
e) All o f them but Grace are correct.

In each of the sentences below there are groups of two words within brackets. One
of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word:
1. Each of the boys (is, are) going on holiday so each of them (has, have) gone to bed
early
2. Everybody (was, were) pleased as each of them (was, were) treated alike.
3. Neither he nor she (want, wants) to go.
4. (Wasn’t, Weren’t) we sorry when we heard you (was, were) going?
5. One of the men (is, are) married and so he (get, gets) preference.
6. All but William (has, have) behaved well so all but William (get, gets) away early.
7. James, as well as John, (rise, rises) at eight, so James, like John, (is, are)
early for work.
8. Neither of the singers (was, were) present.
9. Every little girl (desire, desires) a nice doll.
10. The miller and his wife (is, are) a happy couple.
11. Why (does, do) every one of us (do, does) stupid things at times?
V _ ____________________________ J
 Concord

Exercises

12. Neither of them (has, have) failed as both of them (is, are) right infive sums.
13. The girl, with several others, (was, were) going to school.
14. Both Agnes and Albert (is, are) here tonight.
15. Either Fred or Jean (has, have) made a mistake, so either he or she (is, are) wrong.
16. Not one of the boys (has, have) a knife although not one of the boys (is, are)
young.
17. John, like James, (is, are) smaller than Peter.
18. (Is, Are) Frank and Margaret happy, as both he and she (was, were) complaining?
19. All of you but Andrew (is, are) good, so all of you but Andrew (get, gets) a reward.
20. Each of the ladies (is, are) delighted as each of the ladies (receive, receives) a prize.
21. Anybody (is, are) allowed to enter.
22. Every one of us (know, knows) the answers because every oneof us (was, were)
copying.
23. Nobody (is, are) grumpy at the camp because nobody (is, are) allowed to feel
lonely.
24. Arthur, as well as Donald, (is, are) clever, so Arthur, as well as Donald, (has, have)
succeeded.
25. The gentlemen and the ladies (was, were) wearing evening dress.
26. Either one or the other (is, are) wealthy as either one or the other (has, have)
plenty of money.
27. All of us but David (was, were) on holiday so all of us but David (is, are) feeling
relaxed.
28. (Wasn’t, Weren’t) they pleased when they heard we (was, were) coming?
29. Cecil, as well as Annie, (like, likes) spelling and Cecil, as well as Annie, (hate, hates)
arithmetic.
30. Either Flora or Richard (has, have) measles, so either she or he (is, are) in bed.
31. Why (do, does) every one of them do that, when every one of them (know, knows)
the arrangements?
V ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ J
Pronouns
There are Personal, Relative, Interrogative, D em onstrative and Indefinite Pronouns.
Pronouns stand for (pro-) nouns.
Personal Pronouns and some Relative and Interrogative Pronouns have a Nominative form
when they are the subject of a verb, an Objective form when they are the object of a verb
(or preposition) and a Possessive form. Personal pronouns also distinguish the First
Person (the person(s) speaking, i.e. I or we), the Second Person (the person(s) spoken
to, i.e. you) and the Third Person (the person(s) spoken about). So we have:

Personal Pronouns
Person Nominative Objective Possessive Reflexive (Possessive
Adjective)
First (Sing.) I me mine myself (my)
Second (Sing.) you you yours yourself (your)
Third (Sing.) he him his himself (his)
she her hers herself (her)
it it its itself (its)
First (Plur.) we us ours ourselves (our)
Second (Plur.) you you yours yourselves (your)
Third (Plur.) they them theirs themselves (their)

Note 1 The reflexive form is used in two ways, a) reflexive, b) intensive, e.g.
I have cut myself. He blames himself. (Reflexive.)
I myself was unaware of that. (Intensive, emphatic.)

Note 2 The reflexives do not have different forms for nominative, objective or possessive.
It is wrong to sayhisself theirselves.
or

Note 3 Apossessive adjective simply describes a noun, e.g. your pencil.

The possessive o f a pronoun stands for a noun, e.g.
This pencil is yours (i.e. your pencil ).
He’s a friend of ours (i.e. from among our friends).

Nominative and Objective forms - correct use.

The nom inative forms of pronouns must be used for subjects of verbs.
Ibought some apples. We
saw a large cave.
You will catch a cold. They
shouted with joy.
He caught a fish. She
sang a song.
 Pronouns

The objective forms must be used for objects of verbs or prepositions.

The play bored me. The children left us.
The animal stared at me. Go and run after them.
Special case - Com plem ent of the verb to be.
The verb to be
does not take an object. When we say “That is nonsense”, the word
nonsense is called the complement (or ‘completion’) of the verb is.
Itis I
who am the master of my fate I
( is the complement of is).
Itwas they, not we, who ran away (they, we
complements of was).
Mistakes are common when that is used for who , e.g.
It was them , not us, that ran away (wrong).

In the first sentence we could even have two mistakes:

me is
It is that the master of my fate(me, is,both wrong).

Exception: If someone asks “Who is there?” the answer “It is me" is now accepted in
practice, though “It is I” is the grammatically correct form.

Note It is not only the simple parts of the verb to be which have a complement, e.g.
It appears to be they
who are refusing.

Double Nominatives and Objectives

The above rules - nom inative for the subject (and for the complement of the verb to
be),objective for the object (of a verb or preposition) - apply also where there is more
than one subject or object, e.g. two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun.
Examples:
She and / can’t agree. It suits boththem us.
and
It’s youand / who lose. Between you me,
and he’s mad.

Errors:
It’s you and me who lose. Between you and I, he’s mad.
O ther Errors to Avoid
a) After as
and than.
(Wrong.) He is as tall as me. (Correct.) He is as tall as / (am).
(Wrong.) He is taller than me. I
(Correct.) He is taller than (am).
Note these sentences, however:
She likes you as much as j me. Both correct. Means “as much as
She likes you more than J me. } (more than) she likes ”.me
Both correct. Means “as much as
(more than) I like you”.
Pronouns

b) Spelling of its (pronoun) and it’s.

Its is the possessive of it (with no apostrophe), e.g. This class has forgotten
its manners.
It’s stands for it is (or it has). The apostrophe denotes omissions, e.g. It’s dry today, but
it’s been wet recently.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, what, that
) joins two parts of a sentence,
standing in one part for a noun or pronoun mentioned in the other part, and referring to
that noun or pronoun, which is called its antecedent, e.g.
Tom is a boy who learns fast. That’s a job o f which I’m proud.
She is a pupil whom I taught. This is the house that Jack built.
Was it he whose boat sank? What is to be, will be.

Sometimes a relative pronoun is omitted and has to be ‘understood’, e.g.

That’s a girl ^ I taught last year. The shop ^ I went to was shut.

Sometimes the pronoun includes its own antecedent, e.g.

Who steals my purse steals trash. (who = he, who ...)

What will be, will be. (what = that, which ...)
Who, whom refer only to persons (singular or plural):
who, the nominative, must be used only for the subject of a verb,
whom, the objective, must always be used for the object of a verb or preposition,
e.g. Is there anyone whom we can trust? It is wrong to say: Is there anyone who we
can trust?
Whose, that can refer to persons, animals or things, singular or plural.
Which is used to refer to animals and things (singular or plural) but not to persons.
Its possessive form is either whose or o f which.

What is seldom used as a relative pronoun, though it is common as an interrogative.

It is sometimes wrongly used instead of that, e.g.
This is the book what I lost (wrong).
This is the book that I lost (correct).
 Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns (who? whom? whose? which? what?) ask a question.
They refer to persons, animals and things just as when used as relative pronouns.
It is a common mistake to use who? (the nominative form) in sentences where whom? (the
objective) is required, e.g.
Who do you think I met? (wrong)
Whom do you think I met? (Whom is the object of met) (correct)
Note Who do you think you are? is correct. (Are is part of the verb to be, which does not
take an object.)

Demonstrative Pronouns
A Demonstrative Pronoun (this, that, these, those) ‘points out’ what it stands for, e.g.
This is intolerable. I like that. He is like that sometimes.
I prefer these to those. That’s better. Is it as serious as that?
Note 1 This and these, when opposed to that and those in a sentence, usually distinguish
what is nearer, more recent, or more recently mentioned, from what is more distant in
place or time, e.g.
That was nonsense: the truth is this...
Note 2 The words this, that, these, those are, of course, also used as (demonstrative)
adjectives, when they point out and describe a noun in a sentence, or one that
is understood, e.g.
This house is bigger than that (house).
That is the wrong door, (door is understood after that.)

Indefinite Pronouns
An Indefinite Pronoun stands for some person(s) or thing(s) unspecified, e.g.
Tell me more. You don’t know much. Both owned up.
Either will do. One must remember. None returned.
Take any of them. Give me a black one ; I dislike white ones.
Note 1 A singular indefinite pronoun should not be referred to as if it were a plural.
This is a very common error, e.g.
Everyone must pay their fair share (wrong).
Everyone must pay his fair share (correct).
Everyone must pay his or her fair share (correct).
Note 2 Another common error is to switch from the indefinite one to another pronoun,
e.g.
One must not miss his chance (wrong).
One must not miss one’s chance (correct).
Pronouns

■ Prcmttfis ' : n'& frtp& ftfoil

Complete these sentences using the correct word from each pair in brackets:

1. (He, Him) and (I, me) went for a walk.

2. It was (he, him) (who, whom) we saw in the shop.
3. No one believes it was (she, her); everyone thinks it was (I, me).
4. Between (he, him) and (I, me) we ate the whole cake.
5. (She, Her) and (I, me) can go, but you and (he, him) cannot.
6. Jack is not as clever as (he, him) or (I, me).
7. It seems to be (they, them) (who, whom) the police suspect.
8. (Her, She) and you sang very well together.
9. John is much brighter than (he, him) or (I, me).
10. This discovery must remain a secret between you and (I, me).
11. It’s not for (we, us) to run after (they, them).
12. It was (he, him) who knew the right answer.
13. (Who, Whom) are (they, them)?
14. (We, Us) lads were at the cinema at the same time as (they, them).
15. Between you and (I, me), I know all about Sue and (she, her).
16. He is almost as big as (I, me) but smaller than (she, her).
17. Her sisters are smaller than (we, us) but she is taller than (I, me).
18. You must choose between (they, them) and (we, us).
19. You and (I, we) could do it, but not you and (he, him).
20. It appears to be (she, her) about (who, whom) you should worry.
21. (She, Her) and (I, me) are twelve years of age.
22. Her cousin is younger than (she, her) or (I, me).
23. Was it (I, me) (who, whom) you saw there?
24. I spoke to (he, him) and (she, her) about (who, whom) to tell.
25. We are certain it was not (he, him) (who, whom) was to blame.
26. It is not (she, her) that I am angry with, but (he, him).
27. (He, Him) I can excuse, but not (they, them).
28. Was it (he, him) or (she, her) who found the purse?
29. (Who, Whom) do you think we met?
30. Anyone (who’s, whose) poor shouldn’t buy one of (them, these).
31. That’s not your pencil. (Its, It’s) (mine, mine’s).
32. Everyone (what, that) wants a ticket, must bring (their, his) money.
33. Neither he nor she (know, knows) what (they, he or she) (is, are) doing.
34. Let’s go, you and (I, me), and see (who’s, whose) (there, their).
35. (Who, Whom) were you speaking to?
Conjunctions
A Conjunction joins words, phrases or sentences together.
There are two main kinds of conjunction:
1. Conjunctions which join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value, e.g.
and, both ... and, but, for, whereas, either ... or, neither ... nor.
Exam ples:
a) The boy and the girl hurried home.
b) The dog was delighted with the bone and wagged his tail.
c) Both he and his wife went on holiday.
d) Both the driver and the man, who was hurt, were questioned.
e) He was poor but honest.
f) She could write well, but she could not do her sums.
g) I gave him the money, for he had earned it.
h) I am surprised at him for he should know better.
i) He worked hard, whereas I did very little.
j) He thought himself wealthy, w hereas he was poor,
k) Either my brother o r his chum knows the place.
1) Either my nephew goes with me or he stays at home,
m) N either James n or Mary wants to go.
n) Neither did he come nor did he send any excuse.

2. Conjunctions which join principal clauses to subordinate clauses.

(Included are many adverbs which act as connecting words and therefore become
conjunctions.) In order to distinguish the various types of conjunction in this class they
are grouped under the appropriate headings below:

Time
Conjunctions are:
after, before, since, until, till, when, whenever, while, now, that, as.

Exam ples:
a) After the lady opened the door she switched on the light.
b) The man ate a sandwich before he boarded the bus.
c) Since I have known her we have been firm friends.
Conjunctions

d) We will wait here until the next train arrives.

e) I cannot say definitely till I hear from him.
f) The boys were going to school when we saw them.
g) W henever it is possible we shall visit her.
h) While there is life there is hope.
0 Now that we have finished, let us go home.
D As I was on my way home, I fell.

Place
Conjunctions are:
whence, where, wherever, whither.

Exam ples:
a) He looked back w hence he had come.
b) Put it w here he cannot see it.
c) The brooch must be found w herever it is.
d) W hither thou goest, I will go.

Cause or Reason
Conjunctions are:
as, because, lest, since.

Exam ples:
a) As he was in a hurry I did not speak to him.
b) We know he was to blame because we saw the accident.
c) I was afraid lest he should fall.
d) Do not say anything since she is frightened.

Concession
Conjunctions are:

although, even if, though, whether ... or, while, as.

Exam ples:
a) Although I have written twice, he has not replied.
b) I would not go even if I were invited.
c) Though the boy had faults I could not but like him.
d) It is the truth w hether you believe it o r not.
e) While we should condemn vice, we should praise virtue.
f) He could not get the answer, clever as he was.
Condition
Conjunctions are:
except that, if, unless.
Exam ples:
a) Except that she is a trifle slow, she writes well.
b) Send me word if you wish to go.
c) That rascal will do nothing unless he is compelled.

Manner or Degree
Conjunctions are:
as, as ... as, as if, as though, so ... as, than.
Exam ples:
a) He remained at home as he had been ordered.
b) The house is vacant as far as we know.
c) He speaks as if he knows all about it.
d) The animal lay as though it were dead.
e) James does not read so well as Robert.
f) He is taller than I am.

Purpose
Conjunctions are:
in order that, lest, so that, that.
Exam ples:
a) They worked hard in order that they might finish in time.
b) Take care, lest you are hurt.
c) I sent him a letter so that he would know.
d) You come to school that you may learn.

Consequence
Conjunctions are:

so that, so .... that.

Exam ples:
a) The man spoke loudly so that he was easily heard.
b) She is so dull that she can learn nothing.
Conjunctions

Exercises >n Conlunctil

In the following exercises there are sentences with groups of two words within
brackets. One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct
word:
Time
1. Wait there (how, till) I have finished.
2. He left (before, that) darkness fell.
3. We have remained here (whether, since) you left.
4 . (After, Unless) they arrived, they sat down.
5. I can call (however, whenever) it is convenient to you.
6. The exercise will be corrected (before, when) it is finished.
7. His brother waited (except, until) James returned.
8. She read a book (that, while) I wrote a letter.
9. (Now that, Unless) the weather has changed the farmers can expect
good crops.
10. (Until, As) he went up the stairs, he stumbled.

Place
1. He went (whence, unless) he could not return.
2. The faithful dog followed his master (lest, wherever) he went.
3. There were many trees (since, where) I sat down.
4 . They followed (whither, than) he led them.
Cause or Reason
1. (As, Where) we left early, we did not see him.
2. I was afraid to speak (lest, however) he should tell.
3. You ask him, (since, than) you are friends.
4 . My uncle was angry (where, because) he was deceived.
Concession
1. The boy is strong and healthy (though, since) he is not tall.
2. (While, Unless) I trust him, I dislike his companions.
3. We will go (how, even if) it rains.
4 . (Whether, Where) you like it or not, he will invite you.
5. My cold is much worse (although, whence) I have tried to cure it.
 Conjunctions

Exercises on Conjunctions continued

Condition
1. (Except that, Unless) he is sometimes nervous, he manages quite well.
2. She will go (than, if) you ask her.
3. You cannot obtain admission (unless, since) you pay.
Manner o r Degree
1. You are quite right (while, as far as) I can see.
2. The dog lifted his paw (as though, how) he understood me.
3. She is older (than, since) I am.
4. They did not play (while, so well as) their opponents.
5. The man looked (when, as if) he was a foreigner.
6. I cannot work (as, whence) he can.
Purpose
1. The man put on the light (so that, since) he could read.
2. (In order that, When) they might be in time, they left early.
3. The boy ran quickly (why, lest) he should be left behind.
4. You should go (that, how) you may be cured.
Consquence
1. The dog ran so fast (that, while) he caught the hare.
2. He ran quickly (when, so that) he was in time for tea.

89
Prepositions
The Preposition is placed before (pre) a noun or a pronoun. It defines a relationship to
the noun or pronoun.
The following list contains the most common prepositions:
about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at,
before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, betwixt, beyond, by, down, during,
except, for, from, in, into, near, of, off, on, over, round, since, through, till, to, towards,
under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

Exercises

1. Use the correct prepositions in the blank spaces:

a) The boy must apologise_________ the lady
b) That man is an authority_________ flowers.
c) The mother was proud_________ her son’s success.
d) He placed the b a t__________ the wall.
e) My cousin put the book ________ the drawer.
f) It is an exception_________ the rule.
8) His opinion differs mine.
h) The man ran the path.
0 She takes great pride her appearance.
j) The ball went the window.

2. Supply three suitable prepositions in each sentence:

a) The pencil lay the desk.

b) The man rowed the river.

c) The lady sat the chairman.

.
3 Underline the prepositions in the following sentences:
a) I stood on the bridge of the ship.
b) Above me, I saw a cloudy sky.
c) The dog leaped over the wall after a ball.
d) We chased him through a field of hay.
e) With that ticket you can obtain admission to the show.
f) My brother received a letter from him.
 g) The farmer stored his hay in a large barn.
h) Beside the boxes lay several boulders.
i) The careless boy ran behind the car.
j) During the year many people were injured in street accidents.
V_____________________________________ _____________________________________ J

Many people find it difficult to choose the correct prepositions. The following
should be read carefully and revised from time to time:
according to good for
afflict with guilty of
agree to (something) in defiance of
agree with (somebody) indignant at (something)
aim at indignant with (somebody)
angry at (something) inspired by
angry with (somebody) interfere with
ashamed of invasion of
blame for meddle with
change for (something) mount an attack on
change with (somebody) opposite to
comment on part from (somebody)
compared with part with (something)
complain of prevail on
confer with protest against
conscious of pursuit of
despair of recoil from
die of regard for
differ from (opinion) rely on
differ with (somebody) similar to
disagree with suffer from
disappointed in (something) tired of (something)
disappointed with (somebody) tired with (action)
disgusted at (something) thirst for (or after)
disgusted with (somebody) vexed at (something)
dislike for vexed with (somebody)
divide among (many) victim of
divide between (two) wait for (person, thing)
equal to wait upon (somebody)
filled with write about (something)
full of write to (somebody)
Correction of Sentences
There are errors in the following sentences. Rewrite them correctly.

