Writing With Sources PDF
Writing With Sources PDF
Writing With Sources PDF
Copyright 1995
The President and Fellows of Harvard University
Contents
List of Text Boxes
Preface
Acknowledgements
Common Questions about Sources
Introduction
1. Integrating Sources into a Paper
1.1 Three Basic Principles
1.2 Rules for Quoting
1.3 Quoting Blocks
1.4 Using Discursive Notes
2. Citing Sources
2.1 When to Cite
2.2 When Not to Cite
2.3 Methods of Citing
2.4 Acknowledging Uncited Sources
3. Misuse of Sources
3.1 Plagiarism
3.2 Other Ways of Misusing Sources
3.3 Disciplinary Consequences
3.4 How to Avoid High-Risk Situations
Appendix A Placing Citations in your Paper
1. Footnote or endnote style
2. In-text style for the humanities
Preface
This booklet is designed to be studied in your Expository Writing course and consulted as necessary
when you write papers or do other assignments using sources. Some students will have been trained in
writing with sources before coming to Harvard; others will have had little or no training. The booklet
aims to help both groups. Without a grasp of the information it contains, you risk taking valuable time
away from the creative process of writing a paper and in certain circumstances could face disciplinary
action. Even if you believe you already understand when and how to cite sources, you should compare
your understanding with the instructions that follow. Your Expository Writing instructor will sup-
plement them with examples and exercises. Don't hesitate to ask about rules or situations that are unclear
to you, since they may come up again in other classes or in the rumored life after Harvard.
Acknowledgments
Expository Writing gratefully acknowledges the support of the Otto C. Fuerbringer Fund in the
development and production of this booklet. Thanks also to those who read drafts of the booklet or gave
advice: Lawrence Buell, Elizabeth Doherty, Stephen Donatelli, John Dowling, Peter Ellison, Patrick
Ford, David Gewanter, Michael Hagen, Dudley Hershbach, Mark Kishlansky Stephen Kosslyn, Susan
Lewis, Harry Lewis, Abigail Lifson, Sue Lonoff, Garth McCavana, Barry Mazur, Greg Mobley,
Gregory Nagy, Suzi Naiburg, Elizabeth Studley Nathans, J. D. Paul, Henriette Lazaridis Power, Sheila
Reindl, William Rice, Ed Tallent, Nancy Sommers, Donald Stone, Janice Thaddeus, Mary Waters,
James Wilkinson.
INTEGRATING SOURCES
INTO A PAPER
1.1 Three Basic Principles
A source can appear in your paper in different ways. You can briefly mention it; you can summarize its
main ideas, events, or data; you can paraphrase one of its statements or passages; or you can quote the
source directly. Let three principles govern your thinking about these options.
FIRST PRINCIPLE: Use sources as concisely as possible, so your own thinking isn't crowded out by
your presentation of other people's thinking, or your own voice by your quoting of other voices. This
means that you should mention or summarize your source, perhaps quoting occasional phrases, unless
you have a good reason to paraphrase closely or quote extensively.
A good reason to paraphrase-to restate in your own words the full meaning of a phrase or passageÑis if
the phrase or passage is difficult, complex, or ambiguous. Unlike a summary, which reduces a text or
passage to its gist, a paraphrase is as long or lo nger than the passage paraphrased. Think of how many
words you would use unpacking the meaning of "a stitch in time saves nine." Another reason to
paraphrase is to avoid using, in a summary, the same phrases your source doesÑto avoid plagiarizing
(see section 3.1d). You need to put the phrases into your own words: to change the language and alter
the structure of the sentence, or else to quote. Good reasons to quote include the following:
● The source author has made a point so clearly and concisely that it can't be expressed more
clearly and concisely.
● A certain phrase or sentence in the source is particularly vivid or striking, or especially typical or
representative of some phenomenon you are discussing.
● An important passage is sufficiently difficult, dense, or rich that it requires you to analyze it
closely, which in turn requires that the passage be produced so the reader can follow your
analysis.
● A claim you are making is such that the doubting reader will want to hear exactly what the source
said. This will often be the case when you criticize or disagree with a source; your reader wants
to feel sure you aren't misrepresenting the sourceÑare n't creating a straw man (or woman). And
you need to quote enough of the source so the context and meaning are clear.
SECOND PRINCIPLE: Never leave your reader in doubt as to when you are speaking and when you
are using materials from a source. Avoid this ambiguity by citing the source immediately after using it,
but also (especia lly when quoting directly) by announcing the source in your own sentence or phrases
preceding its appearance and by following up its appearance with commentary about it or development
from it that makes clear where your contribution starts. Although you d on't need to restate the name of
your source where it's obviousÑcertainly not in every sentenceÑif your summary of a source continues
for many sentences, you should remind your reader that you are still summarizing, not interpreting or
developing.
THIRD PRINCIPLE: Always make clear how each source you use relates to your argument. This
means indicating to your reader, in the words leading up to a source's appearance or in the sentences that
follow and reflec t on it (or in both), what you want your reader to notice or focus on in the source.
Notice how the student writer indicates this in the following excerpt, from a paper analyzing why people
engage in self-destructive behaviors like smoking and drinking:
The student uses her sources concisely and clearly. She summarizes, in passing, Bell's distinction
between types of explanation, which she accepts and applies to her own topic. She reduces Diamond's
10-page argument about smoking and drinking, which she d oesn't accept, to a few sentences and short
quotations. And she merely refers her reader to Schmidt and Wills, who provide support for her claims
that concern about smoking is recent and that Indians smoked tobacco for its pleasant effect. (Later in
the p aper she uses, as primary sources, interviews she conducted with adolescents about their first
smoking and drinking experiences.) She makes clear the relevance of the summary of Diamond to her
argument in the sentence at lines 5-6 that leads up to the sum mary, providing an argumentative context
for it (But ultimate explanations may conflict with proximate evidence) and then again by explicitly
discussing the summarized material in the sentences following the quotation (An apparent problem with
t his explanation). Since her summary of Diamond continues for several lines, she reminds the reader in
the middle of line 15 (he suggests) that she is still summarizing. And she has been careful to paraphrase
at those times in her summary when she may have been tempted merely to repeat her source's words.
her paraphrase, at lines 16-17, is substantially different in both language and sentence structure:
The student excerpt also illustrates one further rule: mention the nature or professional status of your
source if it's distinctive. Don't denote a source in a Psychology paper as "psychologist Anne Smith" or
in an liter ature paper as "literary critic Wayne Booth." But do mention professional qualification,
especially where you are quoting, when it isn't apparent from the nature of the course or paperÑas here,
in a paper for a Social Analysis course, when the stud ent uses a physiologist and a zoologist (Ilines 7-8).
And do describe the nature of a source that is especially authoritative or distinctive: if it's the seminal
article or standard biography, for example, or an especially famous or massive or recent study (line 7),
or by the leading expert or a first-hand witness, etc.
