Air Pollution by Vehicles
Air Pollution by Vehicles
Air Pollution by Vehicles
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98 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
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AIR POLLUTION 99
number of industries respectively. The status India’s coal has a very high in ash content
of pollution control as on 30 June 2000 is as (24%–45%). The increased dependence of the
follows: out of 1,551 industries, 1,324 have so power sector on an inferior quality coal has
far been provided the necessary pollution been associated with emissions from power
control facilities, 165 industries have been plants in the form of particulate matter, toxic
closed down and the remaining 62 industries elements, fly ash, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur
are defaulters (CPCB 2000a). It may be noted and carbon besides ash, which required vast
that in some of the key sectors such as iron stretches of land for disposal. During 1998-99,
and steel, 6 out of 8 units belong to the de- the power stations consumed 208 million
faulters category in terms of having pollution tonnes of coal, which in turn produced 80
control facilities to comply with the standards. million tonnes of ash posing a major problem
On the other hand, cement, petrochemicals and disposal (CPCB 2000b).
oil refinery sectors do not have any defaulters. Thermal power plants belong to the 17
Small scale industries are a special feature categories of highly polluting industries. As on
of the Indian economy and play an important 30 June 2000, out of the 97 pre-1991 TPP’s,
role in pollution. India has over 3 million 20 plants had not yet provided the requisite
small scale units accounting for over 40 per- pollution control facilities (CPCB 2000a)
cent of the total industrial output in the (Photo 10.2).
country (CII and SII 1996). In general, Indian
small scale industries lack pollution control Domestic pollution
mechanisms. While the larger industries are Pollution from different types of cooking
better organised to adopt pollution control stoves using coal, fuelwood, and other
measures, the small scale sector is poorly biomass fuels contributes to some extent, to
equipped (both financially and technically) to the overall pollution load in urban areas. For
handle this problem. They have a very high example, in Delhi, the share of the domestic
aggregate pollution potential. Also, in many sector is about 7%–8% of the total pollution
urban centres, industrial units are located in load (MoEF 1997). The main concern is the
densely populated areas, thereby affecting a use of inefficient and highly polluting fuels in
large number of people.
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100 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
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AIR POLLUTION 101
ated due to automobiles in 12 metropolitan have been identified for regular monitoring
cities is shown in Table 10.1. Carbon monox- at all the 290 stations spread across the
ide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) account for country.
64% and 23%, respectively, of the total emis- CPCB (2000c) analyses the status and
sion load due to vehicles in all these cities trends of air quality at various cities in India
considered together (CPCB 1995). for the period 1990-98. Figures 10.2 to 10.4
Apart from the concentration of vehicles in show the minimum, maximum and annual
urban areas, other reasons for increasing averages of SPM, SO 2 , and NO 2 in 16 cities in
vehicular pollution are the types of engines the country between 1990 and 1998. The most
used, age of vehicles, congested traffic, poor prevalent form of air pollution appears to be
road conditions, and outdated automotive SPM although there are many stations at
technologies and traffic management systems. which SO 2 and NO 2 levels exceed permissible
Vehicles are a major source of pollutants limits. The high influx of population to urban
in metropolitan cities. In Delhi, the daily areas increase in consumption patterns, un-
pollution load has increased from 1,450 planned urban and industrial development and
tonnes in 1991 to 3,000 metric tonnes in 1997 poor enforcement mechanism has led to the
(MoEF 1997). The share of the transport problem of air pollution.
sector has increased from 64% to 67% during The government has taken a number of
the same period while that of the industrial measures such as legislation, emission stand-
sector (including power plants) has decreased ards for industries, guidelines for siting of
from 29% to 25% (MoEF 1997) (Photo 10.4). industries, environmental audit, EIA, vehicular
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102 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
SPM
Suspended particulate matter is one of the
most critical air pollutants in most of the
urban areas in the country and permissible
standards are frequently violated several moni-
Photo 10.4 Vehicular pollution in urban cities
Che – Chennai; Ban – Bangalore; Hyd – Hyderabad; Pondi – Pondicherry; Nag – Nagpur; Pune – Pune; Mum – Mumbai; Cha –
Chandigarh; Ahm – Ahmedabad; Bho – Bhopal; Jai – Jaipur; How – Howrah; Pat – Patna; Del – Delhi; Cal – Calcutta; Kan –
Kanpur.