1. She was the oldest of the two sisters.

2. Who did you see at the party?
3. Neither John or James were present.
4. She is not as old as me.
5. The best team won the football match.
6. The books what we read were interesting.
7. Being a fine day I went to the seashore.
8. Who can it be for?
9- He was angry at me for leaving.
10. I am your’s truly.
11. I cannot run no farther.
12. John has broke his leg.
13. Hurrah shouted the man.
14. The letter was sent to Mr Jane Brown.
15. The parcel was returned back to the sender.
16. I left home at quarter to 7.
17. The girl said that she done it herself.
18. He returned home as quick as he could.
19. I have forgot to post the letter.
20. “Where is my Boots?”
21. She hurted her leg.
22. She got a bad accident.
23. There is four books on the table.
24. He went for to get up.
25. The lady bought a comb for the baby with plastic teeth.
26. Between you and I, he is quite wrong.
27. They sung the same song twice.
28. This jacket is wore out.
29. It’s no use me working.
30. I intended to have written.
31. I was that tired I could hardly of spoken.
32. The fishermen saw a flock of herring in the sea.
33. Immediately he ran to the injured man.
34. Between you and me we seen many people.
35. I saw a dog with his master which had a long tail.
36. We found the ring belonging to the lady made of gold.
37. A piano was sold to a lady with carved legs.
38. We seen the rascal who stole were ball.
39. There is five books on the table.
40. A man was at the corner and his dog.
41. She and her husband apa going.
42. His hair needs cutting badly.
43. Neither of them are tall.
44.' Someone’s left their books behind.
45. Him and his sister went to the cinema.
46. Me and my friend went to buy a coat for ourselves.
47. It was him you saw.
48. They have did it again.
49. She could not come no quicker.
50. We have never seen none of them.
51. He couldn’t remember nothing.
52. He done his work correctly
53. Is he the tallest of the two?
54. Each of the boys had their books.
55. It was me that broke the window.
56. Which is the cleverest, John or Mary?
57. A more kinder man never lived.
58. I was that breathless I could hardly speak.
59. The animal did not take no notice.
60. Neither of them have been lucky.
61. Me and him went together to the cinema.
62. He took the biggest half.
63» It was a remarkable fine picture.
64. He is worse than me.
65. I seen him go to the theatre.
66. One of the horses were tired.
67. Of the two, I like James best.
68. Give me them oranges.
69. He don’t speak very clear.
70. We are quite sure he done it.
71. She sent it to you and I.
72* The man learnt him to swim.
73. That answer is different with mine.
74. Neither one or the other is right.
75. She will not stay, I do not think.
76. The lady sings quite nice.
77. He did not except the gift.
78. To who "does this belong?
79- The child rose up from the floor.
80. The two brothers divided the apple among them.
The Right Word in the Right Place
1. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to their use:

closed, finished, stopped, completed, concluded, ended.

a) His watch__________ at six o ’clock.
b) I remember how the story_________ .
c) I have_________ my lessons.
d) They have_________ the alterations.
e) The meeting_________ with the National Anthem.
f) Having enough money, they_________ the fund.
2. Explain the difference between:
learning - teaching, looking - staring, mumbling - bawling,
striding - galloping, taking - snatching, tapping - battering,
throwing - hurling, writing - scribbling.

3. Use the following words (instead of “nice”) to describe:

agreeable, beautiful, convenient, delicious, enjoyable, fine, good, interesting,

pleasant, pretty.

a garden a bonnet
a cake a walk
a house an man
a day a train
an concert an book

Place the following words in the sentences best suited to them:

frowned, mumbled, sang, chuckled, bowed, whispered, listened, smiled.

He tunefully. He gleefully.
He angrily. He broadly.
He humbly. He attentively.
He indistinctly. He softly.
5. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to their use:

exclaimed, muttered, answered, said, shouted, explained, whispered, pleaded.

H e_________ that he would come. H e __________ with joy.
H e _________ why he was late. “Look!” h e __________.
H e_________ for mercy. H e _________ under his breath.
H e _________ quietly to his “That is so,”h e __________.
neighbour.
 The Right Word in the Right Place

6. Place the following words in the sentences best suited to them:

caressed, ate, pulled, charged, slept, bled, crept, strove.
H e_________ furiously. H e___________ greedily.
H e_________ profusely. H e___________ soundly.
H e_________ vigorously.He _ _ _ _ _ _ manfully.
H e_________ fondly. H e __________ stealthily.
7. Always avoid use of the word “got”. There is usually another word which can be
used to better effect.

Substitute a better word in each of the following sentences:

a) He got up at eight o’clock.
b) He got a penny from his mother.
c) He got his breakfast early.
d) He got a bad cold yesterday.
e) He got to the station in time.
f) He got married last year.
8. Write in the most suitable word:
a) A man who digs for coal is a _________ .
b) I switched on th e _________ light.
c) T h e_________ holiday is in December.
d) They sang a Christmas_________ .
e) He was so ill _ _ _ _ _ _ he went to bed.
f) The postman_________ the letters.
g) He avoided accidents because he drove very_________ .
9- Place the right words (from who, whom, whose, which) in the following
sentences:
a) That is the boy broke the window.
b) That is the stone broke the window.
c) That is the man window was broken.
d) That is the boy I saw breaking the window.
e) That is the boy told me that he broke the window.
Words ending in “-able”:
a) A piece of furniture. f) A telegram from overseas.
b) A horse’s home. g) Helpless.
c) Written by /Esop. h) Land under cultivation.
d) Can be carried. i) A carrot.
e) Diamonds are. j) Glass things are.
The Right Word in the Right Place

11. Give a single word for each of the following:

a) go away, b) go back, c) go down, d) go forward,

e) go into, f) go on hands and knees, g) go out of, h) go quickly,
i) go slowly, j) go up.
12. Place the right words (from no, not, never, none, any) in the following sentences:

a) Did you notice_________ friends there?

b) ______ have I seen such a display.
c) We have_________ received_______ __ of the books.
d) _________ thank you, I __________ smoke.
e) We are_________ going there__________more.
f) _________ of the boys knew the answer.
g) _________ , he is _________ well enough to e a t__________cakes.
h) Have you_________ marbles?__________, I have_________ .
13. From the following lengths choose the correct one for each sentence:

two millimetres; fifteen centimetres; thirty centimetres; one hundred and eighty
centimetres; four metres; seventy metres; six hundred and forty-three kilometres;
four thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven kilometres.

a) The soldier was_________ tall.

b) My exercise book is _________ wide.
c) The height of the factory chimney was_________ .
d) The distance from London to Glasgow is about_________ .
e) The string on the parcel was____________ thick.
f) The distance from Southampton to New York is about__________.
g) The room was_________ high.
h) My ruler is _________ long.
14. Explain the difference between:

yacht - steamer, car - aeroplane, river - canal,

pen - pencil, shoes - boots, chair - sofa,
pin - needle, ham - bacon, shadow - reflection,
clock - watch, saltfish - cod, hay - straw,
cigar - cheroot, picture - sketch, map - plan,
ceiling - roof.
 The Right Word in the Right Place

15. There are a great many words to describe different ways of walking. For example: A
hunter walked over the hills. A better word here would be roved or roam ed.
In the sentences below replace the word walked by a more suitable word from the
following list. Any word once used may not be used again, so be careful and w atch
your step:

limped, strode, sneaked, toddled, paced, rambled, tramped, shuffled, plodded,

strutted, strolled, stamped, hobbled, marched, sauntered, prowled.
a) The nature lover walked through the woods.
b) The lame man walked across the floor.
c) The happy couple walked down the lane.
d) The daring knight walked into the hall.
e) The tourist walked through the art gallery.
f) The soldiers walked to the station.
g) Captain Smith walked up and down the deck.
h) The cunning thief walked into the room.
i) The baby walked across the floor.
j) Proud Mr Brown walked on to the platform,
k) The weary farmer walked homewards.
1) A gouty old man walked down the stairs,
m) The hikers walked many a long mile,
n) The angry man walked into his office.
0) The burglar walked through the house,
p) The sick patient walked over to the table.

16. The following may be said to be the right action at the right tim e. Tell what
immediate action you would take and suggest a cure (if necessary). What would
you do?
a) If you burned your foot.
b) If you lost your way.
c) If you sprained your ankle.
d) If your nose started to bleed.
e) If you noticed an escape of gas in the house.
f) If your sister’s dress caught fire.
g) If you found a wallet in the street.
h) If your brother’s hand was cut.
1) If you saw smoke coming from a closed shop,
j) If your cousin was stung in the arm.
 Addition of Clauses
Add a clause to the following and name the kind of clause you add:

1. I saw the lady

2. The little boy said
3. The gid ran quickly
4. when they reached home.
5. I noticed when he rose to speak.
6. We stood on the very spot
7. if you cannot swim.
8. The dog barked loudly
9. The lady was my sister.
10. “Will you let me know ?”
11. The dog saved the child.
12. We saw the train
13. I hope
14. while they listened.
15. The boy hurt himself badly
16. The man was caught by the police.
17. I saw
18. She bought an umbrella
19. as she spoke.
20. The messenger arrived
21. I watched the man
22. I do not know
23. As the girl approached the house
24. We saw when we returned.
25. if you are ill.
26. “Come to my house
27. I know the child
28. When I came here
29. which cost two pence.
30. My father scolded me
31. The crowd rushed forward
32. The soldiers were trapped in the wood.
33. The unhappy scholar said
34. if you do not send word.
35. The boy lifted the box
36. The man waved frantically

£§J
Replacement
Change the underlined phrases into clauses:
1. He failed through carelessness.
2. On the completion of his task the boy went out to play.
3. He told me of his coming.
4. A man in high position has many responsibilities.
5. She lived in a cottage near the sea.
6. On entering I saw several pictures.
7. The police recovered the stolen property.
8. I was pleased to hear of his success.
9- We do not know his hiding place.
10. The roads leading to the fair were crowded.
Change the underlined clauses into phrases:

1. I am convinced that he is sincere.

2. The child was in bed before the sun had set.
3. His action showed how brave he was.
4. I am certain that you will help me.
5. As I approached I heard a great noise.
6. He met me when I arrived.
7. The man admitted that he was wrong.
8. The girl was absent because she was ill.
9- You cannot succeed unless you work hard.
10. The witness described where the accident took place.
Replace the words underlined by a single word:
1. He wished to see him at once.
2. The concert was put off for a month.
3. The sentry ran away from his post.
4. The concert is held once every year.
5- The army went forward towards the town.
6. The man was sorry for his hasty words.
7. The sun went out of sight behind the clouds.
8. The people who live next door are very kind.
9. They made up their minds to go to the party.
10. That boy is always in time.
Sentences
Simple to Complex
Make each pair of simple sentences into one complex sentence and retain the meaning
as far as possible.
(Do not use “and” or “but” or “so”.)

1. a) I have a dog. b) I am very fond of it.

2. a) That is the man. b) He stole my purse.
3. a) I was travelling in a bus. b) It collided with a taxi.
4. a) The boy did not pass. b) His work was badly done.
5. a) I was gazing out of the window. b) I saw a crowd.
6. a) The boy was riding a horse. b) It looked tired.
7. a) The man could hardly walk. b) He carried such a heavy load.
8. a) The book belongs to Jack. b) It is a red one.
9. a) The girl went for the doctor. b) The doctor stayed next door.
10. a) The house was destroyed. b) It was built by Tom’s father.
11. a) He works hard at his lessons. b) He wishes to succeed.
12. a) The men were walking quickly b) The men saw me.
13. a) He heard the sound of music. b) He was passing a church.
14. a) The lady lost the book. b) She was going to the library
15. a) The man stood at the door. b) The door was open.
16. a) The boy caught a rabbit. b) He took it home.
17. a) The girl fell heavily. b) The girl hurt herself.
18. a) He opened the cupboard. b) He saw many books.
19. a) The lady was careless. b) She lost her purse.
20. a) Mary entered the room. b) The room was brightly decorated.
21. a) A loud peal of thunder came. b) The children were frightened.
22. a) Tom made mistakes in reading. b) He could not see well.
23. a) The teacher praised the boys. b) They had worked well.
24. a) The horse fell. b) It was pulling a heavy load.
25. a) The man caught a salmon. b) He took it home.
 Sentences

26. a) The boy has hurt his foot. b) The boy cannot walk.
27. a) The lady sat in a coach. b) Four horses drew it.
28. a) The tourist climbed the hill. b) The hill was steep.
29. a) My sister has a good voice. b) She sings in the choir.
30. a) The girl found a brooch. b) She took it to her mother.
31. a) I found a lady’s purse. b) It contained two coins.
32. a) The girl wore a red dress. b) She sat next to me.
33. a) I visited the little cottage. b) I was born in it.
34. a) The woman was selling flowers. b) She stood at the corner of the street.
35. a) I went to see my cousin. b) His home was in the country.
36. a) The man was poorly clad. b) I gave him money.

Complex to Simple
Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences and retain the meaning
as far as possible:
1. He is a man who is very intelligent.
2. We heard the news that he was saved.
3. I can tell you how old he is.
4. The woman lives in a house which is very big.
5. Maria spoke to the soldier who was wounded.
6. The boy lost his ticket because he was careless.
7. I shall speak to him when he arrives.
8. The child found a ring which was very valuable.
9. He asked me where I lived.
10. Can you tell me which way the wind is blowing?
11. I saw him when the clock struck five.
12. We all believed the story that the traveller told.
13. Huge telescopes are used by people who study the stars.
14. As soon as the sun rose the soldiers resumed their march.
15. He asked for the book in which one finds the meanings of words.
16. I admit that I have made a mistake.
Alphabetical Order
The Alphabet (twenty-six letters)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y 2

Practically all books containing lists have the words arranged in the order of the
letters of the alphabet:

1. By the first letters of the words.

2. When the first letters are the same, the words are arranged according to the
second letters.
3. When the first two letters are the same, the words are arranged according to the third
letters.
And so on.

Examples:

1. By the first letter:

anchor, bicycle, height, machine, physical, seized, vehicle, yacht.

2. When the first letters are the same:

absence, accurate, aeroplane, ancient, attention, autumn, awkward.
3. When the first two letters are the same:
thatch, their, thimble, though, through, thumb, thyme.

on AT habetical. ■der
1. Place the following words in alphabetical order:

vegetable, official, judgement, colonel, extremely, necessary, language, immediately.

2. Rearrange the following words in dictionary order:

beginning, brooch, biscuit, business, byre, bough, balance, blossom.

3. Place the following words in alphabetical order:

complaint, cocoa, correct, coffee, condition, coarse, collection, course.

4. Rearrange the following words in dictionary order:

dismissed, disguise, displayed, disaster, district, discovery, disobeyed, disease.

J
Apostrophes
The Possessive Case of a Noun is shown by a mark (’) known as an apostrophe.
In Singular nouns it is shown b y ’s, e.g. Mary’s bag, the animal’s foot, Keats’s poems,
Burns’s songs. Exception-,it may however be shown by the apostrophe only (’) to avoid
awkward-sounding double or treble s endings, e.g. Moses’ anger, Jesus’ words,
Aristophanes’ comedies.
In the Plural it is shown in two ways:

a) By the apostrophe only (’) when the plural ends in -s or -es, e.g. the boys’ books, the
ladies’ coats.
b) By the apostrophe and s (’s) when the plural does not end in s, e.g. the children’s
toys, the men’s hats.
Singular Possessive Plural Possessive
the girl’s dress the girls’ dresses
the lady’s bag the ladies’ bags
the boy’s pencil the boys’ pencils
a day’s "work seven days’ work
the man’s pipe the men’s pipes
the woman’s glove the women’s gloves
the child’s clothes the children’s clothes

Exercises

Correct the following sentences by putting in the apostrophes:

1. The boys pencil lay on the floor.
2. The ladies coats were in the cloakroom.
3. My cousins hand was badly hurt.
4. The mens boots were covered with mud.
5. The childs doll fell into the pond.
6. I saw that the object was a womans glove.
7. The register lay on the teachers desk.
8. He looked very smart in page-boys uniform.
9. It took several hours hard work to repair the damage.
10. In the window was a special display of babies clothes.
11. The childrens books were left in my uncles house.
12. The maids dress was torn by a neighbours dog.
13. My fathers wallet was discovered in the thieves den.
14. A ducks egg is generally cheaper than a hens.
15. Mr Smiths watch is five minutes slower than Mr Browns.
Apostrophes

The Apostrophe as a Contraction

When the apostrophe is used to contract words it is placed where the letters have
been omitted, e.g.

all’s all is o ’clock of the clock

can’t cannot o’er over
couldn’t could not shan’t shall not
’cross across she’ll she will
didn’t did not shouldn’t should not
doesn’t does not that’s that is
don’t do not there’s there is
hasn’t has not they’ll they will
haven’t have not we’ll we will
he’d he would we’ve we have
he’ll he will whate’er whatever
he’s he is where’er wherever
I’ll I will whosoe’er whosoever
I’d I would who’ve who have
I’m I am won’t will not
isn’t is not wouldn’t would not
it’s it is you’ll you will
I’ve I have you’re you are

1. Insert the apostrophe where it should be:

tis, neednt, youll, Halloween, souwester, Ive, twas, neer, oclock, dont.

2. Write the following sentence making use of the apostrophe as a contraction:

We will probably arrive at seven of the clock if there is a convenient bus.
Capital Letters
Capital letters are used:
1. to begin sentences
2. to begin special names
3. to begin direct speech
4. to begin words in titles
5. to begin lines of poetry
6. to begin words of exclamation
7. to begin words He, Him, His, if they refer to God or Christ
8. to write the word “I”.
1. Beginning Sentences
One day a girl was playing on a busy street. Her ball rolled into the middle of the
road and she ran after it. At that moment a car came dashing round the corner. A
passer-by saw the girl’s danger and ran quickly to her aid. Fortunately he saved her
from serious injury.
2. Special Names
Jean Miller and her brother David are expected to arrive by Concorde from New York
on Tuesday, November 30th, St Andrew’s Day.
3. D irect Speech
A man said to his friends, “If you manage to solve the puzzle, send me the answer.”
His companions replied, “We will send you our solution before the end of the week.”
4. Titles
The famous collection of Indian animal stories called The Jungle Book was written by
Rudyard Kipling.

5. Lines o f Poetry
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o’er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils,
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
6. Exclam ation
“Oh!” shouted the boy, “I have hurt my finger.” “Indeed!” exclaimed his father, “You
are lucky to get off so lightly.”
Capital Letters

7. Reference to God o r Christ

After Jesus had preached to the multitude He proceeded on His way to Jerusalem.

8. The Pronoun “I”

He advised me to travel by bus but I told him that I preferred to travel by rail.

Punctuation
By correct punctuation we mean the proper use of:
capital letters, comma (,), full stop or period (.), quotation marks (“ ”),
exclamation mark (!), question mark (?) and apostrophe (’).

Punctuate the following sentences:

1. What time is it asked the traveller

2. His father said where is your brothers knife
3. My friend exclaimed what a lovely view
4. He has gone to school said his sister in a quiet voice
5. The child suddenly shouted look
6. Oh cried the boy i have hurt my finger
7. Come here said his mother all right replied the boy
8. The man asked have you seen the hammer yes replied his companion it is on the table
9. A boy said to his friend are you going to the cinema no replied the other im on my way
home
10. When i return said the girl to her father will you tell me the story of the shipwreck very
well he answered but dont be too long at your aunts

Diminutives
booklet cygnet cigarette laddie chicken
bracelet eaglet epaulette lassie kitten
goblet islet kitchenette bullock maiden
leaflet leveret pipette hillock cubicle
ringlet locket rosette damsel icicle
rivulet owlet statuette morsel particle
baronet pocket duckling satchel lambkin
circlet darling nestling gosling mannikin
sapling seedling dearie globule napkin
coronet briquette girlie molecule piglet
Small Quantities
air •a breath, puff, whiff paper •a scrap
bread •a crumb, crust, morsel rain ■a drop, spot
butter •a pat, nut salt •a grain, pinch
colour •a dab, tint, touch sand ■a grain, particle
corn •an ear smoke •a wisp
dirt •a particle, speck, spot snuff ■a pinch
energy •an ounce soot •a smut, speck
flowers ■a nosegay, posy straw •a wisp
food •a morsel, particle, scrap sugar •a grain, spoonful
glass •a splinter, fragment tea •a pinch, spoonful
grass •a blade, tuft time •a moment, second
hair •a lock, strand water •a drop, sip
light •a beam, glimmer, ray wind •a puff, whiff
liquid •a drop, sip wood •a chip, splinter

For Reference
To Find Look at
1. the address of a person directory
2. the meaning of a word dictionary
3. the day and date of the month calendar
4. the position of a place atlas
5. a list of priced goods or books catalogue
6. a telephone number telephone directory
7. the time of a train or bus timetable
8. record of a ship’s progress at sea log
9. record of attendance register
10. record of personal daily events diary
11. collection of photos and autographs album
12. extracts from books and papers scrapbook
13. record of recent happenings newspaper
14. facts regarding days of the year almanac
15- a fictitious tale novel
16. a life story biography
17. material regarding living creatures book on zoology
18. material regarding plants book on botany
19. material regarding the stars book on astronomy
20. material regarding the Earth’s crust book on geology
Proverbs
Proverbs are popular sayings expressed in a clever, brief manner.

