Australian Journal of Adult Learning Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 79

Volume 47, Number 1, April 2007

Introduction
Contemporary adult/tertiary education in the human services field
incorporates a number of approaches to facilitate students’ learning of
knowledge and skills. Varied classroom teaching methods, simulated
workplaces and workplace practicums all offer ways of connecting
theoretical knowledge with practice or constructed knowledge (Healy
2005). While the importance of practical learning strategies has
long been recognised (Kilpatrick 1918), debates about quantifying
or qualifying the way practice builds knowledge have continued
(Goldstein 2001, Shardlow & Dole 1996).
Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice This paper discusses one solution to overcoming the theory-practice
divide with project-based learning dichotomy by using problem-based learning with human services
students. Following an outline of the theoretical knowledge /practice
Dr Julaine Allan
skills debate, problem-based learning is defined and the participation
Charles Sturt University and TAFENSW – Western Institute
project Snapshot of a generation is described. The project outcomes
are discussed and the way in which theory and knowledge were
interconnected in the project is highlighted.
In this example from the human services field, project-based
learning is used to connect theoretical knowledge and practice skills
by taking a project from industry and completing it within the peer Theoretical knowledge versus practical skills
supported learning environment of the classroom, returning the The vocational education and training (VET) sector’s focus on
project product to industry. The theoretical ideal of participation training for competence has apparently widened the gap between
was the project’s goal and the way Snapshot of a generation fulfilled knowledge and skills. Theoretical knowledge is the province of
this goal on several levels is discussed. The benefits of project-based universities while registered training organisations develop trainees’
learning are an injection of new perspectives and energy from ability to ‘simply perform skills’ (Ling 1999:1) presumably without
students to the workplace, completion of tasks that human services necessarily knowing why they do them. In the human services
workers view as important but do not have time to do, and critically field where practitioners engage with society’s most vulnerable and
important workplace experience for students in an environment of disadvantaged members, knowing both how and why one takes a
peer support and learning. Project-based learning is a subversion of particular course of action is vital to working ethically and effectively
the usual practicum because of the way abstract theory is embedded (Bowles, Collingridge, Curry & Valentine 2006).
in the doing rather than separate from it.
The VET sector provides a substantial part of the human services
workforce, particularly in non-government organisations that bear
80 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 81

the brunt of neo-liberal social policy with decreasing resources and aspect of knowledge or skill development – mathematics, for example
increasing demand the norm (Alston 2002). VET courses – diplomas, (Blumenfeld, Soloway, Marx et al. 1991). The benefits for students are
certificates – are shorter and cheaper than university courses and described as enhanced problem-solving skills, communication skills,
are developed and adapted to industry changes via consultation team work skills and an understanding of the abstract or theoretical
with industry representatives (TAFENSW 2005). Competencies are concepts behind the project issue including the way these are
said to be the industry standard in whichever skill group they define translated into action (Harriman 2003, Blumenfeld, Soloway, Marx,
performance. Krajcik, Guzdial & Palincsar 1991, Brown & Campione 1994).