General Principles
(a) Quote only what you need or is really striking. If you quote too much, you may convey the
impression that you haven't digested the material or that you are merely padding the length of your
paper. Whenever possible, keep your quotations under a sentence, short enough to embed gracefully in
one of your own sentences. Don't quote lazily; where you are tempted to reproduce a long passage of
several sentences, see if you can quote instead a few of its key phrases and link them wit h concise
summary.
(b) Construct your own sentence so the quotation fits smoothly into it. The student has done this at If
you must add or change a word in the quotation to make it fit into your sentence, put brackets [ ] around
the altered portion. A source phrase like "nosta lgia for my salad days" might appear in your sentence as
he speaks of "nostalgia for [his] salad days." A source comment like "I deeply distrust Freud's method
of interpretation" might become he writes that he "deeply distrust[s] Freud's method of interpretation."
But always try to construct your sentence so you can quote verbatim, without this cumbersome
apparatus. (If you need only to change an initial capital-letter to a lower-case letter, you may do so
silently, without brackets around t he letter.)
(c) Usually announce a quotation in the words preceding it (as the student does in line 12 with writes
Diamond) so your reader enters the quoted passage knowing who will be speaking and won't have to
reread the passage in l ight of that information. Withholding the identity of a source until a citation at the
end of the sentence is acceptable when you invoke but don't discuss a source (as with Bell, Schmidt, and
Wills in the student excerpt, and commonly throughout science and social-science writing) or when the
identity of the quoted source is much less important than, or a distraction from, what the source saysÑas
for example when you are sampling opinion. In a History paper, for instance, you might give a series o f
short quotations illustrating a common belief in the divine right of kings; in an English paper you might
quote a few representative early reviews of Walt Whitman. In neither case would the identity of the
quoted individuals be important enough to requi re advance notice in your sentence. Otherwise, set up
quotations by at least saying who is about to speak.
(d) Choose your announcing verb carefully. Don't say "Diamond states that," for example, unless you
mean to imply a deliberate pro-nouncement, to be scrutinized like the wording of a statute or a Biblical
commandment. Choose rathe r a more neutral verb ("writes," "says," "observes," "suggests," "remarks")
or a verb that catches exactly the attitude you want to convey ("laments," "protests," "charges," "replies,"
"admits," "claims," etc.).
Technical Rules
(a) Don't automatically put a comma before a quotation, as you do in writing dialogue. Do so only if
the grammar of your sentence requires it (as the sentence at line 11 of the student excerpt on p. 5 does,
whereas the sentence at line 28 does not).
(b) Put a period or comma at the end of a quotation inside the close-quotation mark, as in lines 14 and
28 of the student excerpt; put colons and semi-colons outside the close-quotation mark. But if your
sentence or clause ends in a parenthetical citation, put the period or comma after the citation. (See the
exception for block quotations in 1.3f below.)
(c) Use a slash (/) to indicate a line-break in a quoted passage of poetry, inserting a space before and
after the slash: Hamlet wonders if it is "nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of
outrageous fortune" or physically to act and end them.
(d) Punctuate the end of a quotation embedded in your sentence with whatever punctuation your
sentence requires, not with the source-author's punctuation. In the student's sentence at lines 12-14,
Diamond may or may not en d his sentence after "passed"; but since the student ends her own sentence
there, she uses a period.
(e) Otherwise, quote verbatim, carefully double-checking with the source after you write or type the
words. If you italicize or otherwise emphasize certain words in the quoted passageÑwhich you should
do very rarelyÑadd in parent hesis after your close-quotation mark the phrase (my emphasis) or the
phrase (emphasis added). If the source passage is misspelled or ungrammatical, add in brackets after the
relevant word or phrase the italicized Latin word [sic], m eaning "thus," to make clear that the mistake is
in the source.
ELLIPSIS
Wherever you omit words from the middle of a source passage that you are quoting, insert three
spaced periods to indicate the omission: "Even to take drugs once or twice," Diamond writes, "I must
be strong enough to get past . . . the misery of my first hangover" (199). If a sentence ends within the
omitted portion, add a fourth period after the ellipsis to indicate this. Make sure you don't, by
omitting crucial words, give a false sense of what the full p assage says (see section 3.2a). Don't use
an ellipsis at the start of a quotation, and only use one at the end if you are quoting a block and have
omitted words from the end of the last sentence quoted.
If you need to quote more than five lines of prose or two verses of poetry, set off and indent the passage
as a block. The student on p. 5 does this when she quotes three consecutive sentences of Diamond's book
at line 20 ("I'm strong and I'm superior ") that give a particularly vivid statement of Diamond's theory
and allow her to focus her criticisms on something specific. In most college papers, especially in the
sciences and social sciences, try to avoid quoting blocks. Long passages of other pe ople's voices and
ideas can drown out your own, and they take up space that you should devote to your analysis. But some
fields, and certain kinds of papers, require you to consider the language of a text closelyÑthe language
of a speech by Lincoln, an ar gument by Kant, a medieval treatise on women, an eyewitness account of a
revolution. In such papers you will probably need to quote several blocks for detailed inspection.
(a) Indent all lines 10 spaces from the left margin, to distinguish a block from a paragraph break.
Single-space the block, to demarcate it further, unless you are otherwise instructed. (Manuscript format
for many journals require s double-spaced blocks, and so do some instructors.)
(b) Don't put an indented block in quotation marks; the indenting replaces quotation marks. Only use
quotation marks in an indented block where the source author him- or herself is quoting or is reporting
spoken words (as when Hom er reports Achilles' funeral oration in the Iliad).
(c) Tell your readers in advance who is about to speak and what to be listening for. Don't send them
unguided through a long stretch of someone else's words. Notice how the student sets up the block
quotation in lines 18-19, telli ng us beforehand both what we will be listening to and what we should
listen for: Diamond's characterization of the message that human teenagers send by smoking and
drinking creates an image of a strutting animal.
(d) Construct your lead-in sentence so that it ends with a colonÑpointing the reader ahead (as the
student does at line 19) to the quotation itself. Occasionally, clarity or momentum may be better served
by having the grammar of your lead-in run directly into your quotation, in which case you may require a
comma or no punctuation at all. But this should be the exception, not the rule.
(e) Follow up a block quotation with commentary that reflects on it and makes clear why you needed
to quote it. Your follow-upÑunless you have discussed the quotation in the sentences leading up to
itÑshould usually be at least tw o sentences long, and it should generally involve repeating or echoing
the language of the quotation itself, as you draw out its significance. Any quotation, like any fact, is only
as good as what you make of it. After her block quotation of Diamond, the student follows up at length,
echoing the language of the quotation ("remain alive and healthy," line 28) in her analysis of it. Another
way to state this rule would be: avoid ending a paragraph on a block quotation; end wi th a follow-up
commentary that pulls your reader out of the quotation and back into your own argument about the
quoted material.
(f) When using in-text parenthetic citation, put your citation of a block quotation outside the period at
the end of the last sentence quoted. This makes clear that the citation applies to the whole block, not
only to the last se ntence quoted. Note where the (199) comes at the end of the block quotation in line 24.
You will occasionally want to tell your reader something that neither directly advances your argument
nor acknowledges or documents a source. For this you should use a discursive footnote or endnote.