Figure 10.2 Range and mean of annual averages (1990-98) of SPM in various cities
Source CPCB 2000c
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AIR POLLUTION 103
Nag – Nagpur; Cha – Chandigarh; Jai – Jaipur; Bho – Bhopal; Kan – Kanpur; Hyd – Hyderabad; Che – Chennai; Pat – Patna; Del –
Delhi; Ahm – Ahmedabad; Ban – Bangalore; Mum – Mumbai; Pune – Pune; Pondi – Pondicherry; Cal – Calcutta; How – Howrah.
Figure 10.3 Range and mean of annual averages (1990-98) of SO 2
in various cities
Source CPCB 2000c
Nag – Nagpur; Che – Chennai; Kan – Kanpur; Cha – Chandigarh; Bho – Bhopal; Ban – Bangalore; Pat – Patna; Jai – Jaipur;
Ahm – Ahmedabad; Hyd – Hyderabad; Del – Delhi; Mum – Mumbai; Cal – Calcutta; Pondi – Pondicherry; Pune – Pune; How –
Howrah.
Figure 10.4 Range and mean of annual averages (1990-98) of NO 2
in various cities
Source CPCB 2000c
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104 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
tored locations. Its levels have been consist- residential areas of Nagpur, Chandigarh, and
3
ently high in various cities over the past Jaipur (below 10 µg/m ). Among the industrial
several years. areas, the recorded sulphur dioxide levels were
The annual average minimum and maxi- high at Pondicherry, Calcutta, Mumbai, and
mum SPM concentration in residential areas Howrah, and low at Nagpur, Jaipur, and
3
of various cities ranged from 60 µg/m (at Chandigarh. Thus, based on the mean average
3
Bangalore during 1991) to 521 µg/m (at Patna sulphur dioxide value, Nagpur, Chandigarh
during 1995), while in industrial areas the and Jaipur are cities with the least problems
3
annual average ranged between 53 µg/m related to sulphur dioxide in the ambient air,
3
(Chennai during 1992) and 640 µg/m (Cal- while the problem is significant in Howrah,
cutta during 1993). The mean of average Calcutta, and Pondicherry, where annual
3
values of SPM for nine years (1990 to 1998) average limits (60 and 80 µg/m for residential
3 3
ranged between 99 µg/m and 390 µg/m in and industrial areas) have been violated many
3
residential areas and between 123 µg/m and times during the past several years.
3
457 µg/m in industrial areas indicating that The sulphur dioxide levels have generally
the annual average limit of suspended attained air quality standards in the country
particulate matter for residential areas (140 except some cities of dense urban and indus-
3 3
µg/m ) and for industrial areas (360 µg/m ) trial activities like Dhanbad (Bihar),
had been frequently violated in most cities. Ahmedabad, Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Surat
The maximum suspended particulate (Gujarat); Nagda (Madhya Pradesh);
matter (SPM) values were observed in Pondicherry; and Howrah (West Bengal).
Kanpur, Calcutta, and Delhi, while low values Some of the measures taken such as cleaner
have been recorded in the south Indian cities fuel quality (reduction of sulphur content in
of Chennai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad. diesel) and switch over to cleaner fuel option
The SPM non-attainment areas are dis- have contributed t lower SO 2 ambient levels.
persed throughout the country. The states with
maximum SPM problems are Gujarat, NO 2
Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, where The air quality monitoring data indicate that
SPM problems are high to critical in a large the annual average nitrogen dioxide has been
3
number of cities. The widespread criticality of well within the annual average limit (60 µg/m
3
the SPM problem in the country is due to the for residential area and 80 µg/m for industrial
synergistic effects of both anthropogenic and areas) at most urban cities except in some
natural sources. Some of these are extensive years in residential areas of Howrah,
urbanisation and construction activities, ve- Vishakhapatnam, Kota, and industrial areas of
hicular pollution increase, extensive use of Howrah. The annual average concentration has
fossil fuel in industrial activities, inadequacy been low at Nagpur, Chennai, Kanpur, and
of pollution control measures, biomass Chandigarh while levels are moderate in other
burning, presence of large acid and semi-acid cities.