The challenge for VET trainers/teachers in the human services As competency standards are designed to be integrated into
field is to turn competency standards into locally relevant learning workplace tasks, projects that involve interdisciplinary ideas and
experiences that result in useful employees. This is particularly actions represent the workplace more effectively than trying to isolate
important in rural areas where employers, trainers, service and then teach aspects of communication, group work and research
consumers and students are likely to come into contact socially and for example. In Australia, PBL is a favoured teaching approach
professionally for years to come. The well-being of rural communities in some universities with a growing body of literature exploring
relies on a well-trained and active civil society (non-government the benefits and problems of this learning strategy. While the
human services) sector (Alston 2002). Developing the connection benefits include those listed above, problems include difficulty with
between theoretical perspectives and related practical strategies in assessment, team building and in the engineering sector, resource
real local examples is the goal of the teacher/trainer’s project outlined allocation (for example, Seidel & Godfrey 2005). The way these issues
in this paper. can be addressed is discussed at length by Seidel & Godfrey (2005)
and is not the subject of this paper.
Project-based learning The PBL example in this paper was developed from the desire of VET
Project-based learning (PBL) is a comprehensive instructional teachers/trainers to maintain their industry skills, provide a service
approach to engage students in sustained, cooperative investigation to agencies who frequently took students for practicums and because
(Bransford & Stein 1993). It is most commonly found in secondary they were tired of the usual face-to-face teaching regardless of how
education in the United States of America. It has been referred to also many adult learning styles they addressed. Teaching a competency
as problem-based learning and inquiry-based learning (Bransford & designed to develop research skills seemed pointless without doing
Stein 1993). some research that had value for the local community and relevance
to the students involved.
In the PBL approach, students are required to answer a question or
develop a product for example. In doing this it is felt that they are The following sections of the paper outline the project Snapshot of a
able to take control of the learning environment and process, working generation and discuss project-based learning to highlight the way
in groups to complete a series of tasks to reach the project outcome theory and constructed knowledge inform each other with a number
(Brogan 2006). Because the project involves complex tasks, a range of of benefits to education in the human services field.
inter-disciplinary skills is developed as distinct from focusing on one
82 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 83

The participation project eleven and twelve year olds were an appropriate target group for the
participation project.
In 2006, a seven member student group aged from 19 years to
46 years were in the final year of the Diploma in Community Services To give children a voice in community planning processes and in the
Work through TAFENSW. They all lived in Orange, a regional town community generally, the students decided to survey all the local
in central west New South Wales about three hours west of Sydney. children who were in their final year of primary school and report
They agreed to undertake a project commissioned by the local council the results in the local newspaper, to the NSW Commissioner for
community services division. The local council wanted to include Children and Young People as well as to the local council for inclusion
children’s views in their community planning process but found in the community plan.
teenagers’ views easier to access than younger children’s. The project
brief was to seek and record a group of children’s views, present them Snapshot of a generation was a special feature published in an
to council in an appropriate format and evaluate the participation Australian regional daily newspaper in 1998. The feature reported
process with the children involved. The theory to be elaborated survey findings on the community’s attitudes and values about
was (broadly) that participation in society is a basic human right family, religion, politics, recreation, media and education. The
and therefore everybody should be enabled to participate in public original report’s author could not be located and the newspaper had
processes that concern them (UNICEF 1995). no copyright restrictions over the original survey nor any knowledge
where it was derived from. The 2006 student group determined
The students began their project with an investigation of the way that the survey could meet their aim of giving children a voice in the
children are represented in society by collecting newspaper reports community and the council’s need to know about local children’s
about children. Students also completed a content analysis of views of the community. The students negotiated with their local
children’s appearances in television programs. Students noted that newspaper’s editor to publish the results.
pre-teenagers were most frequently depicted as cartoon characters
(Bart Simpson and Eliza Thornberry, for example), as babies that did The survey instrument consisted of several sections. It had 63
not speak or as recipients of education, health messages or consumer questions over five pages. The only demographic information
goods, and not as active participants in society. collected was sex of respondent. The sections – school, family, sport
and health, religion and society, and media and entertainment
As Levesque (1999) points out, childhood and adolescence are socially – included quantitative and qualitative questions within each section.
constructed stages that are highly idealised in western nations. For example, within the religion and society section, a question asked
Moving from childhood to adolescence in Australia is measured in whether they went to church regularly. Respondents could tick ‘yes’
age (turning thirteen) and in structured ritual (going to high school). or ‘no’. The following question asked what religion meant to them.
Following the project group’s discovery of the cartoon depictions of Several lines were provided for the answer. The broad range of
pre-teenagers, the acknowledgement that opinions of teenagers are qualitative questions sought participants’ views in their own words.
more often sought than children’s (Kang, Scharmann & Noh 2003)
and that anecdotally there were social expectations from children
and parents of the transition to high school, they determined that
84 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 85