Except in a long research paper or th esis, use discursive footnotes sparingly; in most cases, if the note is
really interesting enough to include, you should work it into the argument of your paperÑor save it for
(a) briefly amplify, qualify, or draw out implications of your argu-mentÑas on p. 1 of this booklet, and
in the following:
(c) direct your reader to further reading, or mention the ideas of another writer that are similar to yours:
(London: Chatto,
1949) for an excellent summary of gnostic doctrine and a
slightly
different critique of the ontologial argument, stressing
agency
rather than effect.
(d) explain something about your citing system, or about your use of terms, or about the meaning of
your acronyms and abbreviations:
CITING SOURCES
2.1 When to Cite
You cite a source by making a notation or signal in your paper that refers your reader to a place where
you give full publication data about the source. For all types of assignments (papers, problem sets, take-
home exams, computer programs, lab and other reports) and for all types of sources (expert and student,
printed and on-line; textual, numerical, graphic, and oral), you should cite on the following occasions:
(a) Whenever you use factual information or data you found in a source, so your reader knows who
gathered the information and where to find its original form. (But see "common knowledge," section
2.2b.)
(b) Whenever you quote verbatim two or more words in a row, or even a single word or label that's
distinctive or striking, so the reader can verify the accuracy and context of your quotation, and will
credit the source for craftin g the exact formulation. Words you take verbatim from another person also
need to be put in quotation marks, even if you take only two or three words; it's not enough simply to
cite. If you go on to use the quoted word or phrase repeatedly in your paper, however, as part of your
analytic vocabulary, you don't need to cite it each subsequent timeÑprovided you have established the
source initially.
(c) Whenever you summarize, paraphrase, or otherwise use ideas, opinions, interpretations, or
conclusions arrived at by another person so your readers know that you are summarizing thoughts
formulated by someone else, whose author ity your citation invokes, and whose formulations readers can
consult and check against your summary.
(d) Whenever you make use of a source passage's distinctive structure, organizing strategy, or
method, such as the way an argument is divided into distinct parts or sections or kinds, or a distinction is
made between two aspects o f a problem; or such as a particular procedure for studying some
phenomenon (in a text, in the laboratory, in the field) that was developed by a certain person or group.
Citing tells your readers that the strategy or method isn't original with you and all ows them to consult
its original context.
(e) Whenever you mention in passing some aspect of another person's work, unless that work is very
widely known, so readers know where they can follow up on the reference.
When you're in doubt as to whether to cite a source or not, cite. Note that these rules apply even to
sources assigned as readings for a class or included in its sourcebook, to sources that merely summarize
other sources, and to lectures. The fact that your instructor will instantly recognize your use of a course
text doesn't change the need to acknowledge it. Your goal is to write an argument persuasive to all
interested readers, not just to your instructor. Again, it might seem unnecessary to cite bac kground infor-
mation to your argument, such as an account of a work's historical context or a survey of previous work
done on the topic. But even if these matters are common knowledge in the field, if your knowledge of
them isn't first-hand, your r eader needs to know where your version of the background facts came from.
Finally, since a lecture is a carefully constructed presentation by an authority in the field, and may itself
draw on other authorities, you should cite if you use a distinctive idea, phrase, or piece of information
from a lecture. Some instructors may want you to regard their lectures, for the purposes of their class
only, as common knowledge not to be cited; but you should ask about this before using lecture material.
If you find yourself citing sources for almost everything in your paper, or for entire paragraphs, you are
probably giving too much rehash of other people's ideas and need to generate more ideas of your own.
But you may also be citing when you don't need to, as on the following occasions:
(a) When the source and page-location of the relevant passage are obvious from a citation earlier in
your own paragraph. If you refer to the same page in your source for many sentences in a row, you don't
need to cite the source a gain until you refer to a different page in it or start a new paragraph of your
paper (as the student in CHapter 1 doesn't give a page reference for lines 11-14). Note, however, that
your language needs constantly to make clear where you are drawing on a sourc e, not giving your own
ideas, by using phrasing like "Aristotle further observes that ...." It isn't enough, when your paragraph
draws repeatedly on a source, simply to give a single citation at the start or end of that paragraphÑunless
you write each sentence to preclude ambiguity about where the words, ideas, or information come from.
(b) When dealing with "common knowledge," knowledge that is familiar or easily available in many
different sources (including encyc-lopedias, dictionaries, basic textbooks) and isn't arguable or based on
a particular interpretatio n. The date of the Stock Market Crash, the distance to Saturn, the structure of
the American congress, the date of birth of the discoverer of DNA: this is commonly available
knowledge. In the paper excerpted on pp. 4-5, the student doesn't need to cite he r passing reference to
Freud's notion of "oral fixation" (line 5), or to the fact that gentlemen used to have an after-dinner cigar
separate from the ladies (line 32). If she had gone on to say that this after-dinner ritual occured even in
matriarchal so cietiesÑan unfamiliar ideaÑshe would have needed to cite a source. Obviously, what
counts as "common knowledge" varies from situation to situation; when in doubt, askÑor cite anyway,
to be safe. Note that when you draw a great deal of information from a single source, you should cite
that source even if the information is common knowledge, since the source (and its particular way of
organizing the information) has made a significant contribution to your paper.
(c) When you use phrases that have become part of everyday speech: you don't need to remind your
reader where "all the world's a stage" or "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" first appeared, or
even to put such phrases i n quotation marks.
(d) When you draw on ideas or phrases that arose in conversation with a friend, classmate, or
Teaching FellowÑincluding conversation in section and by e-mail or other electronic media. You should
acknowledge help of this kind, how ever, in a note (see section 2.4 below). Be aware that these people
may be themselves using phrases and ideas from their reading or lectures; if you write a paper that
depends heavily on an idea you heard in conversation with som eone, you should check with that person
about the source of the idea. Also be aware that no Teaching Fellow will appreciate your incorporating
his or her ideas verbatim into your paper, but will rather expect you to express the ideas in your own
way and to develop them.
When you cite sources is more important than how you cite them, but knowing how makes it easier to
know when. The basic requirements are to give your reader enough information to locate your source,
and to be clear and consistent in the way you give it. "Enough" information means the author's name, the
title of the item and of any volume that includes it, the date of the volume's publication, and often the
particular page number to which you refer. When the volume is a journal, you need to give its volu me
number and the inclusive page numbers of the item; when it's a book, you need to give the place of
publication and usually the name of the publisher. On-line, oral, and other sources require further
information.
Several recognized styles of presenting this information are detailed in Appendices A and B. Most styles
use one of three basic methods:
(a) Sequential Notes: In this method, you insert a raised reference numeral into your paper after a
sentence in which you use source-materialÑor, if required for clear attribution, after a particular phrase
in the middle of your sentence. This numeral refers your reader to a note at the bottom of the page
(footnotes) or end of the paper (endnotes) that begins with the same numeral and gives information
about the source. In
the raised 7 refers the reader to this note that gives source and page:
Citing by footnotes or endnotes adds minimal clutter into the body of your paper, and it disrupts the flow
of your sentences less than other citation methods.