area in north-west part of India, increasing The nitrogen dioxide non-attainment areas
desertification, and decreasing vegetation were at Vishakhapatnam (AP), Jabalpur (MP),
cover. Pondicherry, Alwar, Kota, Udaipur
(Rajasthan) and Howrah (West Bengal). The
SO 2
criticality of problem was observed at
The annual average level fluctuation of SO 2 Vishakhapatnam, Kota, and Howrah.
was highest in residential areas of Howrah
3
(West Bengal) recording between 40.6 µg/m
3
and 103.8 µg/m while it was quite low in
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AIR POLLUTION 105
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106 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
Among the adults, 40.2% had blood lead and control of pollution) Act, 1981 and the
levels of about 10 µg/dl (George Foundation Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. India has
1999, cited in CPCB 2000c). also adopted the Male declaration on Control
Brandon, Hommann, and Kishor (1995) and Prevention of air pollution and its likely
estimated the total magnitude of economic transboundary effects for South Asia in April
costs associated with environmental degrada- 1998.
tion in India. Using the 1991-92 air pollution
data for particulates, SO 2 , NO X , and lead from
Ambient air quality standards
36 cities, health impacts were estimated in Ambient air quality standards (both short-
terms of reductions in morbidity and mortality term, i.e., 24 hourly, and long-term, i.e.,
if pollutant levels in these cities were reduced annual) have been laid down for industrial,
to the WHO annual average standard. The residential/rural/other, and sensitive areas with
total health costs due to air pollution were respect to pollutants such as SO 2 , NO X , SPM,
estimated to be $517-2102 million. Also, the RPM, Pb, and CO. Ambient air quality stand-
physical impacts were in terms of 40,000 ards for NH 3 have also been notified.
premature deaths avoided.
TERI (1998) estimated the incidence of Guidelines for siting of industries
mortality and morbidity in different groups in Guidelines for siting industries are prescribed
India due to exposure to PM 10 and translated so that the possible adverse effects on the
these impacts into economic values. The re- environment and quality of life can be mini-
sults indicated 2.5 million premature deaths mised. Some natural life-sustaining systems
and total morbidity and mortality costs of Rs and specific land-uses are more sensitive, and
885 billion to Rs 4250 billion annually. that has been taken into account while specify-
ing the minimum prescribed distance for siting
Noise pollution a given industry.
Studies by the CPCB on the ambient noise
levels show that they exceed the prescribed Environmental impact assessment
standards in most of the big cities. The major (EIA)
sources of noise are vehicles and industrial EIA is mandatory for 29 specific activities/
manufacturing processes (MoEF 1998). projects and also for some of the activities to
be taken up in identified areas such as the
Other impacts coastal zone, Doon valley, etc. The procedure
Some of the other impacts due to air pollution for examining the impact of different activities
include damage to materials, impact on includes the preparation of EIA report, hold-
vegetation (including yield loss), and physical ing of a public hearing and examination by a
and aesthetic effects (such as reduction in duly constituted expert committee (MoEF
visibility). 1999). Also, MoEF has taken up carrying
capacity-based regional planning studies in
certain selected areas of the country.
Response
Emission standards for industries
Existing policy response The CPCB has laid down the maximum per-
Legislation missible limits for different pollutants for
The government has formulated a number of many categories of industries that contribute
legislations, policies, and programmes for to air pollution. The standards have been
protecting the environment. Some of these notified by MoEF under the Environment
related to air pollution are the Air (Prevention (Protection) Act 1986.
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AIR POLLUTION 107
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108 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
Cleaner fuel quality. To conform to the strin- registration of new auto-rickshaws with front
gent emission norms, it is imperative that both engine, replacement of all pre-1990 autos and
fuel specification and engine technologies go taxis with new vehicles using clean fuels; and
hand in hand. Fuel quality specifications have the removal of 8 year old buses from the
been laid down by the BIS (Bureau of Indian roads unless they use CNG or some other
Standards) for gasoline and diesel for the clean fuel. It is also planned that all buses in
period 2000-2005 and beyond 2005 for the Delhi are to switch over to CNG instead of
country (BIS 1997a, BIS 1997b). diesel by 31 March 2001 (CPCB 1999).