Method a team evaluation of the results, incorporating issues raised in the

literature review and issues noted and discussed during the data
The students planned and completed all the tasks required in this
analysis phase.
project. All principals were contacted by telephone, and then sent
a letter with a copy of the new survey instrument and the 1998
Snapshot of a generation article. A follow-up phone call was made Follow-up
to find out if the school wished to participate. Participating students The completed report was sent to the newspaper editor. Stories from
were year six children from local schools whose principals agreed the report were published every day for six days. The final report
to be involved in the project. Seven schools participated out of nine was sent to the local council for inclusion in the community plan and
that had year six classes. Four participating schools were government also to the NSW Commissioner for Children and Young People for
funded and three were privately funded from student fees. inclusion in her library.

Participating schools were sent enough copies of the questionnaire To evaluate the implementation of participation theory, students
for each child in year six classes, instructions for class teachers and needed to know if the children participating in the survey perceived
arrangements were made for collection of completed questionnaires they had been involved with and visible to the adult community. To
one week later. Instructions to teachers included that the survey was develop other research method experience, the students decided to
confidential and no names were required, that children should not hold focus groups.
discuss their answers with each other while completing the survey
and that teachers should not make suggestions about what to write. Three months after the newspaper publications, two focus groups of
Class teachers handed out and then collected the questionnaires. A survey respondents were convened to find out the children’s views
total of 311 completed instruments were returned. about the project. Two schools were contacted and agreed to select
six children from those who volunteered to participate in a group
Project team members collated and reduced the data from the discussion about the survey and the newspaper articles. A focus group
completed questionnaires. Each question was tallied separately and was held at each school with six children. The discussion lasted forty
quantitative data were recorded on spreadsheets. Qualitative data minutes and children were asked what they remembered about the
were rewritten on separate sheets of paper and then collated into survey, if they had seen the newspaper articles and what they thought
themes related to the section from which they originated. Care was about the project including the newspaper stories, the local council
taken to record participants’ views in their own words. Each team community plan and the NSW Commission for Children and Young
member worked on several questions within a section, recording People.
the responses, reducing the data into themes and writing up the
findings for that question. Each team member consulted with others The focus groups were convened in the school halls. Children were
to ensure the validity of their analysis. Results were grouped by sex shown a blank copy of the survey, informed about the focus group
of participant. Where possible, results from the current survey were process and asked if they had any questions. They were informed
compared with the 1998 newspaper report. The discussion points of that the discussion had nothing to do with their school results
the final report and related recommendations were developed from and that they could stop participating at any time. The following
86 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 87

discussions were recorded by two project team members who scribed I hope we get a new swimming pool.
onto large sheets of paper. At the end of discussion on each of the They might ask us about other stuff.
three questions, the scribes held up their notes and read them back
The students described the focus groups as a vital stage in the
to the group. Group participants were asked if they agreed with the
connection of theory and practice because they provided feedback
notes and if they would like to change or add anything to what was
about turning the ideals of the project into action. The students were
recorded.
able to reflect on what had worked towards their goal of participation
The focus groups found that children remembered doing the survey for children and what was more important for all the adults involved.
but did not recall much about the questions. The questions that most For the students, finishing the project and their course was frequently
interested them and that both groups reported talking about in the the main goal. For the project commissioners, it was important they
playground later were about what they would do when they were could incorporate views from a target group specified in the NSW
adults, both personally in their family life and for a career. Comments Local Government Act for local government plans.
made about the survey included:
It was a bit dull. Discussion of project outcomes
It took too long to do.
We talked about it after, about what we’d do when we grew The competencies from the Community Services Training Package
up and stuff. (CHC02) that were achieved by the students during this project
included: Undertake research activities, Develop and implement a
All of the children in the focus groups had seen the newspaper
community development strategy, Develop, implement and promote
articles. Teachers had brought copies of the paper to school and
effective communication techniques and Reflect and improve upon
children reported their parents buying the paper when they usually
professional practice. The student group devised the methodology,
did not. The children were excited about their views being in the
managed the project, conducted and evaluated the research, wrote
paper and reported talking about the articles with their parents and
the report and disseminated the findings. The teacher/trainer’s role
with friends at school.
was to present theoretical concepts at relevant stages (ethical issues
My mum and dad asked about the bullying and if I was scared of research with children, for example), and facilitate reflection on the
of getting kidnapped or robbed. process and knowledge developed, managing conflict along the way.
We brought the paper to school and everyone tried to work out
if what they said was in there. The students were totally engaged and enthralled by the research and
learning process during Snapshot of a generation. They became very
The focus group participants described feeling that they were
protective of the findings and committed to the goal of publishing
important and that their opinions were important when they were in
children’s voices in an accessible manner. The project had multiple
the paper. When told that the report would be seen by other people
tasks related to research, networking, group work, communication
who made decisions in local and state government, the children said
with children and adults, professional confidence and conduct,
it was good if politicians listened to them. Children’s statements
planning, record keeping and participating in local government
included:
processes as part of promoting the participation of children.
88 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 89