1. A bad workman always blames his tools.

2. Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
4. A cat may look at a king.
5. A drowning man will clutch at a straw.
6. A fool and his money are soon parted.
7. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
8. A hungry man is an angry man.
9. All’s well that ends well.
10. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
11. A miss is as good as a mile.
12. A penny saved is a penny gained.
13. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
14. A stitch in time saves nine.
15. As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb.
16. A small leak will sink a great ship.
17. As the twig is bent so the tree’s inclined.
18. As you make your bed so must you lie in it.
19. Better late than never.
20. Birds of a feather flock together.
21. Charity begins at home.
22. Cut your coat according to your cloth.
23. Discretion is the better part of valour.
24. Don’t carry all your eggs in one basket.
25. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.
26. Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
27. Empty vessels make most noise.
28. Enough is as good as a feast.
29. Every cloud has a silver lining.
30. Every dog has its day.
31. Faint heart never won fair lady.
32. Fair exchange is no robbery.
33. Fine feathers make fine birds.
3 4. Fine words butter no parsnips.
35. Fire is a good servant but a bad master.
36. First come, first served.
37. Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest.
38. Good wine needs no bush.
39- Great minds think alike.
40. Great oaks from little acorns grow.
41. Habit is second nature.
42. Half a loaf is better than no bread.
43. He laughs best who laughs last.
44. He who pays the piper calls the tune.
45. Hunger is the best sauce.
46. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
47. In for a penny, in for a pound.
48. It’s a long lane that has no turning.
49. It’s an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
50. Laugh and grow fat.
51. Least said, soonest mended.
52. Leave well alone.
53. Let not the pot call the kettle black.
54. Let sleeping dogs lie.
55. Listeners hear no good of themselves.
56. Children should be seen and not heard.
57. Look after the pence, and the pounds will look after themselves.
58. Look before you leap.
59. Love laughs at locksmiths.
60. Make hay while the sun shines.
61. Misery makes strange bedfellows.
62. More haste, less speed.
63. Necessity is the mother of invention.
64. New brooms sweep clean.
65. None but the brave deserve the fair.
66. None so deaf as those who will not hear.
67. No news is good news.
68. No smoke without fire.
69. Once bitten twice shy.
70. One good turn deserves another.
Proverbs

71. One man’s meat is another man’s poison.

72. One swallow does not make a summer.
73. Out of sight, out of mind.
74. Out of the frying pan into the fire.
75. Penny wise, pound foolish.
76. Pride goes before a fall.
77. Robbing Peter to pay Paul.
78. Sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.
79. Set a thief to catch a thief.
80. Silence gives consent.
81. Spare the rod and spoil the child.
82. Speech is silvern, silence is golden.
83. Still waters run deep.
84. The early bird catches the worm.
8 5. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
8 6. Truth will out.
8 7. Two heads are better than one.
88. Unity is strength.
89. We never miss the water till the well runs dry.
90. Where there’s a will there’s a way.
91. When the cat’s away the mice will play.
Colloquialisms
Colloquialisms are expressions used in common conversation.

the apple of one’s eye ................. ............... somebody specially dear

armed to the teeth ....................... ............... completely armed
a wet blanket.................................. ............... a discouraging person
dead b e a t........................................ ............... exhausted
in the same b o at............................ ............... in the same circumstances
carried away .................................. ............... highly excited
a chip off the old block ............... ............... very like one’s father or mother
under a clou d ................................ ............... in trouble or disfavour
down in the mouth ...................... ............... in low spirits
down on one’s luck ..................... ............... in ill-luck
all ears ............................................. ............... paying close attention
at a loose e n d ................................ ............... having nothing to do
off form ........................................... ............... not so capable as usual
good'for nothing .......................... ............... useless
a son of a g u n ................................ ............... a likeable rogue
hard of hearing ............................. ............... almost deaf
hard up ........................................... ............... short of money
hard hit ........................................... ............... seriously troubled
ill-used............................................. ............... badly treated
lion-hearted................................... ............... of great courage
at loggerheads ............................... ............... quarrelling
the man in the street .................. ............... an ordinary man
up to the mark ............................. ............... good enough, well enough
an old salt ...................................... ............... an experienced sailor
a peppery individual .............. ............... a cranky, hot-tempered person
a pocket Hercules ......................... ............... a small but strong man
at r e s t .............................................. ............... dead
a rough diamond .......................... ............... a person of real worth but rough manners
silver-tongued................................ ............... plausible and eloquent
golden-voiced................................ ............... pleasing to hear
out of so rts..................................... ............... not well
on the level ................................... ............... honest
stuck up ......................................... ............... conceited
thick in the head .......................... ............... stupid
beside oneself ............................... .............. out of one’s mind (with anger, grief)
heavy-eyed ..................................... ............... sleepy
General Colloquial Expressions
to to
weigh anchor ............................... lift the anchor
keep up appearances ................. maintain an outward show
have a bee in one’s bonn et........ be obsessed with an idea
put one’s best foot forward ...... do best possible
sweep the board.......................... take all
make no bones about it ............ be plain and outspoken
burn the candle at both ends ... overdo work and play
have one’s heart in one’s boots . be very despondent
have one’s heart in one’s mouth be frightened
bury the hatchet.......................... make peace
make a clean breast o f ................ confess
have a feather in one’s c a p ........ have something to be proud of
set one’s cap at ............................ try to captivate
throw in the cards....................... give up the struggle
throw in the towel ...................... give up the struggle
cast u p ............................................ reproach
show a clean pair of heels ......... escape by running
pull up sh o rt................................. stop suddenly
wait till the clouds roll b y ........... await more favourable circumstances
turn one’s coat ............................ change one’s principles or allegiance
give the cold shoulder................ show indifference or ignore
throw cold water on ................... discourage
cut a dash ..................................... be very showy
lead a dance.................................. delude
lead up the garden path ............ deceive by hiding real intention
keep a thing dark......................... hide something
keep one’s distance .................... stay aloof
lead a dog’s life ............................ have a wretched life
draw the lin e ................................. fix the limit
keep one’s powder dry .............. be ready or prepared
pull wool over the eyes .............. deceive
make both ends m ee t................. manage financially
face the music .............................. meet the worst
sit on the fence ............................ avoid taking sides
 General Colloquial Expressions

to to
put one’s foot in it .................. ......... ........... cause embarrassment by word or action
fall foul of ........................................... ........... come up against
get into hot water .......................... ........... get into trouble
take French leave............................... ........... go without permission
play the gam e..................................... ........... act fairly
hit below the belt ............................. ........... act unfairly
hold one’s tongue............................. ........... keep silent
blow one’s own trumpet ................. ........... boast
hit the nail on the head ......... .......... ........... be right
bite the dust ....................................... ........... fall to the ground, be defeated
kick over the traces .......................... ........... throw off control
knock on the head ............................ ........... stop suddenly
turn over a new le a f.......................... ........... conduct oneself better
pull someone’s leg ............................ ........... hoax
tell it to the Marines ......................... ........... “no one believes that”
go through the mill .......................... ........... undergo suffering
put the cart before the horse ......... ........... start at the wrong end
make the mouth water .................... ........... cause to desire
sling m ud............................................. ...... .. slander
nip in the bud ................................... ........... stop at an early stage
send someone packing .................... ........... dismiss quickly
play fast and loo se............................. ........... act carelessly
keep the pot boiling ......................... ........... keep an activity going
rain cats and dogs ............................. ........... rain very heavily
raise one’s dander............................. ........... anger
mind your p’s and q’s ....................... ........... be careful about your behaviour
smell a rat ........................................... ........... be suspicious
take a rise out o f ................................ ........... fool
rub up the wrong way ...................... ........... irritate by opposing
get into hot water ............................. ........... get into trouble
turn the tables ................................... ........... reverse a result
back chat ............................................. ........... be impudent
ride the high h orse............................ ........... be snobbish, arrogant
let the cat out of the bag ................. ........... tell what should be kept secret
send to Coventry ............................... ........... ignore as a punishment
haul over the coals ............................ ........... scold or punish >■
General Colloquial Expressions

to to
take the bull by the horns .............. ............ act despite risks
strike while the iron is hot ............ ............ act without delay
take forty winks................................. ............ sleep
chew the f a t ....................................... ............ argue
act the goat ....................................... ............ behave foolishly
live from hand to mouth ............... ............ live in hardship
hang one’s head ............................... ............ feel ashamed
turn up one’s nose .......................... ............ scorn deliberately
play with fire ..................................... ............ tempt serious trouble
swing the lead .................................. ............ avoid work purposely
blaze the trail .................................... ............ lead the way
come a cropper................................. ............ fail, fall to earth □

Popular Phrases
Explain what is meant by the following phrases:

horse play back to the wall

for a lark from pillar to post
a fine kettle of fish a bird’s eye view
as the crow flies a busman’s holiday
a stiff upper lip no flies on him
a blind alley a cat on hot bricks
a dead cert a cock and bull story
a far cry with flying colours
a flash in the pan a fly in the ointment
the lion’s share on the nail
not a patch on pins and needles
bats in the belfry a storm in a teacup
by hook or by crook
Doubles
Doubles are used in Speech to give greater emphasis.
1. By repetition of actual word:
again and again, by and by, neck and neck, out and out, over and over, round and
round, so and so, such and such.

2. By repetition of m eaning:
beck and call, ways and means, far and away, puff and blow, null and void, stuff and
nonsense, fast and furious, odds and ends, rant and rave, lean and lanky, out and away,
hue and cry, bawl and shout, old and grey.
3. By alliteration (words beginning with the sam e letter):
humming and hawing, kith and kin, might and main, part and parcel, safe and sound,
hale and hearty, spick and span, alas and alack, time and tide, rack and ruin, rough and
ready, one and only.
4. By opposites:
this and that, thick and thin, on and off, great and small, in and out, high and low,
come and go, give and take, one and all, ups and downs, here and there.
5. By words o f sim ilar sound:

high and dry, fair and square, out and about, wear and tear.
6. By related w ords:
heart and soul, hip and thigh, tooth and nail, body and soul, root and branch, lock and
key, hammer and tongs, hole and corner, head and shoulders, hand and foot.
7. O ther exam ples:

all and sundry, fast and loose, fits and starts, hard and fast, free and easy, rough and
tumble, habit and repute, over and above, touch and go, time and again.

Exercises " -7 . '

Place the following phrases in the most suitable sentences:

again and again, lock and key, spick and span, puff and blow, odds and ends.
1. The police placed the man under_________ .
2. He polished his boots until they were
3. She tried to do i t _________ .
4. The child had gathered many_______
5. The stout man began t o _________ with exertion.
Colours
The following are the colours of the rainbow:
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red.

There are other colours, such as:

w hite, black, purple, brown, pink, grey, crim son.

Sometimes we refer to things as being:

blood-red, bottle-green, brick-red, cinnamon-brown, coal-black,
milk-white, nut-brown, pea-green, primrose-yellow, rose-pink,
ruby-red, russet-brown, sea-green, shell-pink, sky-blue,
slate-grey, snow-white.

Often we make use of “colour” words in everyday speech, e.g.

1. I saw it in black and white.

I saw it in writing (or print).

2. 1 am in his black books.

He is displeased with me.

3. The man looked blue.

The man looked as if he was depressed in spirits.
4. He was in a blue funk.
He was in great terror.
5. He had blue blood in his veins.
He was of aristocratic descent.

6. The green-eyed m onster caused him to strike his friend.

Jealousy caused him to strike his friend,

7. He was a greenhorn at the game.

He was raw and inexperienced at the game.

8. The fellow was yellow at heart.

The fellow was really a coward.

9- He was born in the purple.

He was of royal birth.
10. The business was a w hite elephant.
The business was a failure.

11. It was a red letter day for me.

It was a notable and fortunate day for me.

12. She saw red when she got the bill.

She was very angry when she got the bill.
 Derivations

M i M 1, 1ill i III 1
'A t. t .

Complete the following sentences:

1. The old colonel was purple with

2. The bully turned white with

3. The little child was blue with

4 . His rival was green with

5. The pages of the book were yellow with
V

Our Five Senses

Most people have five senses by which they are able to see, hear, smell, taste and touch.
Sight - is the ability to observe or perceive by the eye.
Hearing - is the ability to listen or perceive by the ear.
Smell - is the ability to detect odour or perceive by the nose.
Taste - is the ability to detect flavour in the mouth or perceive by the tongue.
Touch - is the ability to detect objects by contact or perceive by feeling.

Derivations
A Root is a word in its first and simplest form. A word may be built up or have its meaning
changed by an addition at either end. The addition at the beginning is known as a Prefix,
e.g. dis-agree. The addition at the end is known as a Suffix, e.g. paint-er.

Roots
Word Meaning Exam ples
aqua............................ w ater..................................... . aquatic, aqueduct
audio.......................... I hear........................................ audible, audience, audit
capio.......................... I take........................................ capable, captive, capture
centum ...................... a hundred................................ centenarian, century
clam o......................... I shout....................................... clamour, proclaim, exclaim
c re o ............................ create........................................ creation, creature
curro.......................... I run.......................................... courier, current, excursion
Derivations

Word Meaning Exam ples

decem......................... ten ............................................. December, decimal
d ic o .................. ......... I say........................................... edict, dictation, verdict, dictator
duco............................ I lead ........................................ produce, reduce, introduce
facio............................ I make....................................... fact, factory, perfect
finis............................. an end....................................... final, infinite
fo rtis.......................... strong....................................... fort, fortify
h o m o ......................... a man........................................ homicide, human
impero............... ....... I command............................... empire, emperor, imperial
lib er............................ fre e ............................................ liberal, liberty
m alus......................... bad............................................. malady, malice, maltreat
manus......................... hand.......................................... manual, manufacture, manuscript
m itto.......................... I send........................................ missile, mission, remittance
navis............................ a ship........................................ navigate, navy
o c to ............................ eight.......................................... octagon, octave, October
p e llo .......................... I drive....................................... expel, propel, repel
p en d eo ...................... I h an g ....................................... depend, pendant, suspend
p e s ............................. a fo ot........................................ pedal, pedestrian, quadruped
planus......................... level.......................................... plain, plan, plane
p lu s ............................ more.......................................... plural, surplus
porto.......................... I carry....................................... export, import, porter,transport
p o to ............................ I drink....................................... poison, potion
primus....................... first............................................ primer, primitive, Prime Minister
re g o ............................ I rule.......................................... regal, regent, regiment
rota.............................. aw heel..................................... rotate, rote, rotund
ruptus......................... broken....................................... eruption, interruption, rupture
scrib o......................... I write....................................... scripture, describe, manuscript
specio......................... I s e e .......................................... aspect, prospect, spectacles
teneo.......................... I hold........................................ contain, retain, tentacles
unus............................ o n e ............................................ unit, unity, union
vanus.......................... em pty....................................... vanish, vanity, vain
venio.......................... I come....................................... adventure, prevent, venture
video.......................... I s e e .......................................... provident, visible, vision
vinco.......................... I overcome............................... convince, victory
voco............................ I call.......................................... revoke, vocal, voice
volvo.......................... I ro ll............ ........... ................ evolve, revolve, volume
 Derivations

Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Exam ples
a-.................................. on............... afloat, ashore, aloft
a-, ab-, abs-............... away, from . avert, absolve, abstract
ad-, ac-, ar- (etc.) .... t o ............... adhere, accept, arrive, assume, attract
ante-............................ before......... antecedent, anteroom
anti-............................ against......... antagonist, anti-aircraft
bi-, bis-....................... two, twice.. bicycle, biped, bisect, biscuit
circum-....................... round.......... circumference, circuit
com-, con-................. together...... comparison, competition, contact
contra-....................... against......... contrary, contraband, contradiction
de-............................... down........... depress, descend, describe
dif-, dis-...................... apart, not ... different, disagree, disappear
ex -............................... out of........... exhale, export, extract
fore-............................ before......... forecast, forenoon, foretell, foresee
im-, in -....................... in, in to ....... import, include
in - ......... ..................... not............... incapable, inhuman
inter-.......................... between...... international, interrupt, interval
mis-............................. wrong......... misdeed, misjudge, mistake
ob-............................... against......... object, obstruction
post-............................ afte r............ postpone, postscript, post-war
pre-............................. before......... predict, prepare, pre-war
pro-............................. forth............ proceed, produce
r e - ............................... b a ck ............ retake, return, retrace
sub-............................. under........... submarine, subway
trans-.......................... across........... transfer, transport, transpose
un-............................... not, without unfit, unknown, unpaid, unsafe
vice-............................ instead........ vice-captain, viceroy
Derivations

S u ffix e s

Suffix Meaning Exam ples

-able, -ible .... capable of being......................
-ain, -an............... ... one connected.......................
-ance, -e n ce .............. state o f .....................................
-ant....................... ...... one who....................................
-el, -et, -e tte .............. litde............................................
-er, -eer, -ier.............. one who....................................
-e ss...................... ...... the female.................................
-fy.......................... ...... to m ake....................................
-icle, -sel.................... little............................................
-le ss............................ without.....................................
•ling ...... little............................................
-ment.......................... state of being..........................
-ock....................... ...... little............................................
-oon, -on ...... large..........................................
-ory...................... ...... a place for.................................
-ous...................... ...... full o f .........................................

Exercises

1. Underline the root parts of the following words and give their meanings:

century, December, factory, manual, navigate, suspend, pedal, export, describe,

tentacles.
2. Underline the prefixes in the following words and give their meanings:

anteroom, bicycle, circumference, contradict, forenoon, international, postscript,

submarine, transport, unknown.