(b) In-Text Citing: In this method you indicate in the text of your paper itself not only the name of the
source author, but also either the number of the specific page on which the information, idea, or passage
is found (i n the humanities) or the year in which the source was published (in the social sciences and
sciences), or both (in a social-sciences variation). The author's name may appear in the sentence itself or
in parentheses; the page number or year o f publication always appears in parentheses. This sentence
uses author-page style:
These signals in the sentence refer the reader, in author-page citing, to an alphabetical list of "Works
Cited" whose entries look like this:
Since author-page citing keeps the exact page-location in the source attached to your use of the source
passage in your paper, it works well for papers about longer texts, and for literary or philosophical
papers that quote and examine passages closely or examine many different passages from the same
source. See pages 32-3 and 40-51 for details of MLA style.
Author-year and author-year-page signals refer to an alphabetical list of "References," whose format
emphasizes date of publication:
Author-year citing emphasizes year, rather than page number, because in a Biology or Psychology paper
you are usually citing authors who over the years have written many short papers on a subject, in a
steady process of developing, testing, and correcting hypotheses. And you are usually citing those papers
for their main idea or findingÑnot for a particular aspect or section of a paper, or for the wording of a
particular passage. Author-year-page style accommodates social scientists (like anthropologists) who
work as often with passages from books as with articles. Pages 35-6 and 40-51 give specifics of APA,
CBE, and an author-year-page style.
(c) Coding: Many journals in the sciences require you to identify each of your sources by a symbol or
markerÑusually a numeral but sometimes an initial letter of one or more author surnames. This numeral
or letter appears in parentheses or brackets in your paper each time you refer to that source, and it refers
to a list of "References" at the end of the paper. Often sources are coded by order of their first mention in
the paper. This sentence cites the third source mentioned :
Even if this source is cited again, late in the paper, it is still identified by its code number (3); and it
appears third in your list of references. In another version of the method, sources are coded by their
number in an alphabetic list of referencesÑ in which case the (3) in the example above would refer to the
third source in the alphabetic list. Or, if you were coding by initials, Diamond might be cited at the end
of the sentence as [D], and listed after the symbol [D] in an alphabetical list of re ferences. An article by
Wallace, Dobbs, and Hershey might be coded as [WDH].
Like footnoting, coding has the advantage of requiring little apparatus in your text. And like in-text
citing, it eliminates the need to make a note each time you use a certain source. It's appropriate for
papers in the sciences, including Biology, Physi cs, Chemistry, and Math, where sources are mostly brief
articles that you don't directly quote.
Any time you write a paper of more than a few pages, you draw on many influences: both sources you
cite and less immediate or formal sources such as the lessons of former teachers, conversations with
friends, class discussions, books you read in the summ er or for other classes. When you have benefitted
substantially from information or ideas in sources like these that don't appear in your list of references,
you should acknowledge their help in a footnote or endnote of acknowledgment. Do ing so shows you
to be both generous and intellectually self-aware.
If you are acknowledging help of a general kind, evident throughout your paper, put the raised reference-
number for the note immediately after your title or at the point at which you first state your main idea,
and put the note at the bottom of your fir st page or at the beginning of your endnotes. If you are
acknowledging help on a specific point, put the note at the bottom of that page or at the appropriate
point in your sequence of footnotes or endnotes. Some samples:
7. I am indebted for this observation and for the term "self-researching" to Susan Lin's
comments in Anthro 25 section (2/6/94).
1. I wish to thank Roberto Perez for his objections to an earlier draft of this paper. 1. Work
for this assignment was done in collaboration with Vanessa Praz, who is mostly
responsible for the "methods" section.
6. I owe this example to Norma Knolls, whose help in understanding the mathematics of
decision theory I gratefully acknowledge.
2. In this paper I use an analogy between soul and state developed in Prof. Caroline Hill's
lectures for Government 144, Harvard University, fall term 1993-94.
MISUSE OF SOURCES
3.1 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is passing off a source's information, ideas, or words as your own by omitting to cite themÑan act
of lying, cheating, and stealing. Plagiarus means kidnapper, in Latin, because in antiquity plagiarii were
pirates who sometimes s tole children: when you plagiarize, as several commentators have observed, you steal
the brain child of another.2 But since you also claim that it's your own brain child, and use it to get credit for
work you haven't really done, you al so lie and cheat. You cheat your source of fair recognition for his or her
efforts, and you cheat the students who have completed the same assignment without plagiarizing.
Incidents of plagiarism vary in seriousness and in circumstance. Occasionally, a student is truly confused
about the rules of acknow-ledgement, or obliviously incorporates a few vivid phrases from a source. And
occasionally, at the other end of the scal e, a student calmly plagiarizes a whole paper because he or she
simply doesn't care about a course, or is unwilling to give it any time. Most often, however, the plagiarist has
started out with good intentions but hasn't left enough time to do the reading and thinking that the assignment
requires, has become desperate, and just wants the whole thing done with. At this point, in one common
scenario, the student gets careless while taking notes on a source or incorporating notes into a draft, so the
source' s words and ideas blur into those of the student, who has neither the time nor the inclination to resist
the blurring. In another scenario, the student simply panics and plagiarizes from a secondary source or from
another studentÑcopying from the source d irectly or slightly rephrasingÑhoping to get away with it just this
one time.
Plagiarism can occur on any kind of assignment, from a two-page problem set or response paper to a 20-page
research paper. More common than wholesale copying, especially in longer papers, is piecemeal or mosaic
plagiarism, in which a st udent mixes words or ideas of a source (unacknowledged) in with his or her own
words and ideas, or mixes together uncited words and ideas from several sources into a pastiche, or mixes
together properly-cited uses of a source with uncited us es. But at any point in any paper, plagiarism usually
takes one of these forms:
(a) An uncited idea: In the first paragraph on the preceding page, the fact that the Latin root of the word
"plagiarism" is plagiarus or kidnapper is knowledge commonly available in dictionaries, so it doesn't need
citing. The move from this fact to plagiarism as stealing a brain child is a distinctive idea, and (unless it's your
own idea) it does need citing. And if, having read that paragraph on the preceding page, you write in an essay
of your own about plagiaris m in Ivy League colleges that "etymologically, plagiarizing involves taking the
brain child of another" and that "plagiarism involves the dastardly trio of lying, cheating, and stealing," you
plagiarize an idea in both cases, if you don't cite this bookle tÑeven though your language differs from that of
your source.
(b) An uncited structure or organizing strategy: If, having read the second paragraph on the previous page,
you break down your own analysis of plagiarism into (a) patch plagiarizing out of ignorance of the rules or
obliviousness, (b) wholesale plagiarizing out of indifference or laziness, and (c) plagiarizing in a time-panic,
and then you say that those who plagiarize in a time-panic do so either by (1) careless note-taking or (2)
deliberate copying, you are plagiarizing a distin ctive intellectual structure or way of proceeding with a
topicÑeven though the language of your own discussion differs from that of the booklet.