Given the increased usage of diesel in our
Given the increased usage of diesel in our
country, it becomes necessary to reduce its Role of the judiciary
sulphur content. In a recent directive by the In recent years, the judiciary has played a
Supreme Court, the Ministry of Petroleum prominent role in environmental protection.
and Natural Gas is to supply diesel with A number of judgements relating to stringent
0.05% m/m sulphur to the NCT by 31 De- vehicle emission norms, fuel quality, introduc-
cember 2000 and entire NCR from 30 June tion of cleaner fuels, phasing-out of older
2001. For gasoline, lead has been phased out vehicles, and shifting of hazardous industries
in the entire country w.e.f. 1 February 2000. have provided a great deal of momentum to
Similarly the benzene content is to be the efforts for improvement of air quality.
reduced and by 1 October 2000, gasoline with
1% benzene is to be supplied to the whole of Policy gaps
n
the NCT region. For NCR, it should be Prevention based environmental policy
supplied by 31 March 2001 (CPCB 2000c; needs to be strengthened. Issues such as
CSE 2000). Later, it has to be extended to cleaner technology and land use planning
other parts of the country as well. incorporating environmental considerations
need to be given priority.
n
Inspection and maintenance (I&M). The first Effectiveness and impact of various policy
and most important step towards emission measures not assessed.
n
control for the large in-use fleet of vehicles is No separate transport policy exists at the
the formulation of an inspection and mainte- national and state levels.
n
nance system. It is possible to reduce 30-40% No well defined policy to promote private
pollution loads generated by vehicles through participation in public transport.
n
proper periodical inspections and maintenance Lack of coordination between various
of vehicles (CPCB 2000c). I&M measures for government agencies to improve transport
in-use vehicles are an essential complement to services.
emission standards for new vehicles. In India,
the existing mechanism of I&M is inadequate. Knowledge/information/data gaps gaps
mation/data
n
Thus, there is a great need to establish effec- Strengthening of monitoring at hotspots/
tive periodic I&M programmes. traffic intersections; more stations to be
established and frequency of monitoring
Other stringent measures in certain areas. On increased.
n
1st April 1999, the specifications for 2T oil Additional air quality parameters need to be
became effective. In order to prevent the use monitored such as ozone, benzene, PAH,
of 2T oil in excess of the required quantity, PM 2.5 , dry deposition of sulphates and nitrates.
n
premixed 2T oil dispensers have been installed Private/Community participation in moni-
in all gasoline stations of Delhi (CPCB 1999). toring activity.
n
Other measures include bans on commercial Emission factor development for various
vehicles more than 15 years old, a ban on the activities.
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AIR POLLUTION 109
n n
Emission load mapping at regular intervals Replacement of two-stroke engines.
n
for all the urban areas. Curbing fuel adulteration—state-of-the-art
n
Air pollution modelling as a tool for fore- testing facilities and deterrent legal action.
n
casting and urban planning. Strengthening of inspection and mainte-
n
Strengthening of information on number nance (I&M) system: The I&M system,
of vehicles on road, vehicle usage, etc. comprising inspection, maintenance, and
certification of vehicles, is crucial for
Policy rrecommendations regulating pollution for the large fleet of
Despite the aforementioned legislative/policy in-use vehicles. It should include testing of
measures as well as a host of other decisions various elements of safety, road worthiness
taken by the government, air pollution and compliance to pollution norms.
remains a major concern. Besides continuing
and consolidating the ongoing schemes/ Industrial pollution control
n
programmes, new initiatives and definite Thrust for cleaner technologies
programmes need to be formulated for the • Waste minimisation technologies involv-
efficient management of urban air pollution. ing process change, raw material
substitution, improved housekeeping,
Vehicular pollution control etc.
Since vehicles contribute significantly to • Waste utilisation technologies involving
the total air pollution load in most urban reclamation and utilisation of wastes as
areas, vehicular pollution control deserves top secondary raw material
priority. A practical strategy should be devised • Flue gas desulphurisation
that reduces both emissions and congestion, • Combustion modification for NO X
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110 INDIA : STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2001
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AIR POLLUTION 111
• An effective environment management CPCB (2000c) Air Quality status and trends in India,
plan should be devised that includes National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Series:
environmental strategy, regulation, insti- NAAQMS/14/1999-2000. Delhi: Central Pollu-
tutional capacity-building, and economic tion Control Board
incentives and penalties.
CSE (2000) ‘Giving a Breather’. Down to Earth
9(2). New Delhi: Centre for Science and Envi-
ronment
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Annexure I
Table 10.2 Details of epidemiological studies undertaken/ under progress