3. Underline the suffixes in the following words and give their meanings:
heiress, cigarette, explorer, simplify, duckling, careless, edible, attendant, decorator,
courageous.
General Knowledge
In the following list many questions can be answered by one word. Wherever possible,
do so.
1. A boy who frightens weaker boys.
2. A number of soldiers.
3. The men and women who work on a ship.
4. Children in a school.
5. A man who protects sheep.
6. The low ground between two hills.
7. A place where pupils are educated.
8. A ship which travels below the surface of the sea
9. A place for storing a car.
10. A small leaf.
11. A mammal that can fly.
12. A field in which fruit trees grow.
13. An instrument for measuring time.
14. From what do we make butter?
15. A man who makes things out of wood.
16. A fertile place in the desert.
17. A man who pretends to be good.
18. A person who is always boasting.
19. A stream which flows into a river.
20. A hundred years.
21. Name an instrument for telling direction.
22. What are the steps of a ladder called?
23. Name two spotted animals.
24. A doctor who performs operations.
25. What is the front part of a ship called?
26. Headgear worn by some inhabitants of India.
27. A place where beer is made.
28. What is daybreak sometimes termed?
29. A man who draws and paints.
30. Fish with the bones taken out.
31. A shallow crossing in a river.
32. Two creatures which see well in the dark.
33. What is the meaning of plume?
34. Name any American money.
35. Girl or woman who serves at table.
36. A person who by desire lives alone.
37. What do we call the breaking of a bone?
General Knowledge

38. Name two shellfish.

39- What is the flesh of a sheep called?
40. The first meal of the day.
41. The city which has the Eiffel Tower.
42. Name of metal container for oil.
43. Place in which photographs are taken.
4 4. A place where people are buried.
45. Another name for a policeman.
4 6. Name three “string” instruments.
4 7. Name the imaginary line round the middle of the earth
48. An instrument which measures heat and cold.
49- From what do we make cheese?
50. Name the five human senses.
51. What kind of fish is a kipper?
52. Type of footwear in hot countries.
53. A place where whisky is made.
54. The most accurate kind of clock in the world.
55. Name three infectious diseases.
56. What lights must a steamer show at night?
57. Name two striped animals.
58. Goods carried out of a country.
59- A place where birds are kept.
60. Person who gives life in a good cause.
61. The air surrounding the earth.
62. A person who saves and hoards money.
63. A religious song.
64. How does a fish breathe in water?
65. Name the colours of the rainbow.
66. What is the small top room of a house?
6 7. Which is Britain’s fiercest wild bird?
6 8. What is the national dress of Scotland?
69. A three-sided figure.
70. A place where aeroplanes are kept.
71. Meaning of “The Seven Seas”.
72. A vessel for holding flowers.
73. What is the meaning of steed?
74. Name the patron saint of England.
75. A person who cannot hear or speak.
76. A room on board a ship.
77. A soldier with three stripes on each arm.
 78. A person who takes the place of another.
79. How many legs has a fly?
80. Name four kinds of tree.
81. A place where iron goods are made.
82. Name four great deserts.
83. Name three animals living mostly in water.
84. A man who does tricks with cards.
85. Water which has turned into gas.
86. The young that hatch from insect eggs.
87. What is the flesh of a pig called?
88. Scottish loch in which there is said to be a monster.
89- Goods taken into a country.
90. A place where leather is made.
91. Another name for a donkey.
92. Machine which makes electricity.
93. What is milk-fat called?
94. What is wind?
95. What is ackee?
96. What is a tripod?
97. Name an alcoholic drink made from sugar cane.
98. What is the flesh of the deer called?
99- Name for smuggled goods.
100. What language was spoken by the ancient Romans?
101. A place where chickens are hatched.
102. What is an astronaut?
103. What are the primary colours?
104. Of what wood is a cricket bat made?
105. Name quick ways of sending messages.
106. What is the Milky Way?
107. What was Guyana formerly called?
108. Place where gas is stored.
109- Who were the Caribs?
110. Explain lbw.
111. What is a boneshaker?
112. Which is the lightest common metal?
113. What does NASA do?
114. Where is the longest wall in the world?
115- What is the capital of Cuba?
116. A place where fish are kept.
117. Who was Man Friday?
General Knowledge

118. What is a mimic?

119. A rotating device that pushes along a ship or aircraft.
120. Give the common name for the spine.
121. What is a planet?
122. What is meant by scuttling a ship?
123. Give the motto of the (Boy) Scout Association.
124. In which country do people wear wooden shoes?
125. What is a grotto?
126. Name three “wind” instruments.
127. A place where you can lunch for payment.
128. Where is the Empire State Building?
129- What do scuba divers do?
130. What is the basin of a river?
131. What is capital punishment?
132. Which planet is closest to the sun?
133. Who was Long John Silver?
134. A picture that shows the bones inside the body.
135. What side is starboard?
136. Who is the patron saint of Scotland?
137. What is meant by “crossing the line”?
138. What are the Antipodes?
139. Who was the British Prime Minister in 2003?
140. In the northern hemisphere, which month contains the longest day?
141. Which country is called Erin?
142. Name two “percussion” instruments.
143. What is a song for two called?
144. Name an oil used as a medicine.
145. How many in a “Baker’s dozen”?
146. What is a centenarian?
147. Instrument used for drawing circles.
148. Another name for a jungle.
149- An aircraft that can fly without an engine.
150. What is the longest-living tree in the world?
151. Which insect makes honey?
152. Name any animal covered with spines.
153. When is the signal “SOS” used?
154. When is Christmas Day?
155. What is a cutlass?
156. Where were the Olympic Games first held?
157. How many teeth has an adult person?
158. Who is the patron saint of Ireland?
159- What do we call water when solid?
160. What is a loom?
161. Name any “pouched” animals.
162. What is a fjord?
163. An instrument for seeing tiny objects.
164. Who was David Livingstone?
165. In the northern hemisphere, which month contains the shortest day?
166. Lemons, oranges and grapefruit are all_________________ fruits.
167. Name five common garden flowers.
168. Group of countries including Sweden, Norway and Denmark.
169. What is a storey?
170. Which animal is called the “King of Beasts”?
171. Who is the patron saint of Wales?
172. A funny drawing of general interest.
173. Where did the Incas live? rfp
174. Another name for an airman. JMr L J
175. What is a burnous? In
176. What is a bed on board a ship called? 7
177. How many sides does a hexagon have? fC uW
178. In which country are the Great Lakes found? y\
179. What is a quadruped?
180. Which animal covers great distances without water?
181. What is a hobo?
182. Group of animals to which apes, monkeys and man belong.
183. What is a rickshaw?
184. What kind of vegetable are cassavas, yams and sweet potatoes?
185. A number of icebergs.
186. City famous for high buildings.
187. Another name for an aeroplane.
188. What is a weather satellite?
189. Name the insect which carries malaria fever.
190. What is the yellow part of an egg called?
191. Who was Mars?
192. When is a person said to be myopic?
193. Name given to a sailor’s map.
194. What is the skin of the orange called?
195. Crabs, lobster and prawns are all_________
196. Another word meaning remedy.
197. Soldiers on horseback.
General Knowledge

198. What is meant by a bird’s-eye view?

199. Who is a sheik?
200. What are the ingredients used for making tea?
201. Name of the bowl-shaped opening at the top of a volcano
20 2 . How is bronze made?
20 3 . Another name for a learner.
20 4 . What is the Aurora Borealis?
20 5 . American dog used to pull sledges.
20 6 . Stone bowl used to make flour.
207. What is a Thermos flask?
2 08. Another name for a way out sign above door.
209- Name the largest planet in the solar system.
2 10. The top of a hill or mountain.
2 11. What is coral?
212. Meaning of umpire.
213. Rope used by cowboy.
214. What is meant by walking in Indian file?
215. To what country does a “Yankee” belong?
216. Another name for a village.
217. What is a banshee?
218. Name given to soldiers on foot.
219. A place from which stone or slate is obtained.
22 0 . A pocket case for holding money and documents.
22 1 . Another name for an inn.
22 2 . What is the white of an egg called?
22 3 . Give another word meaning salary.
224. What is meant by walking abreast?
225. What is a coyote?
226. What is peculiar about a Manx cat?
227. From what do we obtain coffee?
228. What is a cog wheel?
229- Name an animal which chews the cud.
230. What is a cataract?
231. Which letters are vowels?
23 2 . Name any beast of prey.
23 3 . Why was Peter Pan different from other children?
2 34. What is a lunar probe?
2 35. What is a life buoy?
2 36. From what tree would you expect acorns to fall?
237. Which animal has a tail called a brush?
 Fastenings

238. What is a gondola?

239- From what do we obtain cider?
2 40. What is a carnivorous creature?
241. Remedy for stings.
242. Name the ABC islands.
243. What is the handrail for a stair called?
244. What is a nuclear power station?
245. A clergyman’s house is called a _____________
246. What is savannah?
247. What is the capital of England?
248. Where is the “New World”?
249- Name an animal with a very long neck.
250. What is veal?
251. Medical supplies used to treat cuts.
252. Which is the biggest ocean in the world?
253. Name an insect which appears to carry a lamp
254. What is a nightmare?
255. Which creatures have antlers?
256. What is a hod?
257. What were the kings of the Ancient Egyptians '
258. Name given to a young tree.
259- What is the middle part of an apple called?

Fastenings
Name things fastened by the following:

belt glue mortar solder

bolt handcuffs nail staple
braces harness padlock strap and buckle
brooch hawsers paste string
button hinge Peg strut
cable hook and eye pin tack
cement lace putty thread
chain latch rivet twine
clip lock rope zip
cord
Useful Information
Human Beings differ in a number of inherited features, e.g. skin colour; shape of nose,
eyes, lips; type and colour of hair. They are:
Yellow featured. Yellow, copper skin; fairly broad nose, low bridge; slanting eyes;
black hair. Chinese, Japanese, Siberian and South-East Asians, Inuits, Native Americans,
Laplanders. Most numerous.
White featured. Pink, olive, light brown skin; high narrow nose; eyes light, more
recessed; hair wavy or straight, more beard. Europeans and their American
descendants, South-West Asians, Indians, other South Asians and some Pacific
islanders.
Black featured. Black or dark brown skin; broad nose, thick lips; black, brown
curly hair, less beard. African peoples and American descendants, Afro-Caribbeans, etc.,
Papuans and some other Pacific islanders.

The Principal Languages o f the World are as follows (arranged according to the number
speaking each): Chinese, English, Russian, Western Hindi, Spanish, German, French,
Japanese, Portuguese and Italian.
The Continents are: Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia.

The Oceans are: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic.

The Largest Islands (other than the continents) are: Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo,
Madagascar and Baffin Island.

The G reatest Lakes are: Caspian Sea (Asia: borders Russia and Iran among others), Lake
Superior (North America), Victoria Nyanza (Central Africa), Aral Sea (Asia: between
Kazakstan and Uzbekistan), Lake Huron (North America) and Lake Michigan (North
America).

The Highest Mountains o f the World are all in the Himalayan Mountain Range in
Northern India. They are: Mt Everest, Mt Godwin-Austin (K-2), Mt Kangchenjunga, Mt
Nanga Parbat and Mt Kamet.
The Longest Rivers are: Missouri-Mississippi (United States), Amazon (Brazil), Nile
(Egypt), Yangtse (China), Lena (Russia), Zaire (Central Africa), Niger (West Africa) and
Yenesei (Russia).

The Largest Cities o f the World are: Tokyo (Japan), Mexico City (Mexico), New York
(USA), Sao Paulo (Brazil), Mumbai (India), Shanghai (China), Calcutta (India), Buenos Aires
(Argentina), Beijing (China), Seoul (South Korea), Cairo (Egypt) and Los Angeles (USA).
 Useful Information

Various Countries - The Peoples - Their Languages

Country People Language
Australia Australians English, Aboriginal languages

Bangladesh Bangladeshis Bengali

Belgium Belgians Flemish, French

Bulgaria Bulgarians Bulgarian

Canada Canadians English, French

China (People’s Rep.) Chinese Chinese

Czech Republic Czechs, Slovaks Czech

Denmark Danes Danish

Egypt Egyptians Arabic

England English English

Finland Finns Finnish

France French French

Germany Germans German

Greece Greeks Greek

Holland Dutch Dutch

Hungary Hungarians Hungarian

India Indians Hindi, English

Iran Iranians Farsi

Ireland (Eire) Irish English, Gaelic

Israel Jews, Arabs Hebrew, Arabic

Italy Italians Italian

Jamaica Jamaicans English

Japan Japanese Japanese

Kenya Kenyan Swahili, English

Malawi Malawians CiCewa

Mexico Mexicans Spanish

New Zealand New Zealanders English, Maori

Nigeria Nigerians Yoruba, Hausa, lbo

Pakistan Pakistanis Urdu

Poland Poles Polish

Portugal Portuguese Portuguese

Russia Russians Russian

Useful Information

Country People Language

Saudi Arabia Arabs Arabic

Scotland Scots English, Gaelic

Singapore Singaporeans Malay, Chinese, Tamil, English

Slovakia Slovaks Slovak, Hungarian

South Africa South Africans English, Afrikaans, Zulu, Xhosa

Spain Spanish Spanish, Basque, Catalan

Sri Lanka Srilankans Singhalese, Tamil, English

Switzerland Swiss French, German, Italian

Turkey Turks Turkish

United States Americans English, Spanish

Wales Welsh English, Cymric

Zimbabwe Zimbabweans Shona, Ndebele, English

Origin of Certain Place Names

Africa was so named by the Romans after the Afri tribe of Tunisia.
Am erica is named after Amerigo Vespucci, who explored parts of the coasdine of the New
World, shortly after its discovery by Columbus.

Asia, the largest continent, takes its name from the district behind Smyrna in Turkey. We
sometimes refer to the eastern part of the continent as the “Orient” (Land of the Rising
Sun).

Australia means the “Southern Continent”. National Emblems - Kangaroo, Emu, Mimosa.

Europe - some say it was named Eref by the Phoenicians, meaning “The Land of the
Setting Sun” and sometimes referred to as the “Occident”. Others say it was named after
Europus, a town in Macedonia.
Canada - from Native American word “Kannata”, meaning “a number of settlers’ huts”.
National Emblems - Maple Leaf, Beaver.
China (The Chinese people seldom use this name but generally refer to the Province
concerned.) The word is said to have come from “Tsin”, the ruler who built the Great Wall
of China. National Emblems - Dragon, Plum Blossom.
England - land of the Angles, who invaded and conquered South Britain in the 5th
century. National Emblems - Lion, Rose, Bulldog.

France (Old name Gaul - land of the Gauls.) Present name from the Franks, who later
conquered the country. National Emblems - Lily, Cock, Eagle.
 Useful Information

Germany - “Germanus” (neighbour), a Roman word borrowed from the Gauls. Germans
call their country “Deutschland”. National Emblems - Eagle, Corn Flower.

India - the land through which the River Indus has its course. National Emblems -
Elephant, Star, Lotus, Jasmine.

Ireland (Gaelic name - Eire) - land of the Irish tribe. National Emblems - Shamrock, Harp.
Italy (= vitalia) - means “cattle or pasture land”. National Emblems - Eagle, Lily, Laurel
wreath.

Japan - The Japanese always use the word “Nippon” and both mean “The Land of the
Rising Sun”. National Emblems - Chrysanthemum, Rising Sun.

New Zealand (New Sea Land) - so named by a Dutch explorer after Zealand - a part of
Holland. National Emblems - Kiwi, Fern.
Nigeria - Nigeria was named after, the River Niger.
Russia - land of the tribe of Russ. National Emblems - Hammer and Sickle, Five-pointed
Star.

Scotland (Old name Caledonia). Present name from the Scots, a north of Ireland tribe,
who invaded and gradually became masters of the whole country. National Emblems - Lion,
Thistle.
South Africa (see ‘Africa”). National Emblems - Springbok, Real Yellowwood.
Spain - English form of the word “Hispania” or “Espana”. The name comes from “Shapan”
(rabbit land), as the Phoenicians found the country overrun with these animals. National
Emblems - Red Carnation, Pomegranate.

USA (see ‘America”). National Emblems - Eagle, Buffalo, Golden Rod.

'flirkey - land of the Turks. National Emblem - Star and Crescent.
Wales (Old name Cymru - land of the Cymry tribe). Present name is derived from Anglo-
Saxon word meaning “land of the foreigner”. National Emblems - Leek, Daffodil, Dragon.
Useful Information

Various Countries and their Capitals

Country Capita! Country Capital
Albania Tirana Kenya Nairobi
Argentina Buenos Aires Netherlands Amsterdam
Australia Canberra New Zealand Wellington
Belgium Brussels Nigeria Abuja
Belize Belmopan Norway Oslo
Brazil Brasilia Pakistan Islamabad
Bulgaria Sofia Poland Warsaw
Canada Ottawa Portugal Lisbon
China Beijing Rumania Bucharest
Colombia Bogota Russia Moscow
Cuba Havana Scotland Edinburgh
Czech Republic Prague South Africa Cape Town
Denmark Copenhagen Spain Madrid
Egypt Cairo Sri Lanka Colombo
England London Sweden Stockholm
France Paris Switzerland Berne
Germany Berlin Thailand Bangkok
Greece Athens Trinidad Port of Spain
Hungary Budapest Turkey Ankara
India New Delhi Uganda Kampala
Ireland Dublin United States Washington DC
Italy Rome Uruguay Montevideo
Jamaica Kingston Venezuala Caracas
Japan Tokyo Zimbabwe Harare

Currencies of Various Countries

Argentina peso, centavo Luxembourg euro, cent
Australia dollar, cent Mexico peso, centavo
Belgium euro, cent Netherlands euro, cent
Canada dollar, cent New Zealand dollar, cent
China yuan, fen Nigeria naira, kobo
Denmark krone, 0re Poland zloty, grosz
Egypt pound, piastre Portugal euro, cent
France euro, cent Russia rouble, kopeck
Germany euro, cent South Africa rand, cent
Greece euro, cent Spain euro, cent
India rupee, paisa Switzerland franc, centime
Italy euro, cent Turkey lira, juru
Japan yen,sen United States dollar, cent
Kenya shilling, cent Vietnam dong
 Useful Information

p Y P rrisp s
,. . ________ _____

Do you know:

1. With which country or people each of the following is associated?

Ali Foreign Legion moccasins scimitar
Balmoral furs mummies shamrock
Beefeater gaucho onions sombrero
beret Hans oranges spaghetti
bolas heather ostrich tea
boomerang ice cream Pablo tigers
butter John Bull reggae tomahawk
cheese kangaroo reindeer tulips
chop-sticks kilt rickshaw turban
chrysanthemum lariat Rising Sun Uncle Sam
clogs leek rose vodka
corn flower lotus flower salmon watches
cowboy macaroni sandals whisky
daffodil Marianne sari windmills
fez Midnight Sun

2. With which countries do you associate the following beasts of burden?

camel, dog, donkey, dromedary, elephant, horse, llama, mule, ox, reindeer, yak.
3. Who use (or used) the following kinds of boats?
canoe, coracle, dhow, galleon, gondola, junk, kayak, sampan.
4. What national names are often attached to the following?

Exam ple: Kenyan coffee. Scotch broth.

baths, carpets, cheese, curry, onions, noodles, rum, sausage, stew, tea.
5. Who use (or used) these weapons?
boomerang, cutlass, harpoon, tomahawk, truncheon.
6. In what country would you be if your journey was called a

a) safari, b) mush, c) hajj, d) trek?

7. In which countries might men have each of the following names?

Angus MacDonald, Tom Smith, Evan Jones, Patrick O’Neil, Chang Wu,
Fritz Schmidt, Ivan Petrovitch, Juan Caballero, Pierre Sablon, Hans Brinker.
V J
Useful Information

8. In which town and cou ntry is each of the following situated?

Cleopatra’s Needle, Colosseum, Eiffel Tower, Leaning Tower, Nelson’s Column,

Pyramids, The Golden Gate, The Golden Horn, The Houses of Parliament,
The Kremlin, The Statue of Liberty, The Sphinx, The Taj Mahal, The Bridge of Sighs,
The White House, The Vatican.

9. In which countries are the following mountains situated?

Blue Mountains, Cotopaxi, Mt Everest, Fujiyama, Mt Blanc, Kilimanjaro,
Table Mountain, The Rockies, Uhuru Peak, Vesuvius.

10. With which countries are the following famous people associated?
Nelson Mandela, Captain Cook, Bob Marley, George Washington, Jomo Kenyatta,
Mao Zedong, Ned Kelly, Indira Gandhi, Duke Ellington, Diego Maradona, Pele,
Florence Nightingale, Mother Teresa, Stalin, Hitler, Aretha Franklin, Joan of Arc,
Julius Caesar, Martin Luther King, Napoleon, Kemal Ataturk, Mozart, Fidel Castro,
Yasser Arafat, Peter the Great, General De Gaulle.

11. To what countries do the following names (seen on foreign stamps) apply?
Argentina, Belgique, Danmark, Eire, Suomi, France, Deutschland, Nederland, Italia,
Norge, Polska, Romania, Espana, Sverige, Suisse or Helvetia.
V___________________________________ _______________________________________ )

The Wonders of the World

In olden times travellers who visited foreign lands generally brought back amazing tales of
the wonderful sights they had seen on their journeys. The most famous of these sights
became known as the Seven Wonders.

1. The Pyramids of Egypt.

2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
3. The Tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus.
4. The Temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus.
5. The Colossus at Rhodes.
6. The Statue of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympia.
7. The Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria.
 Useful Information

Of the above Seven Wonders of the Ancient World only the Great Pyramids of Egypt
survive today.

In the Middle Ages people considered that there existed other sights quite as wonderful
and named the following:
1. The Colosseum of Rome.
2. The Leaning Tower of Pisa.
3. The Catacombs of Alexandria.
4. The Great Wall of China.
5. Stonehenge.
6. The Porcelain Tower of Nanking.
7. The Mosque of St Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul).

All of these Wonders of the Middle Ages (some of which are much older than the Middle
Ages) still stand or have remains which can still be seen.
Today it would be impossible to make a completely satisfactory list of Seven Wonders as we
have all seen or heard of many amazing man-made structures and scientific marvels. Under
these two headings the following are remarkable enough to be included in any list of
Wonders o f the Modern World:

Man-made Structures
1. Simplon Tunnel.
2. The Skyscrapers of New York (USA).
3. The Boulder Dam of Colorado (USA).
4. The Panama Canal (Central America).
5. The Golden Gate Bridge at San Francisco (USA).
6. The Taj Mahal at Agra (India).
7. North Sea Oil drilling rigs and production platforms.