(c) Uncited information or data from a source: If, in your essay on plagiarism, you observe that Harvard
College acted on 25 cases of academic dishonesty in 1993-94, and you don't cite this booklet or the User's
Guide to the Administrative Board, you are plagiarizing information. Commonly plagiarized kinds of
information include details of a topic's historical background or accounts (in secondary sources) of previous
work done on the topic.
(d) A verbatim phrase or passage that isn't quoted: If, in your essay on plagiarism, after reading the second
paragraph on the previous page, you observe that "at a certain point in the writing process the student has
neither the time nor the inclination to resist the blurring of his source's words into his own" but don't use
quotation marks at least for the words in the middle of the sentence, you are plagiarizing even if you do cite
the booklet. You may fix on certain words in a source as more striking or apt than those around them, but this
is all the more reason to give credit for the words by quoting.
(a) Misrepresenting Evidence: When you have an idea or inter-pretation that you wish to be trueÑespecially
when the assignment is due in a few days or hoursÑyou may be tempted to fudge your evidence to make it
seem true. You may be tempted, for example, to ignore evidence that you know doesn't fit your interpretation,
in which case you are simply betraying your own intelligence. But you may also be tempted into more serious
misuses: quoting a source out of context or in misleadin g excerpts, so it seems to say what you want; or
claiming that a source says something it doesn't; or, even more seriously, altering or fabricating a source or
some data. Since these misuses violate the basic principle of academic inquiry (valid reasoning based on true
evidence), and may suggest an inclination to commit similar errors in later life, serious abuses will result in
serious action by the course, department, or Administrative Board.
(b) Improper Collaboration: This occurs when two students submit more or less identical written work for an
assignment on which they have worked together. Collaborative discussion and brainstorming is a vital activity
of profess ional scholars, especially in the sciences; but these scholars not only acknowledge in each
completed article the contribution of other discussants, but write the article on their ownÑor else submit a
single article under two or more names. When you are a sked to collaborate on a project but required to submit
separate papers, you must write up your paper on your own, acknowledging the extent of your collaboration in
a note (see section 2.4).
You and your partner should not compose the report or exam answer as you sit together, but only take notes. If
you divide up aspects of the assignment (assuming the instructor permits this) you should not write up your
aspect for your partner, but bring your notes to your meeting. And you should discuss each other's notes, not
just photocopy them. Finally, beware of letting your partner read over your finished report at the last minute in
a panic, especially if you have put in most of the work on the pr oject; you may be tempting your partner to
plagiarize. Professional scholars do ask one another to read drafts; but in these cases only one paper is being
produced, not two. If you're unsure about your instructor's policy on collaboration, ask.
(c) Dual Submission: Harvard's policy on this matter is spelled out in the Handbook for Students:
It is the expectation of every course that all work submitted to it will have been done solely for
that course. If the same or similar work is submitted to any other course, the prior written
permission of the instructor must be obtained. I f the same or similar work is submitted to more
than one course during the same term, the prior written permission of all instructors involved
must be obtained. A student who submits the same or similar written work to more than one
course without prior p ermission will ordinarily be required to withdraw from the College.3
Don't take it upon yourself to decide, without consulting your instructor, that work you plan to submit for a
course, though in many places identical to work you turned in for another course, is "different enough" by
virtue of small changes you have made, or an added section, or an altered introduction or conclusion. And
don't, when you are running late and need to submit a paper, simply submit a version of the paper you
submitted for another course. Either act will bring you before the Administrative Boa rd. (Be aware that,
should your instructors give you permission for dual submission, they will likely require from you a longer
paper than they require of other students in the course.)
(d) Abetting Plagiarism: You are also guilty of misusing sources if you knowingly help another student
plagiarizeÑwhether by letting the student copy your own paper, or by selling the student a paper of yours or
somebody else's, or by writing a paper or part of a paper for the student: as, for example, when in the course of
"editing" a paper for another student you go beyond correcting mechanical errors and begin redrafting
significant amounts of the paper. Any of these actions m akes you liable to disciplinary action by the College.
(If another student asks you for help with a paper, try whenever possible to phrase your comments as
questions that will draw out the student's own ideas.)
Not all cases of academic dishonesty are discovered Ñ in 1993-94 Harvard College acted on 25 cases4Ñbut
Harvard policy requires instructors to report all suspected cases to the Dean of the College, and most such
cases are ultimately adju dicated by the Administrative Board. If the majority of Board members believe, after
considering the evidence and your own account of the events, that you misused sources, they will likely vote
that you be required to withdraw from the C ollege for at least two semesters.
Since a vote of requirement to withdraw is effective immediately, you lose all coursework you have done that
semester (unless it's virtually over), along with the money you have paid for it. You must leave Cambridge;
any return to campus will vio late the terms of your withdrawal. You must find a full-time job, stay in it for at
least six months, and have your supervisor send a satisfactory report of your performance in order to be
readmittedÑin addition to writing a statement to the Administrativ e Board demonstrating your readiness to
return to the College. You may be required, during the semester of your return, to complete a series of private
tutorials and exercises on the use of sources, administered through the Program in Expository Writing. Finally,
any letter of recommendation written for you on behalf of Harvard CollegeÑincluding letters to graduate
schools, law schools, and medical schoolsÑwill report that you were required to withdraw for academic
dishonesty. If you are required to withdraw for a second time, you will not, ordinarily, be readmitted.
If the Administrative Board finds that you misused sources, but did so out of genuine confusion, you may be
placed on probation for a time specified by the Board, and required to complete tutorials on the use of
sources. Probation is a f ormal sanction and remains on your Harvard record. It does not appear on your final
transcript, but many professional and graduate schools require Harvard to report whether an applicant has been
placed on disciplinary probation. More information about Adm in-istrative Board procedures and sanctions
can be found in the User's Guide, available from your Assistant Dean or Senior Tutor, and in the Handbook
for Students.
You are liable to disciplinary proceedings and requirement to withdraw even if a misuse of sources is
discovered after you have received a grade for the course. If the Administrative Board determines that you
indeed misused sources, the instructor will b e informed and your grade may be changed.
Students who misuse sources usually don't set out to; they usually plan to write a thoughtful paper that
displays their own thinking. But they allow themselves to slip into a situation in which they either misuse
sources out of negligence or come to beli eve that they have no choice but to misuse sources. Here are some
suggestions for avoiding such situations, based on Administrative Board records of students who did just the
opposite.
1. Don't leave written work until the last minute, when you may be surprised by how much work the
assignment requires. This doesn't mean that you need to draft the paper weeks in advance (you can start
working on a paper by simply jotting a few words or thoughts somewhere), but it does mean looking over the
instructions for the assignment early on, jotting any first impressions, clearing up any confusions with your
instructor, and getting the topic into your subsconscious mind, wh ich can help you flag potentially useful
material in subsequent reading and lectures. (If you feel you have a special fear or block about writing papers,
or procrastinate excessively, or just don't seem to be able to organize and prioritize work, make an
appointment at the Bureau of Study Counsel.)
2. Don't use secondary sources for a paper unless you are asked or explicitly allowed to. Especially, if you
feel stuck or panicked, don't run to the library and bring back an armload of sources that you hope will jump-
start your o wn thinking. Chances are they will only scatter and paralyze your thinking. Instead, go to your
instructor or section leader for adviceÑor try jump-starting your paper in another way (e.g. by freewriting or
brainstorming, by re-analyzing the assignment it self, by formulating a hard question for yourself to answer,
by locating a problem or conflict, by picking a few key passages and annotating them copiously).
3. Don't rely exclusively on a single secondary source for information or opinion in a research paper. If you
do, your paper may be less well-informed and balanced that it should be, and moreover you may be lulled into
plagiarizing the source. Using several different sources forces you to step back and evaluate or triangulate
them.
4. When you take notes, take pains to distinguish the words and thoughts of the source from your own, so
you don't mistake them for your own later. Adopt these habits in particular:
● Either summarize radically or quote exactlyÑalways using quotation marks when you quote. Don't take
notes by loosely copying out source material and simply changing a few words.
● When you take a note or quote from a source, jot the author's name and page number beside each note
you take (don't simply jot down ideas anonymously) and record the source's publication data on that
same page in your notes, to save yourself having to dig it up as you are rushing to finish your paper.
Save even more time by recording this information in the same order and format you will use for listing
references on your final draft.
● Take or transcribe your notes on sources in a separate word-processing file, not in the file in which you
are drafting your paper. And keep these files separate throughout the writing of the paper, bringing in
source material from your notes only as needed.
5. Take notes actively, not passively. Don't just copy down the source's words or ideas, but record your own
reactions and reflections, questions and hunches. Note where you find yourself resisting or doubting or
puzzling over wha t a source says; jot down possible arguments or observations you might want to make.
These will provide starting points when you turn to write your paper; and they will help keep you from feeling
overwhelmed by your sourcesÑor your notes.
6. Don't try to sound more sophisticated or learned than you are. Your papers aren't expected to sound as
erudite as the books and articles of your expert sources, and indeed your intelligence will emerge most clearly
in a plain, d irect style. Moreover, once you begin to appropriate a voice that isn't yours, it becomes easier
accidentally to appropriate words and ideasÑto plagiarize. Also remember that, when asked to write a research
paper using secondary sources, you are expected to learn from those sources but not to have the same level of
knowledge and originality, or to resolve issues that experts have been debating for years. Your task is to
clarify the issues and bring out their complexity. The way you organize the material t o do this, if you take the
task seriously, will be original.
7. If you feel stuck, confused, or panicked about time, or if you are having problems in your life and can't
concentrate, let your instructor or section leader know. Make contact by e-mail, if it's easier for you, but do
make con tactÑeven if you feel embarrassed because you haven't attended lectures or section or think you're
the only student in the class who is having trouble (you aren't), or if you will have to lose points for a late
paper. Losing points will be a much smaller event, in the story of your life, than being required to withdraw
for plagiarism.
8. Don't ask to borrow another student's paper if you are stuck or running late with an assignment. Reading it
will probably discourage or panic rather than inspire you, and it may tempt you to plagiarize. Instead, ask the
student to help you brainstorm some of your own ideas.
9. Don't write a paper from borrowed notes, since you have no way of knowing the source or the words and
ideas. They may, for example, come directly from a book or lecture, or from a book discussed in lecture.
10. Don't do the actual writing of a paper with another student, or split the writing between youÑunless you
have explicit permission. Even if you collaborate on a project, you're expected to express the results in your
own words.
11. Don't submit to one class a paperÑor even sections of a paperÑthat you have submitted or will submit to
another class, without first getting the written permission of both instructors and filing the permission with
your Senior Tutor or Assistant Dean.
12 Always back up your work on diskette, and make a hard copy each time you end a long working session
or finish a paper. This will reduce your chances of finding yourself in a desperate situation caused by
computer failure.
Don't try to use such a note to cover plagiarism. Your instructor will know from your paper whether you
had your own, well-developed ideas before reading the source, and may ask you to produce your rough
notes or drafts. (To be safe, always hold on to your notes and drafts until a paper has been returned.)
Note: When you encounter a situation not mentioned in Appendix A or B and that can't be
improvised from a situation that is mentioned, consult the more exhaustive manuals listed
in Appendix C. Some instructors may want you to use a citation style other than those
described here: be sure to ask.
In the note style used by the Chicago Manual of Style, put your reference number whenever possible at
the end of your sentence, outside the period and outside a close-quotation mark that follows the period:
For clarity, however, you may occasionally need to put the reference number within your sentence
(where it follows any punctuation except a dash, which it precedes) or to put one number within the
sentence and another at the end:
To reduce the number of notes, you may cite more than one source with a single reference number, but
always make clear what source pertains to what part of your sentence, using the "for/see" formula or
some other. You might cite Diamond and the "others" together at the end of the sentence above, and
document them in a single note:
Citing a source for a second or subsequent time, you need only give the author's surname and a page
reference:
8. Diamond, 196.
If you are using several sources by the author, use an abbreviated title as well:
Special Cases
(a) If you reproduce an artwork or illustration from a source, refer your reader to the figure or
illustration number you have given it (see figure 4) and cite the source immediately below the item by
artist, title, date, and source data :
Illus. 4. KŠthe Kollwitz, Home Worker, 1910 (charcoal 16" x 22", Los Angeles County
Museum). In Women Artists 1550-1950, ed. Anne Sutherland Harris and Linda Nochlin
(New York: Knopf, 1981), 264. < /BLOCKQUOTE> If you reproduce a chart, graph,
statistical table, map, or other illustration from a source, use the procedure described on p.
37. If you have a bibliography, list an artwork by surname of the artist, a chart or graph by
the source text's author.
(b) If you refer to a specific passage in a literary work, clarity may require you to give
the location of the passage in your sentence (at line 23 he writes...). If not, give this
location at the end of your note. For a poem of m ore than 12 lines, give the relevant line
number or numbers, using l. for "line: and ll. for "lines." For a specific passage in a novel
or long poem, give the chapter or section number before giving the page numbe r (Ch. 14,
p. 26). For a passage in a play in verse, instead of page number give act, scene, and line
numbers, separated by a period:
Note that the parenthetic citation goes inside the period that ends your sentence (except
when quoting a block: see section 1.3f ) and that after quoted passages the citation goes
outside the close-quotation mark, since it isn't part of the quotation. Whe n you aren't
discussing or quoting a source, you may put the name in the parentheses with the page
number:
And where it's necessary to make clear that one part of your sentence comes from a source
but another part from you (or another source), you may insert your reference mid-
sentence. But put it at a natural pausing point, and before the punctuation that end s the
clause:
Note that MLA style requires no p. for "page" or pp. for "pages" and no comma between
name and page. If the idea or information you cite comes from two or more sources,
however, include both, separated by a semicolon (Brill 103; Costa and Lerner 132).
Special Cases
(a) If your source has several volumes, give the volume number and a colon before the
page reference, as in (2: 347) or (Winslow 2: 347).