Scientific Marvels
1. Internal combustion engine. 7. Radio.
2. Concorde. 8. Radar.
3- Space travel. 9. Fibre-optics communication.
4. Anaesthetics. 10. Television.
5. Heart surgery. 11. Lasers.
6. Bio-engineering. 12. Computers.
Useful information

Science Vocabulary
1. doctor’s “listening” instrument stethoscope
2. magnifies tiny objects microscope
3. makes distant objects look bigger, nearer telescope
4. measures heat and cold thermometer
5. measures heat of the body clinical thermometer
6. indicates the weather barometer
7. measures gas or electricity used meter
8. helps the voice to carry megaphone
9. picks up sound for sending out again microphone
10. carries messages by wire telephone
11. carries sound without use of wires radio
12. carries messages by wire across the sea cable
13. takes photographs camera
14. takes photographs through the body X-rays
15. glasses used for bettering the eyesight spectacles
16. instrument used for telling time watch
17. tells if a thing is horizontal spirit-level
18. tells if a thing is vertical plumb-line
19- gives direction compass
20. a sailor’s map chart
21. a ship which can travel below the water submarine
22. attracts iron magnet
23. makes electricity dynamo / alternator
24. ship’s engine which works by steam turbine
25. a machine for measuring time clock
26. measures angles in surveying theodolite
27. instrument for drawing circles compasses
28. releases over-pressure of steam safety-valve
29- machine used in business for letter-writing computer /word
processor
30. causes the spark in motor engine magneto /distributor

Sound travels 1.6 km in 5 seconds.

Light travels approximately 300,000 km in 1 second.
Light takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth from the Sun.
36 km per hour is equal to 10 m per second.
1 litre of water weighs 1 kg.
1 nautical mile is 1.85 km.
Spelling Lists
Home People Body Food
attic adult ankles bacon
bolster ancestors arteries biscuits
cellar aunt exercise bread
chimney babies forehead butter
curtains children heart cheese
cushion comrade knees chocolate
detergent cousin knuckles cocoa
hearth friend limbs coffee
kitchen guest lungs margarine
lobby hostess muscles marmalade
mattress maiden nostrils mutton
meter nephew shoulder porridge
mirror niece skeleton pudding
parlour orphan skull sago
pillow parents stomach salmon
poker relation thigh sandwich
saucer uncle throat sausages
scullery visitor tongue steak
towel widower veins sugar
tumbler youth wrist venison
Clothing Trades Travel (1 ) Travel (2)
braid butcher aeroplane passengers
cloak carpenter airship pedals
costume chemist balloon pier
cotton clothier bicycle platform
flannel doctor brakes purser
gabardine draper carriage saloon
garments druggist coach seaplane
jacket engineer cruise signal
linen grocer electricity skis
lingerie journalist engine sledge
muslin lawyer express sleigh
petticoat mason fares steerage
satin
*
mechanic gangway steward
stocking plumber guard tourist
trousers purveyor helicopter tramway
tweed riveter label traveller
velour sawyer locomotive tunnel
velvet sculptor luggage vehicle
waistcoat tailor machine wagons
woollen wright parcel whistles
Land Sea Sky Coast
cape billows altitude bathing
cliff breakers astronomy beach
continent breakwater atmosphere billows
country channel cloudy breeze
headland crest comet cliffs
hillock fjord creation cockles
island harbour crescent costume
marsh inlet dawn diving
mound lagoon eclipse herring
mountain lake hazy lobster
pampas loch heavens mussels
peninsula ocean horizon pier
plain river midnight rowing
prairie rivulet planet seaweed
precipice sea solar shingle
summit streamlet sunset swimmer
tundra torrent telescope view
valley tributary twilight whelks
veldt trough universe winkles
volcano waves zenith wreck

Time Sport School Hospital

ancient badminton calendar accident
annual bowls ceiling casualty
August boxing chalk chloroform
autumn cricket composition disease
century fencing copies doctor
Christmas football cupboard fever
dawn golf dictation infection
Easter hockey easel massage
era polo grammar medicine
February putting history ointment
gloaming rounders hymns operation
January rugby interval paralysis
minutes shinty partition physician
modern skating pastels plaster t
punctual sleighing pencil poison
Saturday sprinting picture sterilise
September swimming poetry surgeon
Thursday tennis pupil thermometer
Tuesday wrestling scholar tonic
Wednesday yachting teacher ward
 Spelling Lists

Mammals (1 ) Mammals (2) Mammals (3) Dogs

ape goat otter Airedale
armadillo gorilla ox Alsatian
badger hare panther bloodhound
bat hedgehog Pig borzoi
bear hippopotamus porcupine bulldog
beaver horse puma collie
buffalo hyena rabbit dachshund
bull jackass rat Dalmatian
camel jaguar reindeer greyhound
cat kangaroo seal Newfoundland
cow leopard sheep Pekinese
deer lion skunk pointer
dog llama squirrel Pomeranian
donkey lynx stoat poodle
dromedary mole tiger retriever
elephant mongoose walrus Saint Bernard
ferret monkey weasel setter
fox moose whale sheepdog
gazelle mouse yak spaniel
giraffe mule zebra terrier
Birds (1) Birds (2 ) Birds (3) Fish
albatross hawk redshank cod
blackbird heron robin dogfish
budgerigar jackdaw rook eel
canary kingfisher sandpiper flounder
chaffinch lapwing seagull flying-fish
cormorant magpie skylark goldfish
corncrake moorhen snipe haddock
crane nightingale sparrow halibut
crow owl starling herring
cuckoo oyster-catcher stork mackerel
curlew parrot swallow pike
dipper partridge swan plaice
duck peewit swift roach
eagle pelican tern salmon
falcon penguin thrush shark
finch pheasant turkey skate
flamingo pigeon vulture sole
gannet plover wagtail swordfish
goose puffin woodpecker trout
guillemot raven wren whiting
Spelling Lists

Trees Flowers (1) Flowers (2) Insects

apple aster lotus ant
ash bluebell lupin bee
beech buttercup marigold beetle
birch carnation narcissus bug
cedar chrysanthemum orchid butterfly
chestnut crocus pansy centipede
elm daffodil peony cricket
fir dahlia poppy daddy-long-legs
hawthorn daisy primrose dragonfly
larch dandelion queen-of-the-meadow earwig
lime forget-me-not rhododendron flea
maple foxglove rose fly
oak geranium snowdrop gnat
olive gladiolus sunflower grasshopper
palm honeysuckle sweet pea locust
pine hyacinth thistle louse
poplar iris tulip midge
rowan lilac violet mosquito
sycamore lily wallflower moth
yew lily-of-the-valley waterlily wasp

Fruit Vegetables Minerals Liquids

apple bean aluminium acid
apricot beetroot brass alcohol
banana cabbage bronze beer
blackcurrant carrot coal brine
bramble cauliflower copper cider
cherry celery gold cocoa
currant cucumber granite coffee
damson garlic iron lemonade
gooseberry leek lead milk
grape lettuce marble oil
lemon onion mercury paraffin
melon parsley nickel petrol
orange parsnip platinum port
peach pea radium sherry
pear potato silver tea
pineapple radish slate turpentine
plum rhubarb steel vinegar
raspberry sprout sulphur water
strawberry tomato tin whisky
tomato turnip zinc wine
General Tests
Test 1
1. Break down the following sentence into clauses:
When the girl returned from London she told h er father that she had seen a grizzly
bear which perform ed tricks in the circus.
2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

3. a) State the feminine of:

waiter, bachelor, horse, manservant, husband,
b) Give the plural of:
knife, child, penny, sheep, piano.
4. Insert the names of the creatures:

The brays. The hoots,

The grunts. The chatters,
The croaks. The bleats,
The barks. The neighs,
The howls. The trumpets.
5. Correct the following sentences:
a) He said that you done it.
b) She is the biggest of the twins.
c) It was me that took the pencil.
d) The man went for to get the book.
e) A piano was sold to the lady with carved legs.

Test 2
1. Select from each of the following sentences the subordinate clause and tell its kind and
relation:

a) The cottage where Burns was born stands near Ayr.

b) He told m e secretly where he was going.
c) The soldiers slept where they found a resting place.
2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.
General Tests

3. Supply the missing words:

Exam ple: As sharp as a needle.

As black as As fast as
As meek as As happy as
As brave as As keen as _
As sweet as As steady as
As cold as As fit as

4. a) Give the objective case of:

I, he, you, we, they,

b) Give the past tense of:

does, hides, writes, sings, bites.

5. Change the clauses set in bold type into phrases:

a) The child was in bed before the sun had set.
b) Flowers will grow w here conditions are suitable.
c) Remember to write when you arrive.
d) I saw her when the clock stru ck four.
e) I am convinced that he is sincere.

Test 3
1. Break down the following sentence into clauses:

When the gentleman arrived at his home he discovered that he had left his umbrella
in the train.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

3. Write down the Comparatives and Superlatives of:

many, hot, evil, famous, little.
4. a) Name the homes of the following:

horse, hare, traveller, eagle, bee.

b) By adding a prefix form words opposite in meaning to:

possible, secure, welcome, use, legal.

5. Change all Singulars into Plurals and Verbs into Past Tense:
a) The rabbit runs from the dog.
b) The girl wears a blue dress.
c) The sailor swims to his ship.
d) He has a sharp knife.
e) I keep my bird in a cage.
 General Tests

Test 4
1. Read the following sentence and then answer the questions below:
When I heard that the man was seriously injured I resolved to help him in every way
possible.
a) Write out the adverbial clause.
b) What parts of speech are: I, seriously, resolved, possible?
c) What part of the verb is to help?
d) What number is him?
e) What is the subject of was injured?
f) Write down the preposition in the sentence.
2. a) Form nouns from:

introduce, loyal, revive, ready, broad,

b) Form adjectives from:
parent, reason, fortune, poet, winter.

3. Use any five of the following words (one for each sentence) to form short sentences:
instinct, obstinate, traditional, respectively, occurrence, standard, respectable,
resolved.
4. Put the correct prepositions in the blank spaces:
a) The boy was told not to meddle_________ the pencils.
b) She felt ashamed_________ herself.
c) The man took great pride_________ his garden.
d) The child has been lost_________ Thursday.
e) He hurried hom e_________school.
5. What is meant by saying a person is:
a) hard up, f) at rest,
b) hard of hearing, 8) lion-hearted,
c) stuck up, h) ill-used,
d) dead beat, 0 an old salt,
e) all ears, 0) out of sorts?
General Tests

Test 5
1. Break down the following sentence into clauses:

We were thoroughly alarmed when information reached us that the train in which
our friends were travelling had been involved in a serious accident.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

3. a) Some Christian names have popular short names, e.g.

Robert - Bob, Catherine - Kate.

Give the short names for:

Albert, Christina, Frederick, Patrick, Elizabeth,

b) In which countries do the following peoples live?

Dutch, Maoris, Inuit, Greeks, Welsh.

4. Punctuate and insert capital letters where necessary:

do you think said my friend in a whisper that theres a chance of escape certainly i
replied.

5. Insert the following phrases in their sentences:

rack and ruin, thick and thin, head and shoulders, safe and sound, out and out.
a) The ship reached harbour_________ .
b) The man was a n _________ rascal.
c) She i s __________taller than her brother.
d) Later through foolishness he went t o _________ .
e) The soldiers would follow their general through .______ .

Test 6
1. Read the following sentence and then answer the questions below:

When the man reached the garden gate he noticed that the old house in which he was
born was in ruins.

a) What parts of speech are:

garden, that, which, was, ruins?

b) Write out the principal clause.

c) Write out the subordinate adjective clause.
d) Name the kind of sentence.
 General Tests

2. In the following list of words, one word seems out of place. Underline the word you
consider is wrong:

Coat, hat, gloves, curtains, stockings.

Blue, yellow, ruler, green, pink.
Saw, envelope, plane, hammer, chisel.
Anchor, rope, string, twine, cord.
Needle, pin, scissors, thimble, spoon.

3. Where would you look to find:

The address of a person?
The position of a place?
The meaning of a word?
The day and date of the month?
Something which happened the previous day?
4. Give the past tense and past participle of the following verbs:
break, fly, hide, ring, swim.

5. What is meant in each of the following proverbs?

a) Let sleeping dogs lie.
b) Too many cooks spoil the broth.
c) Once bitten twice shy.

Test 7
1. Add a clause and name the kind of clause you add:
a) We ran for shelter_____________________________________ .
b) When the rain stopped_________________________________ .
c) Mary told him _________________________________________.
d) The cunning fox______________________ could not be caught.
2. Correct the following sentences:
a) Walk as quick as possible.
b) He has forgot the address.
c) Neither Tom or I can swim.
d) This end of the rope is the thickest.
e) The time was quarter past 9.
General Tests

3. Make a noun from strong.

Make a verb from courage.
Make an adjective from obey.
Give the opposite of poverty.
Give a similar word to m ute.
4. Medal, board, loose, waist, hoping, lose, meddle, hopping, bored, waste.

Fill in the blank spaces of the following sentences, using the most suitable words from
the above list:
The teacher told the little boy not t o _________ with th e __________as it had a
_________ hinge. The child went over to th e __________paper b in __________to find
his pencil.
5- The following is written in the singular num ber and present tense. Change it into
plural num ber and past tense.

I have a cousin who stays on that little farm. He knows that I like to come here on my
holiday.

Test 8
1. Read the following sentence carefully and then answer the questions below.
When the soldiers reached the city walls they saw that the town which the enemy had
completely ruined had been deserted for some time.
a) Give the case and relation of: town, which,walls.
b) What parts of speech are: city, that, reached, enemy, for, some?
c) Write out the subordinate adverbial clause.

2. a) Give the opposites of:

seldom, visible, praise, export, advance,

b) Give similar words to:

enemy, purchase, feeble, perceive, conceal.

 General Tests

3. Your answer in each case should be one word:

a) A person who explores under the sea.
b) Water which has turned into gas.
c) Name of metal container for oil.
d) A place where birds are kept.
e) A vehicle that conveys the sick or injured to hospital.
4. Join the following ten words in pairs so that they form five sensible compound words:
head, black, gentle, dust, egg, bin, ache, board, cup, man.

5. Complete these proverbs:

a) A stitch in tim e_________
b) A bird in the hand_________
c) Birds of a feather_________
d) A rolling stone_________
e) First com e_________
6. Give the meaning of:
a.m., Co., BBC, PO, p.m., Mp UK, ad, USA, JP

Test 9
1. Add a clause and name the kind of clause you add:
a) The boys ran away________________________
b) The lady_________________________________ _______ was my sister.
____ when he returned.
before the child arrived.
2. a) State the masculine of:
witch, duck, aunt, vixen, wife,
b) Give the singular of:
loaves, armies, roofs, sheep, feet.
General Tests

3. Use each of these verbs - frowned, mumbled, sang, chuckled, bowed, whispered,
listened, smiled - once only to complete the following sentences:

a) He tunefully. e) He gleefully,
b) He angrily. f) He broadly,
c) He humbly. 8) He attentively,
d) He indistinctly. h) He softly.

4. A number of sheep together is called a flock.

What name is given to a number of:

ships, insects, herring, angels, thieves, wolves, chickens, pups, players?

5. Make each pair of sentences into one sentence without using and or but or so.
a) The house was destroyed. It was built by Tom’s father.
b) He works hard at his lesson. He wishes to succeed.
c) The men were walking quickly. The men saw me.
d) He heard the sound of music.He was passing the church.
e) The lady lost the book. She was going to the library.

Test 10
1. Read the sentences below and then answer the questions:
Our little hut was situated among the high mountains near the River Dee. Along the
banks lay green pastures to which deer came frequently in winter.
a) What case is hut?
b) What kind of noun is Dee?
c) What part of speech is our?
d) Parse among.
e) What is the subject of lay?
f) Parse frequently.
g) What tense is came?
h) What part of speech is which?
i) What gender is deer?
j) What part of speech is high?
 General Tests

2. a) Form adjectives from: affection, nature, attraction, pride, value,

b) State opposites of: success, arrive, often, sense, entrance.

3- Make sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of:
coarse, course, root, route, rode, rowed, currant, current.
4. Rewrite the following correctly:
a boy said to his friend where are you going james oh replied the other i’m on my way
home.
5. Give one word in place of each:
a) A fertile place in the desert.
b) A person who by desire lives alone.
c) An instrument for measuring heat and cold.
d) A person who looks on the bright side of things.
e) A stream which flows into a river.

Test 11
1. a) Make a sentence containing that he would com e as a noun clause.
b) Make a sentence containing which he bought as an adjective clause.
c) Make a sentence containing when he reached the station as an adverbial clause.
2. Give the:
plural of ox
feminine of tiger
word for a young swan
word for the traditional home of an Inuit
adverb from danger.
3. Put in the suitable words in the spaces below:
Exam ple: Little is to Big as Dwarf is to Giant.
Sheep is to Mutton as Pig is t o _________ .
High is to Low a s _________ is to Down.
Soldier is to ._________ as Sailor is to Navy.
_________ is to Herring as School is to Whales.
Bee is to Hive as Cow is to
General Tests

4. Change the following Com plex Sentences into Simple Sentences:

a) There is a boy who is very proud.
b) He spoke to me while he was passing.
c) The girl who is intelligent gave the right answer.
d) The man bought a boat which is very big.
e) We received word that he was rescued.
5. With which countries do you associate the following famous people?

Robert the Bruce_________ George Washington__________

Stalin_________ Napoleon _________
Captain Cook_________ De Valera _________
David Livingstone_________ Jomo Kenyatta__________
Lloyd George_________ Gandhi__________

Test 12
1. Read the sentence and then answer the questions below:
When the boys who were playing in the park heard the school bell ringing loudly they
were afraid that they would be late.

What parts of speech are:

who, park, loudly, school, that?

What part of the verb is playing?

What is the case of bell?
What is the number of boys?
What is the subject of heard?
What is the gender of they?

2. a) Give the gender of:

lion, cousin, table, waitress, friend,

b) Give words similar in meaning to:

lair, disappear, inside, empty, quickly.

 General Tests

3. Give the names of the shops where you would buy the following:
fruit _________ spectacles_________ flowers
hats _________ milk _________ newspapers
fish _________ m e a t _________ sweets
tobacco_________

4. Change all nouns and verbs into plural:

a) The lady is very beautiful. d) The valley is broad.
b) Is the salmon fresh? e) The goose makes a loud noise.
c) The son-in-law is ill.
5- Who use the following articles?
hoe _________ anvil safety-lamp
solder _________ palette hod
awl _________ spanner cleaver

Test 13
1. In the following sentences there are groups of two words within brackets. One of the
two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word:
a) William can (ran, run) faster than (I, me).
b) It was (me, I) who (did, done) it.
c) George and (he, him) (has, have) gone on holiday.
d) Between you and (me, I) I think they (was, were) wrong.
e) (He, Him) and (me, I) are twelve years of age.
2. A number of sheep is called a flock. Insert the most suitable word in each of the
following:
a) a ___________ of wolves e) a ____________ of ships
b) a _____________ of bees f) a ___________of singers
c) a ___________ of herring g) a ___________of thieves
d) a ____________ of cattle
General Tests

3- In the following sentences underline the correct word of the two words within brackets:
a) You ought to visit her now (but, that) you know where she stays.
b) Write down the answers (as, when) you were taught.
c) The boy tried hard (but, that) he failed.
d) (Than, When) he comes let us know.
e) The man was careful (except, lest) he should fall.

4. a) Give the plural of:

deer, mouse, lily, tooth, woman,

b) Give the masculine of:

cow, duchess, duck, actress, niece.

5. By accident the sentences of this story were jumbled. Rearrange them in their proper
order:

Fortunately he saved her from serious injury.

Suddenly her ball rolled into the middle of the road, and she ran after it.
A passer-by saw the girl’s danger and ran to her aid.
A little girl was playing on a busy street.
At that moment a car came dashing round the corner.

Test 14
1. In the following sentences underline the correct word of the two words within brackets:
a) How he managed it remains a (duty, mystery).
b) James was honest and (deceptive, diligent).
c) The stranger asked if I could (direct, inform) him to the station.
d) The (remedy, illness) or cure is very simple.
e) His opinion differed (against, from) mine.
2. a) Punctuate the following correctly:

tell me said the old gentleman what is your name,

b) Form adjectives from:

reason, success, south, fool, France.