(b) If you use more than one work by the same source, put an abbreviated title of the
source in your citation, to indicate which of the texts you refer toÑhere The Third
Chimpanzee:
(c) If a source has two or three authors, mention all the names in the signal phrase in
your sentence or put them in your parenthetic citation: (Baker, Smythe, and Wills 207). If
a source has more than three authors, use the first surname with et al. ("and others") in
your sentence or in your citation: (Belenky et al.).
(d) If a source gives no author, use an abbreviated form of the title. An anonymous article
called "Lost Tribes of the Gobi" might be cited as ("Lost" 88).
(e) When quoting a source you found quoted in another scholar, and know only from
that quotation, cite the source as "qtd. in" that scholar:
(f) When you refer to a particular passage in a poem, novel, or play: for a novel or poem,
give chapter or line number after page number, using ch. for chapter and l. or ll. for line or
lines:
For a play in verse, cite act, scene, and line number (separated by periods) instead of a
page number.
(g) When you reproduce an artwork or illustration, direct your reader to the figure or
illustration number that you have given it: (see figure 5). Beneath the item, give the artist's
full name, then the name of the work and its d ate. If your paper focusses on the artistic
medium, add also the medium of the work, its dimensions, and its location or owner:
In your list of works cited, document the source from which you have taken the item.
according to #22 in Appendix B. If you reproduce a chart, table, graph, or map, use the
format illustrated on p. 37.
Special Cases
(a) If a source has two authors, cite both authors' names each time you cite: (Balough &
Stearns, 1988). For a source with three to five authors, cite the first time using all the
authors' surnames: (Belenk y, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986), but in subsequent
citations cite only the first surname followed by "et al.": (Belenky et al., 1986). Cite a
source with six or more authors by the first author's surname and et al. fr om the start.
(b) Cite a source you found mentioned in another scholar but haven't read yourself as
(cited in Fiske, 1988). But do this rarely: see p. 14.
(c) If the author is an agency with a long name, name it once the first time in full,
followed immediately by brackets containing the abbreviation that you will use in
parentheses in all subsequent citations: (U. S. Department of H ealth and Human Services,
1989) [USDHHS].
(d) If a source gives no author, use a one or two word abbreviation of the title in your
citation: (Lost Tribes, 1990).
(e) When using more than one source published by the same author in the same year,
cite and document the first as (Stearns and Wyn, 1990a) and the second as (Stearns and
Wyn, 1990b).
(f) When you use an illustration, chart, or table from a source, identify the item by
placing above it a figure or table number, a title, and any required explanation. Put your
citation below the item, starting with the word "Source" o r "From," if you copy directly;
"Redrawn from" if you redraw; and "Modified from" or "Adapted from" if you have made
even minor changes. Then give name, publication data, and page. Include the source again
in your reference list. E.g.:
(g) Don't include in your reference list a personal interview you conducted, a letter or e-
mail message you received, or a conversation you had; give the information in your text:
<A NAME="app_a.4>
If your instructor doesn't require you to use the style of a particular publication, use the
format for references illustrated in Appendix B, and adopt the following procedure for
placing citations in your paper. Assign each source a number based on th e order of first
mention in your paper, and place the reference numbers in parentheses. If possible, place
them at the end of your sentences, but place them elsewhere if necessary for clarity. When
you refer to several sources in the same citation, arr ange them in descending order of
relevance or importance to your point:
When you refer to a source with three or more authors, abbreviate it in your sentence to
the first surname plus et al.:
If you cite a personal communication (in a conversation, letter, or e-mail message) give
the information in your paper, not in your list of references:
If you use an illustration, chart, or table from a source, use the procedure described above
on p. 37.
APPENDIX B
FORMATTING REFERENCES
● No author given?
● Multiple authorship?
● Repeated author?
● In a class sourcebook?
● Indirect source?
● Electronic media?
1. Book
2. Article or work in a journal
3. Article, excerpt, or work in an edited collection
4. Article or work in a non-edited collection by the author
5. Article in a magazine or newspaper
Other Books
Basic Sources
Start your list of endnotes or references on a new page, after the last page of your text. Start footnotes,
on each page, four lines from the bottom of your last line of text, making sure you stop your text soon
enough to fit the entire note on the pa ge. Single space notes and references, unless instructed otherwise,
but double space between them. In the following examples,
nt = footnotes or list of
"Endnotes"
MLA = "Works Cited" list for MLA
author-page citing
APA = "References" list for APA
author-year citing
CBE = "References" list for CBE
author-year citing
ayp = "References" list for author-
year-page citing
cd = "References" or "References and
Notes" list for coding
If you are required to attach a bibliography to your paper, in addition to notes or references, use MLA
format but call the list "Bibliography."
1. Book
nt
MLA
APA
CBE
ayp
cd
If the title page indicates that you are using an edition other than the first, indicate the designated
edition (e.g. "2d ed." or "rev. ed") immediately after the title, as in the last sample. For a volume
published before 1900, omit the name of the publisher (some publications in the fields of history and
classics omit it for all books). If the book is published by a smaller imprint of a large publishing
company (as Belknap is an imprint of Harvard Uni versity Press), cite both as in the first example above.
If a volume has information missing (publisher, place, or date) indicate this with the abbreviations "n.
p." or "n.d"
nt
MLA
APA
CBE
ayp
cd
For journals paginated by issue, not cumulatively by volume, be sure to add the issue number after the
volume. Usually do this by means of a period, as in the Harrison and Koch examples above; but in APA
style, put the issue number in par entheses. Note that APA style underlines volume number, and that it
does not abbreviate journal titles, as CBE and coding style do.
nt
Essay: Old and New, ed. Edward P.J. Corbett and Sheryl L. Finkle
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Blair-Prentice Hall, 1993), 173.
MLA
APA
CBE
ayp
cd
List these sources by their author, not by the collection's editor-unless you are citing the whole volume,
in which case cite by the name of the editor or editors, abbreviating "editor" or "editors" as shown.
nt
MLA
APA
ayp
nt
MLA
APA
CBE
ayp
cd
Don't include a volume number for newspapers or magazines. If the article is an editorial, add the word
"editorial" in brackets after the title. If it's an interview, cite it by the name of the interviewee; give the
name of the interviewer after the titl e, or after the word "Interview" if there is no title. (Note that APA
style puts "pp." before page numbers of a newspaper article or anthology item, but not of a magazine or
journal article.)
Common Variants
● No author or editor given? Start the citation with the title of the source. List the item according
to the title's first word (not counting a, an, or the).
● Three authors?
● Repeated Author?
List entries by the same author in chronological order. In APA and CBE, repeat the author's name or
names in second and subsequent entries. In MLA, use three hyphens instead of the name or names:
In author-year-page citing, indent the first line of a second or subsequent entry by an author three spaces,
omit the author's name, and start with year:
● Indirect Source?
For a source you know only as it is quoted or cited by another scholar, give full publication data for the
original source and for the other scholar, linked by the phrase "quoted in" or cited in." This e xample is
in MLA style:
If the original publication data is provided and the original pagination is visible, cite the item as you
would if you found it in its original source, unless instructed otherwise. If original publication data or
pagination is missing, give what data you can, then add the sourcebook data and page references, giving
your instructor as its compiler. This example (where the original pagination was cut off in
photocopying) is in CBE style:
nt
nt
MLA
"S.v." means sub verbo, "under the word." If the article is credited to a specific author, in MLA, add that
name to the end of your citation: "By William Ott."
7. Review or editorial
nt
MLA
APA
ayp
nt
MLA
ayp
nt
MLA
nt
MLA
Put the title of an archived item that has a title (such as a memorandum) in quotation marks. For an
interview transcript, add interviewer and date.
nt
MLA
APA
CBE
ayp
If the dissertation has been published pr microfilmed, treat it as a book (see #1), but include before the
publication data the designation "diss.", the university, and the year. Note that APA underlines even an
unpublished dissertation.
Other Books
nt
MLA
APA
nt
13. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, No Man's Land, 2 vols. (New
Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1988), 1: 90.
MLA
APA
nt
MLA
Wilder, Thornton. The Bridge of San Luis Rey. 1927. New York:
Washington Square, 1969.
APA
ayp
APA
ayp
If a series editor is listed, supply the name after the series name, as in the Tannen example.
MLA
APA
ayp
Eliade, Mircea. 1959. The sacred and the profane: The nature
of religion. Trans. by Willard Trask. New York: Harvest-
Harcourt.
nt
APA
nt
CBE
Other Sources
nt
MLA
APA
ayp
Performances may also be listed by their playwright, composer, or individual artist, followed by an
abbreviation indicating role (e.g. "cond." "dir." "chor.").
nt
MLA
nt
MLA
List cases by title; give also volume number and abbreviated name of reporting service, starting page-
number in the volume, court that decided the case, and year. Consult the Uniform System of Citation
cited under "law" in Appendi x C.
MLA
Plate 107 of Women Artists 1550-1950. Ed. Anne Sutherland Harris and Linda Nochlin.
New York: Knopf, 1981.
nt
MLA
List by conductor or performer, instead of composer, if appropriate to the focus of your paper. For a
published musical score, replace performance and production data with the score's place of publication,
publisher, and year.
nt
MLA
List by the name of a performer or director, instead of title, if your paper considers that individual's work.
Conventions for citing online sources may not be fixed for some time, given the pace of change in
information technology. The recent advent of the World Wide Web, for example, has al ready
changed radically the way most users of the Internet access sources. But the fact that electronic
sources can be pulled into your paper with dangerous ease, and that technology has also made it
easier for readers to follow up on and benefit from sou rces used by others, you make you all the
more diligent to acknowledge online sources carefully and give enough information to retrieve them.
Begin a citation, in APA, CBE, or ayp style, by giving the author's name, date of publication, and title
of item and any volume that includes it; in note or MLA style, put the title in the middle and the date
third. Then in brackets define the me dium of the source, usually "Online" or "CD-ROM," plus a
descriptor: e.g. [online: web], [CD-ROM database], [online: USENET], [online journal]. Last, after a
period, give the location at which the source is available. For a source on an infor mation service or
database, give the name of the service or database (e.g. ERIC, LEXIS, EconLIT, Dissertation
Abstracts Online), the pertinent directory (if any), and a file name or item number. For a source on
the Internet, give its Universal Resource Locator (URL), which includes, first, the means you used to
access the Net (e.g. http, ftp, gopher, Telnet); then the computer hosting the information; then a path
through its directories; and finally (in most cases) a filename. Use slashes to demarcate elements in a
location statement.
Electronic texts that are subject to erasure, such as contributions to newsgroups or bulletin boards,
generally don't make good sources, since they usually can't be retrieved by others-although one
valuable function of these groups is to exchange information about sources. "FAQ" files (frequently
asked questions) that newsgroups compile are sometimes preserved; if you find ideas or information
relevant to your topic in an archived FAQ, cite it by compiler, if given, otherwise by item title (see
#28). But if you come across pertinent information or ideas that have been posted by a discussant in
the group, the best procedure is to have that person send the posting to you as a personal e-mail
communication, which you can then cite as such and either append to your paper or say is available
upon request.
Mechanics
● If you cite an online article, give its length (in screens, paragraphs, or lines, if unpaginated). If
you refer to a particular passage in a long document, give its paragraph or line number.
● If you cite a source that has been or may be altered (including a Web site), give as its publication
date the date of its last update (if known), and include the date that you accessed the source for
citing.
● Always put a space after the descriptor "URL:" but don't separate elements within in a URL with
spaces. f you can't get a URL on a single line, always break it immediately after a slash.
● Don't end an electronic address with a period. Where your citation requires you to set apart
elements in the location of a database, use two or three spaces instead of period-as in examples
26 and 27 below.
● Be sure to retain, in an electronic address, the source's use of lowercase or uppercase letters.
Note: The following formats are not included in the Chicago, MLA, or CBE manuals. They are rather
post-World Wide Web adaptations based on the styles of those manuals. Your instructor may prefer a
different format: ask.
nt
MLA
MLA
APA
CBE
ayp
APA
ayp
In the case of an unpublished conference paper, give its date before the reference number.
nt
APA
MLA
APPENDIX C
FURTHER INFORMATION
General
Biological Sciences
Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style and Format: CBE Style Manual
for Authors, Editors, and Publishers in the Biological Sciences. 6th ed.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Chemistry
Dodd, Janet S., ed. The ACS Style Guide. Washington, D C: American
Chemical Society, 1986.
Earth Sciences
Cochran, Wendell, Peter Fenner, and Mary Hill, eds. Geowriting: A Guide
to Writing, Editing, and Printing in Earth Sciences. Alexandria, Va.:
American Geological Institute, 1984.
Education
National Education Association. NEA Style Manual for Writers and Editors.
Rev. ed. Washington, DC: Author, 1974.
Gibaldi, Joseph and Walter S. Achert, eds. MLA Handbook for Writers of
Research Papers. 4th. ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995.
Government Documents
Garner, Diane L., and Diane H. Smith. The Complete Guide to Citing Government
Documents: A Manual for Writers and Librarians. Bethesda, MD. Congressional
Information Service, 1984.
Law
Mathematics
Medicine
Physics
American Institute of Physics. AIP Style Manual. 4th ed. New York:
Author, 1990.
Political Science
Psychology
See for example John Ciardi, Good Words to You (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 225 and Lance
Morrow, "Kidnapping the Brainchildren," Time 3 December, 1990: 126.
http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/fn2.chap3.html3/29/2004 8:35:32 PM
FN3, Chap3
Faculty of Arts and Sciences Handbook for Students 1995-96 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University,
19 95), 286.
http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/fn3.chap3.html3/29/2004 8:36:00 PM
FN4 Chap3
The Administrative Board of Harvard and Radcliffe Colleges and the Student-Faculty Judicial Board: A
User's Guide for Students 1994-95 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1994), 20.
http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/fn4.chap3.html3/29/2004 8:36:03 PM