 General Tests

3. Use the correct prepositions in the blank spaces:

a) The bottle was filled_________ water.
b) He was told not to meddle_________ the toys.
c) The two brothers divided the apple_them.
d) That hat is similar__________________________ mine.
e) I hope I can rely_____________________________you.
4. With whom do you associatethe following?
Exam ple: anvil - blacksmith.
a) rifle e) letters
b) prescription f) pulpit
c) telescope g) sheep
d) spectacles h) joy-stick
5. Opposite each phrase are groups of words in brackets. Underline the group of words in
brackets which gives the correct meaning of the phrase:
down in the mouth (speaking quickly) (in low spirits)
a peppery individual (a quick-tempered person) (a happy person)
out of sorts (not well) (of great courage)
hard up (good enough) (short of money)
beside oneself (annoyed and angry) (nothing to do)

Test 15
1. a) Underline the correct word of the words in brackets:
A man who writes stories is an (artist, author, sculptor).
A bed on board ship is called a (bunk, cabin, saloon).
A person who hoards money is a (martyr, miser, cashier).
A vessel for holding flowers is a (caddy, scuttle, vase).
The flesh of a cow is called (beef, mutton, pork).

b) Underline the group of words in brackets which gives the correct meaning of the
phrase:
to play the game (to act fairly) (to run quickly)
to bury the hatchet (to chop wood) (to make peace)
to cut a dash (to hurt one’s leg) (to be very showy)
to smell a rat (to be suspicious) (to hunt mice)
to show the white feather (to be cowardly) (to be proud of an achievement)
 General Tests

2. Underline the correct word of the two words in brackets:

a) Bernice as well as George (was, were) at the circus.
All of you but Tom (has, have) the wrong answer.
A purse containing three coins (was, were) found.
One and all (is, are) going to the concert.
Neither the one nor the other (is, are) right.
b) His friend and (he, him) travelled to Paris.
Was it (I, me) you saw there?
Between you and (I, me) I am sure he is wrong.
Emily is younger than (I, me).
Let you and (I, me) hide.

3. a) Willie has (grew, grown) very tall.

The town crier (rang, rung) his bell.
The boy (began, begun) to look for his pencil.
Has he (wrote, written) to his cousin?
The lion (sprung, sprang) at the timid deer,
b) The girl wept (bitterly, faintly).
The boy fell (clearly, heavily).
The man crept (harshly, stealthily).
The lady waited (patiently, deeply).
My friend sprang (quickly, plainly).

4. a) He neither reads (or, nor) writes well.

(Now, When) we arrived we searched for our luggage.
Charles is stronger (as, than) I am.
I know (that, before) Tom is a good scholar.
I could not pay him (that, for) I had no money
b) The hunter went in pursuit (to, of) the animal.
He suffers (from, of) a swollen head.
I was sorry to part (of, with) that picture.
The girl complained (with, of) a sore foot.
The man disagreed (of, with) him.

5. a) In the following lists of words, one word in each list is out of place.
Underline this word,
copper, lead, tin, earth, silver,
rain, cold, snow, sleet, hail,
corn, rye, barley, wheat, raisins,
ear, nose, mouth, knee, chin,
linen, leather, silk, cotton, wool.

15^
 General Tests

b) Underline the word of the same kind as the first three words in each line:
river, brook, stream (mountain, tributary, island),
sofa, chair, stool (cupboard, wardrobe, couch),
limestone, marble, slate (granite, cement, mortar),
sword, dagger, spear (revolver, rifle, lance),
kitten, puppy, calf (duck, lamb, horse).
6. Underline the correct word of the two words in brackets:
a) The ship tied up at the (key, quay).
He was not (allowed, aloud) to go.
The jacket was made of (course, coarse) cloth.
The (pail, pale) moon rose above the hills.
We picked up shells on the (beach, beech).
b) Rearrange the following sentences in their proper order so that they form a short
story:
This he did to the great joy of the onlookers.
He refused to bow to the Governor’s hat.
He ordered him to shoot an apple from his son’s head.
The Governor wished to punish him for his disobedience.
William Tell was a famous archer in Switzerland.

Test 16
1. Underline the correct word of the group of words in brackets:
a) A person who eats too much is a (miser, glutton, hypocrite).
b) A woman who sells vegetables is a (greengrocer, florist, vegetarian).
c) John, who is my aunt’s son, is my (nephew, brother, cousin).
d) A soldier who rides on horseback is in the (marines, cavalry, infantry).
e) A wooden shelter made for a dog is a (byre, stable, kennel).
2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

present bitter
entrance polite
east danger
guilty lost

C
General Tests

3. Underline the correct word in each of the brackets:

(Who, Whom) do you think I (saw, seen)?

All but one (was, were) saved when the ship (sank, sunk).
Each of the men (has, have) a right to (their, his) opinion.
Between you and (I, me), the girls (wasn’t, weren’t) pleased.
Let Maria and (me, I) stay after the others have (gone, went).

4. We say ‘As black as coal”. Supply the missing words in the following:

as blind as _________ as cold as _________

as quiet as _________ as good as _________
as gentle as _________ as sharp as _________
as happy as _________ as fresh as _________

5. Following are five sentences, which, if arranged properly, would make a short story.
Rearrange them in proper order:
The bird, highly flattered, opened her mouth to sing.
One day a crow spied a piece of cheese on a window sill.
The cheese fell and was soon eaten by the crafty animal.
She picked it up and flew to a neighbouring tree.
A cunning fox approached and praised her voice.

Test 17
1. Christmas Day comes in the month o f _________ .
Snapper, herring, salmon, bass are all_________ .
The masculine of aunt is ___________ .
_________ is the feminine of hero.
State the plural of tooth.
A number of sheep is called a _________ .
We say “As sharp as a _________ ”.
A person who works on an anvil is a ________ .
What animal brays?
The word for a young hen is _________ .

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

defend, stranger, reveal, throw, compliment.

 General Tests

3. The noun formed from select is _________ .

_________ is the adjective formed from attract.
Give a verb corresponding to broad.
Form an adverb from joy.
Give a compound word with grand as part of it.
4. Bird is to air as fish is t o _________ .
Table is to wood as window is t o _________ .
Food is to hungry as drink is t o __________.
Nose is to smell as tongue is t o __________ .
Wrist is to cuff as neck is t o _________ .
5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:
Many of the pencils were (broke, broken).
Everybody (was, were) pleased with the result.
He is a little taller than (I, me).
The man could not do (nothing, anything) to help.
Neither the boy (or, nor) his sister will come.
To (who, whom) do you wish to speak?
The train moved (slow, slowly) into the station.
The food was pleasant (for, to) the taste.
We received a (strong, hearty) welcome.
Water dripped from the (brim, brink) of his hat.

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

halt, roam, margin, permit, courage.
7. Arrange the following in the correct order, beginning with dawn:
dusk, noon, evening, dawn, night, morning.
8 . Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:

their, coarse, fowl, preys, creek.

9. Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) The prices were m ade less than before.
b) The people who w ere listening applauded.
c) The little boat turned upside down in the storm.
d) The germs were not able to be seen by the hum an eye.

10. Name ten different animals.

General Tests

Test 18
1. The shortest month of the year i s ___________ .
Cassava, cauliflower, onion and pepper are all__________ .
The masculine of wife is _________ .
_________ is the feminine of bachelor.
State the plural of m ouse.
A number of thieves is called a _________ .
We say, ‘As bold as_________ ”.
A person who uses a safety-lam p is a _________ .
What animal neighs?
The word for a young fox i s __________ .

2. Give words opposite in meaning to:

arrive, sweet, fertile, legal, juvenile.

3. The noun formed from young i s _________ .

_________ is the adjective formed from circle.
Give a verb corresponding to horror.
Form an adverb from weary.
Give a compound word with cup as part of it.
4. Walk is to legs as fly is t o _________ .
Knife is to cu t as gun is t o _________ .
Island is to sea as lake is t o __________ .
Statue is to sculptor as book is t o _________ .
Petals are to flower as spokes are t o _________ .
5- In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:

A tree had (fell, fallen) across the path.

Neither Tom nor James (is, are) at school.
She is cleverer than (I, me).
He should (of, have) come last night.
Either my father (or, nor) my mother will go with me.
I saw the lad (who, whom) won the race.
It can be done very (easy, easily).
He had not a penny (by, to) his name.
She has a (healthy, spotless) character.
I divided the sweets (between, amongst) several boys.

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

enemy, unite, concluded, guard, envy

 General Tests

7. Arrange the following in historical order:

aeroplane, chariot, locomotive, rocket, car.

8 . Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:

fourth, route, style, soled, sewing.

9- Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) Smoking was not allowed in the garage.
b) The motorist drove his car slowly and carefully.
c) The boy was very sorry for his mean action.
d) They ascended the steep steps of the tow er in which the bell was hung.
e) The castaways saw a ship on the line w here sea and sky seem to m eet.
10. Name ten different birds.

Test 19
1. Guy Fawkes’ Day is in the month o f _________ .
Mosquito, beetle, moth and locust are all_________ .
The masculine of niece i s _________ .
_________ is the feminine of wizard.
State the plural of ox.
A number of pupils is called a __________.
We say, “As clear a s _________ ”.
A person who rides a bicycle is called a _________ .
What animal trum pets?
The word for a young goat i s __________ .
2. Give words opposite in meaning to:
ancient, purchased, private, rare, majority.

3. The noun formed from choose is _________ .

_________ is the adjective formed from voice.
Give a verb corresponding to deed.
Form an adverb from critic.
Give a compound word with ball as part of it.
General Tests

4. Picture is to wall as carp et is t o _________ .

Graceful is to clum sy as polite is t o __________.
Descend is to depth as ascend is t o __________ .
Gas is to pipes as electricity is t o _________ .
Castle is to tow er as church is t o _________ .

5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:

I have never (went, gone) by bus.

None of the pencils (is, are) missing.
She is much older than (I, me).
We were (learned, taught) how to read correctly.
The boy could neither read (or, nor) write.
(Who, Whom) do you wish to see?
How (quick, quickly) the time has passed!
We waited (upon, for) her at the station.
Between you and (I, me), someone must have taken it.
He divided the apple (between, amongst) his two brothers.
6. Give words similar in meaning to:

vacant, remedy, concealed, grief, faith.

7. Arrange the following in historical order:

canoe, submarine, coracle, steam-ship, sailing-ship.

8 . Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:

waste, aloud, seized, medal, site.

9- Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) The boy purposely kept out o f the way of his employer.
b) The flowers were not real, but m ade o f cloth, w ax and paper.
c) The motor-car slipped sideways across the road.
d) During the fire, the birds had died from want o f air to breathe.
e) They managed to fix it with a sticky substance obtained from the hoofs o f
animals.

10. Name ten different flowers.

Test 20
1. We live in th e _________ century.
Coal, iron, slate and lead are all_________ .
The masculine of nun i s _______ _ .
_________ is the feminine of colt.
State the plural of deer.
A number of singers is called a __________ .
We say, ‘As keen a s _________ ”.
A person who uses a palette is a n __________.
What animal howls?
The word for a young hare is ______________ .
2. Give words opposite in meaning to:
enemy, success, expand, miser, exposed.

3. The noun formed from receive i s __________.

_________ is the adjective formed from bible.
Give a verb corresponding to grass.
Form an adverb from ability.
Give a compound word with stone as part of it.
4. Sheep is to flock as tree is t o ______________ .
Banana is to peel as egg is t o ______________ .
Speak is to shout as walk is t o _________ .
When is to tim e as where is t o _________ .
Lawyer is to client as d octor is t o _________ .
5. In each of the following sentences underline the correct word in brackets:
The boy had (rose, risen) at eight o’clock.
Every one of us (has, have) an equal chance.
My sister is five years younger than (I, me).
Do try (to, and) come on time.
Neither a borrower (or, nor) a lender be.
(Who, Whom) do you think we met?
I managed not so (bad, badly).
They were impatient (from, at) the delay.
That is a (trivial, trifling) excuse.
Let Tom and (I, me) go.
General Tests

6. Give words similar in meaning to:

commence, repair, odour, prohibited, renown.

7. Arrange the following in historical order:

oil-lamp, firebrand, electricity, candle, gas.

8 . Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:

groan, rays, rowed, cruise, cereal.

9 . Give one word which might be used in place of the words in bold type:
a) The runner was completely tired and w orn out after the race.
b) The injured man was unaw are o f anything th at was going on around him.
c) The rude girl continually broke into her parents’ conversation.
d) He changed his appearance by dressing himself as a native.
e) The story caused a state o f excited feeling.

10. Name ten different fruits.

Tests in Comprehension
Test 1
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The Story o f a Great River

From its source in the mountains between Sierra Leone and Guinea to its delta in
Eastern Nigeria the mighty Niger will have travelled some 4,000 kilometres. This nine-
month-long journey to the far-off Gulf of Guinea will take it through many countries
and some of the most varied scenery in the world.

From the high mountains around Futa Jallon through the dense forests of Guinea it
flows, gaining in size from its many tributaries. Its waters create the fertile plains of the
Mali Republic before reaching the desert regions beyond Timbuktu whence it turns
south-eastwards to flow between the republics of Niger and Benin.

It is here that it enters Nigeria, that great African state and, more than half its journey
over, is put to work. Vast hydro-electric plants provide for the needs of Nigeria’s
millions and for the industry of this huge country. Here, too, irrigation schemes, fed by
its waters, assist in food production and its use, with specially designed vessels, to
facilitate travel, trade and the transport of goods. And everywhere there are fishermen
casting their nets.

At Lokoja, where the Niger is joined by its greatest tributary, the Benue, it turns sharply
southwards to flow majestically past Onitsha and presently to form its vast delta. This
delta, hot and humid, is a place of great rainforests, mangrove swamps and a network
of waterways taking the Niger at last to the sea. Here, too, and in the sea offshore, are
the oil-fields which make Nigeria one of the main oil producers of the Commonwealth
of Nations.

Marks
1. Where is the source of the Niger? (1)
2. Name four towns on its banks. (2)
3. Through which countries does it pass? (1)
4. In which country is its delta? (1)
5. In your own words describe a delta. (3)
6. In your own words describe a mangrove. (2)
7. What is opposite in direction to south-east? (2)
8. What confluence occurs at Lokoja? (2)
9. Find out and write about Mungo Park. (5)
10. Write short notes on the following:
Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo, Fulani, Tiv, Kanuri. (6)
Tests in Comprehension

Test 2
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Hom ework Interrupted

Tabu looked up from his book, in a iazy way at first, to see what had made the noise.
Then he went stiff with fright. At an arm’s length away from his chair, something
moved. A shape glided smoothly along the window frame. He saw a flat head held up
by a slender neck. A puff adder!

The snake stopped and lay without moving. It looked dead. But all the time it was
trying to sense if any food was in the room.

Tabu felt trapped in his chair, yet he knew he must warn his sister. He thought of what
his father had told him so often. He wanted to whisper, but his mouth and tongue
were dry with shock. He dared not move. His throat clicked as he tried to utter some
sound. If only she would look at him!

Masya must have felt that there was something strange about his silence, for she turned
her head to glance at him. When she saw the fear on his face, she swiftly shifted round,
looking at his glazed eyes. She moved her head to see what those eyes were fixed on,
then covered her mouth to stifle her gasp of terror.

(From World Wide Adventure Series Reader 5 - published by Robert Gibson.)

Marks
1. What had the snake come for? (1)
2. Why would it stop and lie without moving? (1)
3. What made Tabu feel trapped in his chair? (2)
4. What effects did Tabu’s fear have on him? (2)
5. Why would he wish to warn his sister? (2)
6. What do you think Tabu’s father had told him so often? (2)
7. What caused Masya to look at Tabu? (1)
8. How did she come to see where the danger was? (1)
9. Why did she cover her mouth? (2)
10. What might have happened if Tabu had moved? (2)
11. What do you think Tabu wanted to warn his sister to do or not to do? (4)
12. What would you have done in Tabu’s place? (5)
Total 25
 Tests in Comprehension

Test 3
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The Fox
The fox is probably the most intelligent of all quadrupeds. It is allied to the dog and
closely resembles the Alsatian, the wolf, the hyena, the coyote (prairie-wolf of North
America), the dingo (native dog of Australia), and the dhole (wild dog of India). Its
chief points of difference from the others are the sharper muzzle and the shorter legs
in proportion to the size of the body. Its tail or “brush” is also longer, and its ears more
erect.

The fox has eyes which contract in strong light and expand in darkness. This enables
the animal to hunt at night. It excavates its own lair by burrowing much like a rabbit,
but frequently it is a thief in this respect as it steals burrows from other animals and
converts them into its own “earth”. The cunning and slyness of the animal is shown by
the number of exits to its lair. As many as ten bolt-holes from the fox’s “earth” have
been counted. Its power of scent is very acute, and its hearing very highly developed.
The animal has a peculiar strong scent, which leaves the “trail” in the so-called sport of
fox-hunting. When the chase is keen Reynard frequently escapes by dashing into wide
and open drainpipes. For this reason one may see gratings placed over the mouths of
many roadside and field drains. When cornered by the hounds the animal has been
known to climb roofs of houses and to dash into nearby cottages in desperate efforts to
shake off its pursuers.

Marks
1. What is a quadruped? (1)
2. Name ten animals mentioned in the passage. (5)
3. Give four points of difference between the fox and the dog. (4)
4. Why is the fox able to hunt at night? (1)
5. Name any other creature which hunts at night. (1)
6. What two words are used for the fox’s den? (2)
7. Of what use are bolt-holes? (1)
8. What animal does the fox resemble when digging? (1)
9. Give two reasons why the fox is a difficult animal to catch. (2)
10. What enables the hounds to track down the fox? (1)
11. What special name is sometimes given to a fox? (1)
12. According to the passage, why do gratings sometimes cover drainpipes? (1)
13. What is meant by “When the chase is keen”? (1)
14. Give the meanings of the following words as used in the passage:
contract, excavates, frequently, converts, scent, peculiar. (3)
Total 25
Tests in Comprehension

Test 4
Read the following passage (supposed to have been written by a boy) and then answer the
questions below:

When I had finished breakfast the squire gave me a note addressed to John Silver, at
the sign of the Spy-glass, and told me I should easily find the place by following the line
of the docks, and keeping a bright look-out for a little tavern with a large brass
telescope for sign. I set off, overjoyed at this opportunity to see some more of the ships
and seamen, and picked my way among a great crowd of people and carts and bales,
for the dock was now at its busiest, until I found the tavern in question. It was a bright
enough little place of entertainment. The sign was newly painted; the windows had
neat red curtains; the floor was newly sanded. There was a street on either side, and an
open door on both, which made the large, low room pretty clear to see in, in spite of
clouds of tobacco smoke. The customers were mostly sea-faring men; and they talked
so loudly that I hung at the door, almost afraid to enter. As I was waiting, a man came
out of a side room, and, at a glance, I was sure he must be Long John. His left leg was
cut off close by the hip, and under the left shoulder he carried a crutch, which he
managed with wonderful dexterity. He seemed in the most cheerful spirits, whistling as
he moved about among the tables.

Marks
1. To whom was the squire’s note addressed? (1)
2. Where was this person to be found? (1)
3. At what time of day did the boy set out? (1)
4. What route was he to take? (1)
5. Why was the boy overjoyed? (2)
6. When the boy had found the tavern in question, what did he notice about
a) the sign, b) the windows, c) the floor? (3)
7. Who were the customers? (1)
8. Why was the boy almost afraid to enter? (2)
9. Where was John Silver when the boy first looked into the tavern? (1)
10. What nickname is used in the passage? (2)
11. Describe John Silver’s unusual appearance. 4
( )
12. How do you know Silver was happy? (1)
13. Give another word of the same meaning for each of the following:
spy-glass, tavern, opportunity, glance, dexterity. (5)
Total 25
 Tests in Comprehension

Test 5
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Sightseeing in Singapore
You do not have to go far in Singapore to discover the unexpected or the unusual. A
stroll through Chinatown could bring you face to face with a cartful of masks for people
to wear to represent mythical or historical characters in a procession or an operatic or
theatrical performance during some festival - heads of heroes and villains, horses and
lions, unicorns and dragons, all crafted with loving care and selling at surprisingly low
prices. Go and listen to the early morning “concert” of birdsong from hundreds of
caged birds. Have your initials carved in semi-precious stone to make your own
personal seal. Notice the old women working on a construction site, clad in black and
wearing red head-dresses. These are the Samsui sisters who have voluntarily chosen to
adopt this way of life and remain unmarried.

The variety of things to do in Singapore is endless. Relax on a tropical beach, take a

stroll through a lush green park or visit an Indian temple. You can spend hours in the
Zoological Gardens with their world-famous Orang-utan colony, spot 350 different
species among the 7,000 birds in the Bird Park, see the Orchid Garden with its
thousands of blooms that would cost a king’s ransom in London, o r visit a crocodile
farm.

After your sightseeing you may be hungry, and there is no better place to be hungry
than in Singapore. Rich aromas will draw you to one of Singapore’s 8,000 open-air food-
stalls offering Chinese, Malay, and Indian dishes in all their infinite variety - with a
banana leaf, perhaps, to serve as your plate and end the day with yet another surprise.

(Information Source: Singapore Tourist Promotion Board.)

Marks
1. What is amythical character? (2)
2. How is ahistorical character different? (2)
3. How do operatic theatrical
and productions differ? (2)
4. What does crafted mean? Why is it a good word here? (2)
5. Why would the low prices be surprising? (2)
6. Why is the word “concert” in inverted commas? (2)
7. What would be the purpose of having a personal seal? (2)
8. What is a construction site? (2)
9- What does the word species mean? What is its singular? (2)
10. What does a king’s ransom mean and why? (2)
11. What would be the purpose of a crocodile farm? (2)
12. Distinguishflavours, aromas, smells and perfumes. (3)
Total 25
Tests in Comprehension

Test 6
Read the following passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

The Long Trek

Steve reckoned that they were about three miles from the river, if there was still a river.
By now, it might be just a trickle of slow-moving water, or a bed of dried mud, full of
tumbleweed and stones.

He closed his eyes to slits as he peered through the clouds of dust - red dust kicked
up by hundreds of hoofs. The cattle that streamed past him as he sat slumped in his
saddle were as tired and worn out as the exhausted men who drove them.

Some of them bellowed with fear and pain. The calves pushed their noses into the
sides of the cows that had no more milk to feed them. All of them were mad with thirst
and very thin. From their knob-like backbones, the drawn skin was tight over the
fleshless haunches. Their ribs curved like the bars of a cage over their sunken flanks.
They were starving.

They had trekked from the cattle stations in the north of Australia where usually heavy
rains filled streams and pools. But this was a year of drought. The burning sun, which
had sucked up the last drops of water, had left the ground cracked and dry. Wide,
dangerous ruts had formed in the earth. They were deep and broad enough to wedge a
man’s boot when he walked. There was only one thing to do. The cattle must be driven
many miles south, to the river; or they would die.

(From World Wide Adventure Series Reader 5 - published by Robert Gibson.)

Marks
1. Why did Steve sit “slumped” in his saddle? (2)
2. What did he fear might have happened to the river? (3)
3. Why were the animals’ backbones like knobs? (1)
4. What other effects had the drought had on them? (3)
5. What is a drought? (1)
6. Why would the ground have cracks? (2)
7. Had the sun really “sucked” up drops of water? (3)
8. Why were the ruts in the earth dangerous? (1)
9. If the river was dry, what then? (4)
10. What effects would a drought have in your area? (5)
Total 25
 Tests in Comprehension

Test 7
Read over the following passage and then answer the questions below:

The Death of Jam es I o f Scotland

The king, while he was staying at Penh, took up his residence in the abbey of Black
Friars, there being no convenient palace in the town, and this made it easier for his
enemies to carry out their purpose, as his guards and officers were staying in different
houses.

Just as James, having dismissed all his attendants, was preparing to go to bed, the
Highland woman who had already warned him at the ferry again demanded permission
to speak with the king, but was refused on account of the lateness of the hour.
Suddenly a clashing of armour was heard in the garden and flashes of light from
torches were thrown against the windows. The king, hearing the voice of Sir Robert
Graham, his deadly enemy, guessed that the intruders had come to murder him. He
called to the ladies to keep the door as well as they could, while he tried to get out at
the windows, but the bars would not budge. By the help of tongs, however, he lifted a
plank of the flooring, and let himself down into a narrow vault beneath. This vault had
formerly had an opening into the courtyard of the convent, by which he might have
made his escape, but the unfortunate James forgot that, only three days before, he had
caused the opening to be built up, because when he played at ball in the courtyard the
ball used to roll into the vault through that hole.

The queen and her women endeavoured as well as they might to keep the door shut,
and one of them, Katherine Douglas, boldly thrust her arm across the door in place of
the bar, which the conspirators had removed the day before.

Marks
1. Why did the king stay in an abbey at Perth? (1)
2. Why did the king’s enemies find it easy to attack him in the abbey? (1)
3. Why did the woman want to speak with the king? (2)
4. Why was the Highland woman turned from the door? (1)
5. What two things alarmed the king and the ladies? (2)
6. Why did the king fear the intruders? (2)
7. Why could James not jump from a window? (1)
8. How did the king escape from the room? (1)
9. When the king let himself into the vault what did he expect to do? (2)
10. Why had the vault entrance been closed? (2)
11. How had the conspirators prepared, the day before, for the murder? (2)
12. Describe a “torch” of the time of this story. (2)
13. Give another word with the same meaning for each of the following:
residence, convenient, budge, unfortunate, endeavoured,conspirators. (6)
Total 25
Tests in Comprehension

Shipwreck on a Coral Island

A huge wave snatched up the oar that we had decided to cling to instead of joining the
ship’s crowded boat, and . . .
I came to on the shore to find young Peterkin trying to staunch the How of blood
from my badly cut brow, and learned from Jack that we appeared to be the only
survivors, alone on an uninhabited island.
It soon occurred to Peterkin, the youngest of us at fourteen, that hunger and thirst
might be a problem. The ship’s stores were sunk in deep water. What would we do?
Jack pointed up to the branched head of a coconut palm. “There, look!” he said, “Nuts
at all stages.”
In no time Peterkin had monkeyed up and tossed down three nuts about the size of
a football.
“Let’s visit the wreck first,” said Jack, “and then eat.”
Though only eighteen himself, Jack was our natural leader and no one objected,
Peterkin comforting himself by telling us that he’d rather find a spring, and have a
drink, than eat.
“Then hop up that tree again,” said Jack, “and throw down another nut, a green one
this time, unripe.”
Surprised, but always game, Peterkin did as he was told.
“Now cut a hole in it with your knife and clap it to your mouth.”
Peterkin did as directed, and we both burst into uncontrolled laughter at the changes
that instantly passed over his face. No sooner had he put the nut to his mouth and
thrown back his head to catch what came out, than his eyes opened to twice their
ordinary size, while his throat moved vigorously in the act of swallowing. Then a look
of intense delight spread over his face except, of course, his mouth, which was
otherwise engaged. At length he stopped, drew a long breath, and exclaimed, “Nectar!
Perfect nectar!”

(Adapted from The Coral Island by R. M. Ballantyne.)

Marks
1. What happened between the first and second paragraphs? (2)
2. How are we expected to know this? (2)
3. Why isstaunch a better word than stop
(paragraph 2)? (2)
4. What did Jack mean by “nuts at all stages”? (2)
5. What do the words monkeyed and hop
suggest? (2)
6. Why could they not get food from the wreck? (2)
.
7. Why did Jack first speak of eating but not drinking? (2)
8 What sentences show Jack as a good leader? (2)
9- Isobjecting different from refusing
? (2)
10. Why did the others laugh at Peterkin? (2)
11. What feelings can make us wide-eyed? (2)
12. What does “otherwise engaged” mean? (1)
13. What was the point of exclaiming “Nectar!”? (2)
Total 25
 Tests in Comprehension

Test 9
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Nature and the Traveller in the Caribbean

Nature shows off to the traveller in the Caribbean. Start in the Cayman Islands and she
introduces you to some of her prize travellers, the turtles that swim thousands of miles
to these sandy shores to lay their eggs.

Watch Neptune’s gliders, the “flying” fish, skimming the tips of waves as you make for
Jamaica and sail into one of the world’s great natural harbours. Go ashore and see huge
crawling monsters clawing out mountains of bauxite from which will com e aluminium,
“silver from clay”, to be made into kitchen utensils and tomorrow’s jumbo jets.

Don’t miss seeing the phenomenal lush growth of a tropical rainforest, on Dominica,
where the tree canopy blots out the sun.

On Barbados stand and watch the Atlantic’s majestic rollers crashing against the foot of
the island’s northern rock-face, tossing up spray twice the height of the cliffs. There too
you will marvel, as elsewhere, at the unimaginable number of tiny coral insects that had
to live and die to form these miles of bright clean sands, reefs and whole coral islands.

Drive over the wild moon landscape of the crater of St Lucia’s Soufriere volcano, its
deafening jets of steam showing it is not yet dead, only sleeping. Then take your
pictures, as everyone does, of the island’s twin sugar-loaf mountains rising 800 metres
sheer out of the sea, and move on, perhaps flying over the volcanoes of St Vincent and
Grenada, their craters now occupied by lakes, to busy Trinidad. Here see the pitch lake
Sir Walter Raleigh used to waterproof his ships’ hulls, and which today, after four
hundred years, still supplies asphalt for our roads.

And these ships in the bay? Nature will fill them again and again with the oil she has
made from the remains of living things that lived here long before history.

Now step over to South America and see one final marvel, Guyana’s Kaieteur Falls, five
times the height of Niagara, a spectacular end to an unforgettable trip.

Marks
1. Does nature “show off”? What is meant? (2)
2. In what two ways are the turtles “prize travellers”? (2)
3- Does the writer think flying fish really fly? (2)
4. What “crawling monster” would you see in Jamaica? (2)
5. Why is aluminium called “silver from clay”? (2)
6. What makes the forests on Dominica so lush? (2)
7. Compare rollers with other words that could be used. (2)
8. How are coral reefs formed? (2)
9. What do the words moon landscape suggest? (2)
10. sleeping
Is it better to call the volcano than ? dormant (2)
11. Explain the second last paragraph. (3)
12. What makes things spectacular? (2)
Total 25
Tests in Comprehension

Test 10
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions below:

Monday Morning
Monday morning found Tom Sawyer miserable. Monday morning always found him so,
because it began another week’s slow suffering in school. He generally began that day
with wishing he had had no intervening holiday; it made the going into captivity and
fetters again so much more odious.

Tom lay thinking. Presently it occurred to him that he wished he was sick; then he
could stay at home from school. Here was a vague possibility. He canvassed his system.
No ailment was found, and he investigated again. This time he thought he could detect
colicky symptoms, and he began to encourage them with considerable hope. But they
soon grew feeble and presently died wholly away. He reflected further. Suddenly he
discovered something. One of his upper teeth was loose. This was lucky; he was about
to groan, as a “starter”, as he called it, when it occurred to him that if he came into
court with that argument his aunt would pull it out, and that would hurt. So he
thought he would hold the tooth in reserve for the present, and seek further. Nothing
offered for some little time, and then he remembered hearing the doctor tell about a
certain thing that laid up a patient for two or three weeks and threatened to make him
lose a finger. So the boy eagerly drew his sore toe from under the sheet and held it up
for inspection. But now he did not know the necessary symptoms. However, it seemed
well worthwhile to chance it, so he fell to groaning with considerable spirit.
Mark Twain

Marks
1. Where was Tom when he was doing his thinking? (1)
2. What prospect was making him miserable? (1)
3. What made the misery worse on Mondays? (1)
4. What was the purpose of his thinking? (1)
5. What three ideas did he have for achieving his purpose? (3)
6. What caused him to reject his first idea? (1)
7. How do we know he thought the second idea was better? (1)
8. Why did he not adopt this second idea? (1)
9- How did he set about carrying out his third plan? (1)
10. What weakness can you see in this third plan? (1)
11. In what sense was Tom facing captivity and fetters? (1)
12. What is meant by the words “canvass” (compare “canvas”) and “system”? (2)
13. What would Tom do in “canvassing his system”? (2)
14. In the phrase “came into court with that argument” what court is meant, and what
argument? (2)
15. What is meant by holding the tooth “in reserve”? (1)
16. What is the difference between a symptom and an ailment? (2)
17. What words used in the passage refer to feelings
, and what other wordsrefer to
thinking
? (3)
Total 25
 Tests in Comprehension

Test 11
Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions which follow:

Africa is the second largest continent and is a land of great contrasts. It has burning
deserts and luxurious forests teeming with animal life.

North of the Sahara Desert on the Mediterranean Coast are the Arab States, to the
South are the ex-colonies, now self-governing. Europe is only 9 miles from the North
African coast at the Straits of Gibraltar. To the North East, in Egypt, the Suez Isthmus
joins Africa to Asia. The Isthmus is cut by the 72-mile stretch of the Suez Canal which
provides passage for ships from the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean and the
Atlantic.

i The equator passes through the centre of Africa at Mount Kenya, and most of the
continent lies in ‘the tropics’, i.e. between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn.

Because of Africa’s smooth coastline there are few inlets and bays.

' The largest island is the Madagascar Democratic Republic in the Indian Ocean. The
Cape Verde Islands, the Canaries, and Madeira are all groups of islands off the North
West coast.

Most of the land is one vast plateau. There is only a narrow coastal plain in most places
but this broadens in the North East and North West. The plateau is stepped, and on
each “step” there are wide flat tracts of land with few mountains.

One remarkable feature of the geography of the continent, and indeed of the world, is
the great Rift Valley, formed where the land has sunk between two faults in the Earth’s
' crust. One branch of this Rift is occupied by Lake Albert in Uganda, Lake Tanganyika,
Lake Nyasa and the last 200 miles of the course of the Zambesi River. The other branch
runs through Kenya from Lake Nyasa and is occupied by the Red Sea in the North,
continuing up the Gulf of Aqaba and the valley of the river Jordan in Asia.

» There are three great deserts which form two fifths of the continental area, the Sahara
in the North (largest in area) the Kalahari in the South and the Namib along the South
West coast.

The highest mountain is Kilimanjaro, with its 19,340 feet (5895 metres) Uhuru Peak
i which is always snow-covered though almost on the Equator. This and other mountains
are volcanic in origin and a few volcanoes are still active. The Atlas mountains cut off
the Sahara from the Western Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The second largest fresh­
water lake in the world, Lake Victoria, lies between the two arms of the Rift Valley.

i Africa’s rivers include some of the longest in the world. The Nile drains huge areas from
the Equator to the Mediterranean providing Egypt with rich silt for crops and water to
irrigate them. The Congo basin is one of the world’s great tropical rainforests. The
Niger probably waters more countries than any other river. The Zambesi boasts the
world’s greatest waterfalls and, like the Volta, has been put to work to provide millions
> with electricity.
Tests in Comprehension

1. The passage is about:

A. the Sahara Desert B. the geography o f Africa
C. the African coastline D. the Tropic o f Capricorn.
2. Which of these has nothing to do with the passage?
A. the Madagascar Republic B. drilling for oil
C. the Sahara Desert D. the Indian Ocean.
3. From the passage we learn:
A. Africa is the second largest continent
B. Africa is a winter resort o f migrant birds
C. Africa is moving slowly (drifting)
D. Africa has four deserts.
4. According to the passage, Africa is:
A. one vast plateau B. full o f deserts and mountains
C. surrounded by islands D. made up o f jungle.
5. The Atlas Mountains
A. lie beside the Mediterranean meet the Indian Ocean
B.
C. join Egypt at the Suez Canal
D. cut off th'e Sahara from the Western Mediterranean.
6. From the passage we can conclude:
A. Africa has a rocky coastline
B. Africa is surrounded on three sides by Oceans
C. it is possible to sail right round Africa
D. snow is unknown in Kenya.
7. The largest island off the African Coast is:
A. Madeira B. Canaries
C. the Cape Verde Islands D. the Madagascar Republic.
8. There is a narrow coastal plain:
A. to the North around the Atlas mountains
B. south o f the Equator
C. to the south-west at the Namib desert
D. in most places.
9. From the passage we learn that the great Rift Valley was formed by
A. erosion due to weather volcanic eruptions
B.
C. sinking o f the land between cracks in the earth’s crust
D. rivers gouging out a channel for themselves.
10. From the passage, which of these is not a feature of African geography?
A. the Kalahari Desert B. ships in the Suez Canal
C. the smooth coastline D. the great plateau.
11. Where does the Mediterranean meet the Atlantic?
A. at Madagascar B. Lake Victoria
C. at Gibraltar D. near the Sahara Desert.
Standard English Pronunciation
Unless you pronounce your words correctly giving the vowels and consonants their correct
value, the sounds which you make will not be understood. In this chapter we set out most
of the variety of sounds used in speaking English, give you practice in these sounds and
identify, and help you to avoid, the common errors of speech. Throughout this chapter,
where further practice is considered desirable, reference has been made to the lists of
words inSounds of Words Books 1 or 2 (published by Hodder Gibson). Although the
Sounds of Words (SOW) books were written for a much younger age group they are the
most systematic and thorough Phonic books on the market.

We will start with the simple single vowel sounds and proceed by easy stages to cover and
give practice in all the necessary sounds. Remember to practise the starters until you sound
perfect before going on to complete words.

Some *a' sounds

Practise starters m a \p a \ ra\ c a \fa \
ma’n, pa’n, ra’n, ca’n, fa’n, Dan, Sam, Pam, tan, yam.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 7 & 8.)

Some ‘e ’ sounds
Practise starters be\ le\ k e \p e \ te\
be’g, le’g, ke’g, pe’g, Te’d, bed, led, fed, sell, fell.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 11 & 12.)

Some T sounds
Practise starters wi\ ki\ i\ bi\
will, wi’n, ki’d, li’d, bi’ll, lip, sip, pick, sick, wick.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 15 & 16.)

Some ‘o ’ sounds
Practise starters fo', no', lo\ so’.
fo’g, no’d, lo’g, no’t, so’p, bog, cot, dog, for, got.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 19 )

Some *«’ sounds

Practise starters gu\ b u \c u \d u \
gu’n, gu’m, bu’n, cu’t, du’ll, bus, cup, fur, hurt, just.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 21 & 22.)
Standard English Pronunciation

Revision
it, pat, pig, us, van, mat, jug, bed, lad, met, mutt, tan, led, yam, cup, dog,
Meg, hog, hug, sip.
For further revision in the sounds you have just learned, turn to SOW
Book 1, page 23.
ck '
Remember to prolong the vowel and emphasise the final ‘ ck'.
Practise starters ba\ ne\ ti\ to', su
’.
ba’ck, ne’ck, ti’ck, to’ck, su’ck, lack, peck, sick, lock, luck.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 25.)

Em phasise the final consonants

damp, send, kept, pack, rust, went, sand, text, rack, pump.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 27, 28, 29, 30.)
Get the ‘starters’ co rrect
bla’ck, cri’sp, sti’ck, tra’mp, sta’ck, dre’ss, dru’m, lucky, sorry, fuzzy.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 32, 33, 35.)

The m issing ‘e ’
e
The final ‘ ’ is not pronounced in certain words,
candle, dazzle, paddle, fizzle, battle, cattle, kettle, puddle.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 39 )

The ‘sfe’ sound

Practise the lsh'
‘starters’ sha', she', shi’, sho shu'.
’,
shirt, shop, sham, shell, shed, shut, shock, shot, short, shod.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 41.)
Note that ‘s h’
at the end of the words has the same sound,
fish, dish, crush, crash.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 42.)

The ‘ffc’ sounds

th
Practise the ‘ ’ starters and endings.
thumb, cloth, wrath, lath, that, thong, thing, them, bath.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 43 & 44.)
The ‘cfe’ sound
Practise the starters and endings.
chick, church, match, branch, latch, batch, chap, chip, check.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 45 & 46.)

The l w h ’ sound
Practise the starters whi', wha', whe'.
whi’p, whi’sk, whi’stle, wha’t, when, where, whit, whack, whiz, whim.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, pages 47 & 48.)
 Standard English Pronunciation

The ‘ng’ sound

wing, bang, sting, hang, sang, rang, long, rung.
(For further practice SOW Book 1, page 50.)
a-e
The silent le' a
changes the ‘ ’ sound.
The silent ‘e’makes ‘a ’
as in man,
sound as in a day, hay, lay.
ba’ke, ba’se, ha’re, ta’ble, case, lake, make, cake.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 4 5.) &
i- e
The silent le'changes the T sound.
The silent ‘e’ changes the as in lip, pip
to T as in fire.
Practise starters fi', m i',pi\ li', hi\
fire, mine, pipe, like, hide, dice, white.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages & 7.) 6
o- e
The silent le’
changes the ‘o ’ sound as in rod
to the ‘o ’ as in rode.
nose, toes, roes, goes, prose, floes, notes, mote, rote.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 8 9.) &
u-e
The silent ‘e ’ changes the lu'
sound as in tub, rub
to the ‘m’ as in tube.
cube, tune, cure, use, rude, pure, glue, blue, true.

y
The y sounds like T.
Practise the ‘y ’
sound - fly, sky, try, dry, fry, cry, shy, by, my.
7 ’

Practise this new 7’ sound.

tie, die, died, cried, fried, tried, spied, shied.
T Another sound
child, wild, mild, kind, hind, mind, blind, find, bind, rind.

Revision a - e, i - e, o - e, u - e,
y, i.
Remember to sound your starters and go over the sounds you have just learned.
Remind yourself of the various similar and T sounds. ‘y '
(For further revision SOW Book 2, pages 12 13.) &
lay' , ia i>
‘ay’ as in play and hay sounds the same as la f in rain and sail.
tray, may, say, pail, mail, day, Kay, jay, pray, wait.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 14 & 15.)
Standard English Pronunciation

‘ee’ as in see, wee, wheel, week

seek, leek, feel, heel, keep, meet, peek, reek, seek, deer, jeer, seer.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 16 & 17.)

ie d >
"ea' as in ear and eat sounds the same as the ‘ee' sound,
pea, sea, lea, dear, tear, fear, gear, hear, near, rear.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 18 & 19.)
qu' = k w
‘ qu'
as in queen, squeak, quack.
quads, quail, quake, quart, quench, quick, quest, quiet, quit, quiz.

‘o o ’
‘oo’ as in soot, rook , book requires considerable practice in the starters roo’, boo', too',
coo'.
rook, pool, took, tool, hook, cook, nook.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 22 & 23.)
‘o if’ ‘o « ’ (Two similar sounds)
ow
‘ ’ as in now.
how, brown, bow, dower, power, row, sow, tower.
‘ou' as in out.
flour, found, shout, ouch, sound, round.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 24 & 25 )
‘w a ’ ‘a w ’ talV
‘wa ’ as in warm is a similar sound to 'aw' as in saw. and the ‘a ’ in all says ‘aw' as in
ball.
‘wa' as in wad.
waddle, waffle, walk, wallet, walrus, waltz, war, ward, warn, wash.
‘aw ' as in awful.
awning, awkward, bawl, dawn, dawdle, fawn, hawk, lawn.
‘all' as in tall.
stall, ball, call, fall, gall, hall, mall, wall.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 26 27.) &

The ‘oa'
sound is that of a long ‘o ’ as in loaf
goat, goal, oak, soak, oar, oats, boat, coat, coast, foam, goal, hoax.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 28 29.) &
 Standard English Pronunciation

oiv
The ‘ ’ sound, usually at the end of a word, is that of a long ‘o ’ as in slow.
below, arrow, sparrow, barrow, harrow, narrow, stow, row, crow, throw, lower, snow
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 30 & 31.)

‘c e ’ = s
ce
The ‘ ’ sound is that of as in ‘s' mice.
lace, voice, face, choice, dice, cedar, cease, dance, lance, glance.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, pages 32 & 33.)

‘g e ’ ~ j
The ‘g e’
sound is that of as in f rage.
cage, hinge, gem, gender, general, gentle, sage, savage, lunge, manage, strange.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 34.)
Revision
Go back to the laf, ‘a y’
sounds and, doing a few starters, say aloud five of each sound
up to ‘ ge\
(Further revision SOW Book 2, page 35.)
The silent lk'
lk
’ before ‘ra’ is silent as in knot.
knee, knife, knock, kneel, knot, knob, know, knoll, knell.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 36.)

The silent *w’

‘w’
before Y
is silent as in wreck.
wrong, wrap, write, wretch, wren, writhe, wrath, wring, wrisdet, wrench, wrestle.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 37.)

The silent ‘6*

lamb, thumb, dumb, numb, crumb, bomb, comb, climb.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 38.)
The silent ‘f’
whistle, castle, wresde, bustle, rustle, listen, often, soften, glisten, hustle.
(For further practice SOW Book 2, page 38.)
Spelling Guide
Advice
Remember the appearance of difficult words you meet in books.

Your mind’s eye is a great aid to good spelling and will often tell you what is right (or
wrong).
Consult your dictionary if in any doubt.
Pronounce words correctly when you speak. For example:
r
Pronounce the after the inb February.
Pronounce theg in recognise.
Pronounce secretary as four syllables, and so on.
Your ear will then help you to avoid many mistakes.

Though English spelling refuses to be bound by rules, some rules are worth studying for
the help they can give.

i before e, except after c

The rule is only partly true, but can be improved thus:
‘If sounded as ee, i e,
then before except after c.
If they sound ay or eye, then e before

This table shows the variety of cases:

Sounded as: Spelling Examples and Exceptions

ee in see ie belief, cashier, chief, hygiene, grieve, siege.
Exceptions: protein, seize, weir, weird, and personal
names like Neil, Reith, Sheila.
i in bit ie sieve, mischief, mischievous, handkerchief.
Exceptions : foreign, forfeit, surfeit,
ee in see ei ceiling, conceive, deceit, perceive, receipt.
(after c) Exceptions: specie, species (and see below),
ay day
in ei eight, neighbour, reign, sovereign, weigh.
ey eye
in ei eiderdown, either, height, neither, sleight.
e met
in ei heifer, leisure.
Exceptions: friend, lieutenant,
separate i +e diet, glazier, soviet, science.
separate e +i deity, homogeneity.
Note: ie ci
is found after c where sounds shin:
ancient, conscience, deficient, efficient, proficient, sufficient.
 Spelling Guide

Plurals of Nouns
English nouns have a great variety of plural forms - one result of inheriting and borrowing
from many languages:
-s added to the singular - by far the most common form.
bats, bones, days, keys, chiefs, pianos.

-es added to the singular where the singular ends in -s or another sibilant (hiss) sound,
-ss, -x, -sh, -ch.
asses, lynxes, wishes, torches, lunches.

-s is added to most singulars ending in -o but -es to some, and either -5 or es to others.
-s for Italian, Spanish, art, musical terms, abbreviations
pianos, altos, sopranos, sombreros, photos.
-s for singulars ending in two vowels
shampoos, studios, patios, kangaroos, videos.
-es buffaloes, dominoes, mosquitoes, tomatoes, volcanoes.
-es flamingo(e)s, motto(e)s, stiletto(e)s.
-s or
-ies replaces -y, but not -ay, -ey, -oy, or -uy of singulars,
allies, berries, copies, hobbies, tries, varieties.
-ves replaces or-f -feof the singular in a few words,
elves, shelves, sheaves, wives.
-x is added to the singular - beaux, bureaux (from French).

-i replaces -us as in fungus, fungi; radius, radii (Latin).

-a replaces -um as in stratum, strata; datum, data (Latin).

-ices replaces -ex as in index, indices (Latin).

-es replaces -is as in axis, axes; basis, bases (Greek).

-a replaces -on as in criteria, phenomena (Greek).

See also page 2 for plurals formed by changing a vowel, nouns with two plurals, plurals the
same as singulars, nouns which have no singular, and for further examples.
Spelling Guide

Spelling Words with Suffixes

We add suffixes to words for a variety of purposes - for example, to make plurals, to make
adjectives from nouns, adverbs from adjectives, etc. See pages 2, 72 to 75, 117 to 120.
Quite often the spelling of a base word is changed when a suffix is added. In almost every
case it is the last letter of the base word that is affected.

For example:
y
Final becomes i easy+ly becomes easily.
e
Final is dropped hope+ing becomes hoping.
Final consonant doubled hop+ing becomes hopping.

Final -y
-y
Final after consonants usually becomes i (ie
before ) s
deny, deme-s, dem-ed, deni-al; luxury, luxurious;
beauty, beautiful; marry, marriage; sixty, sixtieth.
Exceptions: 1. Keep the y before -ingand -ist
drying, replying, copying, copyist.
2. shyly, shyness, slyly, slyness, dryness, beauteous (but dryly or drily).
3. people’s names: as in “the Kellys”.

y
Following a vowel, final is normally kept
pay, payable, payment; prey, preys, preyed; boys, boyish; joyful, joyous;
buyer, buying.
Exceptions: paid, unpaid, laid, mislaid, said, slain, daily, gaily, gaiety.

Make a list of these words, close your book, and write correctly spelt new words
formed from them by adding the suffix shown:

buoy, comply, defy delay, display, flay, fry, imply, mortify, multiply, play, ply, pray, prey,
pry, relay, reply, spray (+ ed).
ally, buoy, buy, comply, defy, obey, ply, replay, reply, vary (+ mg').
busy, dirty, fussy, grey, multiply, pray, pretty, silly, worry (-§- er).

deny, duty, envy, justify, pity, play, ply, rely, vary (+ able).

betray, deny, try (+ at).

glory, joy, luxury, penury, victory (+ o il s ).

carry, marry (+ age).

ally, comply, dally, defy vary (+ ance).
 Spelling Guide

Silent -e
Keep the -e before a suffix that begins with a consonant
love, loves, lovely; hate, hateful; safe, safety.
Exceptions: argue, argument; awe, awful; due, duly; nine, ninth; true, truly;
whole, wholly.
Drop the -e before a suffix that begins with a vowel
ic(e)+ed = iced; ow(e)+ing = owing;
haze, hazy; ache, aching; desire, desirous; mature, maturity.
Exceptions:
Keep the -e where the base word ends in -ce -ge
or and the suffix begins
a
with or o
c
this keeps the org soft before the or o a
e.g. noticeable, manageable, courageous.
Keep the -e when adding -ing
if the base word ends in -ee, -oe -ye
or
e.g. seeing, agreeing, decreeing, hoeing, shoeing, canoeing,
eyeing, queueing
(but not in pursue, pursuing; ensue, ensuing).
Keep the -e in dye, singe, tinge
this distinguishes dyeing singeing
from dying singing.
-e i
Change the to when adding -al, -ous
to certain base words ending in -ce
caprice race grace vice
capricious racial gracious vicious.
Make lists of these words,close your book, and write correctly spelt new words formed
from them by adding the suffix shown:
agree, argue, become, die, dine, dye, judge, menace, page, pierce, pursue, queue,
separate, serve, shoe, slope, sue, write (+ ing).
caprice, fame, grieve, nerve, outrage, prestige, space (+ ous).
believe, bridge, change, conceive, defence, deplore, desire, excuse, like, peace,
remove, reverse, service (+ able
or ible).
bare, complete, due, separate, sole, sparse, true, whole (+ly).
approve, dispose, peruse, race, refuse, remove, reverse (+ at).
coincide, cohere, contrive, ignore, emerge, guide, resemble, revere, solve, subside,
urge (+ ance,or + ence,or + ency).
Spelling Guide

Final Consonant - when to double it, and when not to.

The inp hop

is doubled, when -ing
is added, to make hopping.
Yet the in m seem is not
doubled in the word seeming.
The difference is that inhop p
the has only one vowel in front of it, while in seem the
m has two.

The r in confer is doubled in conferring , yet the r in offer is not doubled in the word
offering.
The difference is that, in conferring , the r is in the stressed syllable of the word, while
in offered the r is in an unstressed syllable.

The rule that governs these differences is:

double the final consonant of the base word if
1. it is a single consonant, and
2. there is only a single vowel in front of it, and
3. the suffix to be added begins with a vowel, and,
4. (where the base word has two or more syllables), the final syllable of the base word
is the syllable that is stressed in pronouncing the new
word.

Examples:
Single syllable base words:
bag, bagg-age; beg, begg-ar; fat, fatt-est; red, redd-ish;
madd-en, robb-ed, scrapp-ing; sinn-er, spott-ed, witt-y.

Longer base words (stressed syllable in bold type):

begin occur forbid forget
beginn-er occurr-ed forbidd-en forgett-able
beginn-ing occurr-ence forbidd-ing forgett-ing.
Note the effect of the position of the stress in:
confer defer prefer permitt-ed
conferr-ing deferr-ing preferr-ing elicit-ed
confer-ence defer-ent prefer-able benefit-ed.
allotted acquitted equipping forgettable
balloted limited galloping marketable.

Note that both transferable and transferr/ble are correct, and base words ending in -our
u
drop the before -ous,
but not before -able-.
glamour, glamorous; humour, humorous; honour, honourable.
 Spelling Guide

Exceptions:
1. The final -5 is not doubled in gas-es, but is doubled in
gass-ing, gass-ify.
2. When the suffix -ic is added, final consonants are not doubled: atomic, acidic, botanic,
poetic, systemic.
3- A final -c is not doubled, but when a suffix beginning with e or i is added to the words
mimic, picnic , traffic, the c is supplemented with a ‘k' to keep the hard sound of the c:
mimicked, picnickers, trafficking.
4. A final w, x or y is never doubled, e.g. saw-ing, tax-ation.
5. Where -I is the final consonant, the stress rule is ignored, and final -I is doubled in
unstressed syllables, e.g.
quarrelled, towelling, travellers, libellous, revelling.
Exceptions: paralleled, parallelogram, scandalous, and do not double final -/before -ise,
-ism, ist, -ity, -ize,
- e.g. civil-ise, evangel-ist, formal-ity, imperial-ist, real-ism
(but due//ist and meda//ist do double the -I).
6. The words kidnap, handicap and worship do not follow the stress rule either, and the
final -p is doubled in unstressed syllables in these words:
kidnapped, kidnapper; handicapped, handicapping; worshipper, worshipping.
Say why the final consonant of the base word is not doubled in the following cases:
act-or, sail-or, bow-ing, toil-ing, loud-ness, neat-est, reveal-ed, refrain-ing, exceed-ed,
instalment, derail-ed.

Make a list of these words, close your book, and write correctly spelt new words formed
from them by adding the suffix shown:
develop, garden, jewel, murder, picnic, propel, traffic, scan (+ ef).
comb, envelop, favour, parallel, quit, remit, snub, trim (+ed).
envelop, expel, handicap, instal, mimic, reveal, worship (+ mg').
covet, danger, glamour, humour, libel, marvel, pomp, scandal (+ ous).
actual, civil, moral (+ ity).
humour, journal, medal, novel (+ ist).
bear, favour, honour, prefer, sever, suffer, suit, transfer (+ able).
Spelling Guide

Same Sound - Different Spelling

Words
The English language includes many pairs and trios of words which sound the same but are
spelt differently. See pages 57, 58 for over a hundred examples. One simply has to learn
which word is spelt which way, using a dictionary if necessary.

Licence and practice (nouns) are often confused with license and practise (verbs), and
prophecy (noun) with prophesy (verb). Remember the difference is the same as between
advice (noun) and advise (verb): your ear will tell you the verbs have the 5.
Be sure you do not confuse these spellings:
they’re short for “they are” it’s short for “it is”
their belonging to them its belonging to it
there in that place (no apostrophe)
you’re short for “you are” who’s short for “who is”
your belonging to you whose belonging to whom
no the opposite of yes NOES those voting NO
know be aware nose part of the face

Syllables
The syllables-cede, -ceed and -sede are often confused. It helps to remember that
supersede is the only word with the -sedespelling; exceed, proceed and succeed
are the
only words with the -ceed spelling. All the rest - concede, precede recede,
, etc. - have the
-cede spelling.
Mistakes are often made with the endings -cal and -cle. The adjectives end in -cal and
the nouns in -cle. Remember one of the nouns (names for things') is article. Some of
the adjectives are: clerical magical, musical, physical, practical. Some of the nouns
,
arearticle, bicycle, circle, obstacle, spectacle, vehicle.
Similarly principal (ending in -at) is the adjective and principle the noun. (jPrincipal is a
noun when it is used of the head of a college, but it obtained this meaning only because of
its adjectival sense, the Principal being the top
member of staff).
 Spelling Guide

Vowel Sounds
The following list shows how a single individual vowel sound may be spelt in a
dozen different ways:
Sound of As in Examples of other spellings of the same sound
a bat have, salmon
a bath aunt, heart, clerk, bazaar, palm, hurrah
a bathe nation, tail, pray, campaign, straight, bear, reins, they, reign
weigh, there, gaol, gauge, eh. dahlia
e bet head, said, says, leopard, leisure, any, friend, Thames, bury
e me theme, seen, each, field, seize, key, Caesar, police, quay,
people. Beauchamp. Oedipus
i bit pretty, build, women, sieve, give, lyric, busy
i idle mine, sign, high, height, die, island, aisle, eye, try, indict, lyre
dye, choir
o cot shone, want, laurel, knowledge, vacht. cough
au haul law. tall. talk, ought, aught, broad. Vaughan
o hero follow, heroes, followed, furlough
o note both. toad. toe. dough, mow. brooch, oh. veoman. sew.
Cockburn
oo foot could, wolf
oo fool tomb. shoe. move. soup, through, truth, juice, rude. blue,
sleuth, slew, manoeuvre
u shut blood, son, come, touch, does
u duke duty. due. suit. few. feud. lieu. view, impugn, ewe. vou. vew
oi coin boy, buoy, coign
ou loud down, bowed, bough. McLeod
any unstressed capacity, Sarah, beaches, guinea, forfeit, terrier,
vowel syllables hurried, tortoise, command. Europe, thoroughlv.
cupboard, humour, hurrah, pleasure, bury, monkey.
before an r her. heard, bird, stirred, word, colonel, burst, blurred.
Phrasal Verbs
Component Parts
Many phrases consisting of a verb and either an adverb or a preposition have meanings of
their own not easily deduced from the separate meanings of the two words used in the
phrase. Thus we use the phrase to give up
in the sense of to cease
, e.g. “I mustgwe up
smoking”, without intending any idea of giving
or upward
direction.

In some cases the meaning of at least one of the words used is still apparent in the meaning
of the phrase, e.g. “I shall write up
a full account”, where the word write
still means what it
says, but the word upmeans completely.
In some cases the same phrase may have two meanings, e.g. “You take on (i.e. undertake)
too much.” “Don’t take on
so (i.e. take offence so easily).”

Sometimes a phrase of this kind is simply metaphorical, e.g. “I confessed because I was
leant on
” (i.e. subjected to threats).

Some such phrasal verbs may include more than one adverb or preposition, e.g. “I can’t pul
up with(i.e. suffer) this noise.”

Some verbs, especially one-syllable verbs, are used in this way with a great variety of adverb
or preposition particles, as they are called.

1. Write sentences using each of these verbs with the adverb particle up in such a
way as to show the meaning of the phrase as a phrasal verb.
back bring, buck, do, get, give, lay let, look, make,put, set, turn.
, ,

2. Write sentences showing the meaning of the phrasal verbs formed by adding the
particles shown to the following verbs:
break - down, into, off, out go - against, ahead,
bring - about, in, off, on, along with, at, by, for,
round, to on, on about, over, with
call - off, on, out keep - back, in with, on, on at
carry - off on, out knock - about, back, down, off
come - about, across, by, in for, lay - in, into, off, on
into, o f off, round, to, look - after, out
upon make - for, off, out, up for
do - away with, down, for, put - off, on, out , up with
in, out of, without set - in, off, out
get about, around, at, on, stand - by, for, in, out, up for
on to, over, up to take - after, in, off, on, to, up
give - away, in, out, over turn - down, in, on, out, to