Team members had to contact community leaders such as school for assessment. This record-keeping process embeds evaluation of
principals and the newspaper editor, explain their project and teaching and learning strategies in the project and continues the
promote the benefits of involvement in it. They had to produce high teacher/facilitator’s learning alongside students.
quality documents for publication to a diverse audience and they had
to communicate appropriately and effectively with children. Working Discussion of project-based learning as a participatory process
together, planning and problem-solving were daily tasks vital to
Project-based learning subverts the process of typical human services
meeting project deadlines.
practicum experiences where students develop skills in the workplace
The project process had to include ways of consolidating knowledge. because the project comes into the classroom to be completed by
It was important to the teacher/trainer that team members reflected the group with peer support and facilitated by the teacher/trainer.
on why they undertook certain courses of action, referred back to However, the project is not a simulation and the outcome is a product
the participative theory underpinning the project and reflected on of some sort that is important for the particular aspect of human
what they would do differently next time. Once the project had been service delivery. Workplace employees who commission the project
decided on and a timeline established for completion, some aspects and determine its parameters become mentors and advisers to the
of teaching follow easily. In research, the development of a proposal project team. The stages of the project are linked to theory along
including methodology lends itself to outlining the theory, discussing the way via formal teaching strategies and group processes such as
the way it relates to the project, developing a plan and implementing discussion and reflection.
it. Evaluation of the plan and its implementation are vital to reflect on
The challenge for teacher/facilitators of project-based learning is
the process and learn from it for the next stage or the next project.
to link the project with the curriculum and more importantly to
Evaluation and reflection strategies during Snapshot included find ways to link learning with the experience of doing. Linking
morning meetings where the project tasks were identified for theory and practice has long been the challenge for educators
the day and recorded in a minutes book. The book was reviewed (for example, Healy 2005). In the VET sector, competency-based
weekly before progress meetings with members of the local council learning has clearly, and some would argue narrowly, defined
community services team who provided feedback to the students skills related to tasks (for example, Jennings 1991, Ling 1999). For
about the project and asked them to reflect on their week’s work educators in this sector, ways of making particular skills meaningful
including what they had learnt. This enabled the teacher/facilitator and demonstrating their usefulness remain linked to the theory
to highlight aspects of the project that related to competency underpinning the doing, regardless of the performance emphasis of
elements or generate activities and tasks around elements that were the competency framework. For example, in Snapshot it was vital
overlooked. to begin with conceptual understandings of participation and the
social construction of childhood to inform the way the project would
At times of conflict in the group, a meeting would be held, the
develop. Without this grounding the students may not have made
issue/s discussed and a decision made by the students about what
such a strong commitment to promoting children’s voices. It is the
action would be taken. This was also recorded in the minutes book
which became an important record of the project and also a tool
90 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 91

conceptual grounding that gives meaning to the related skills and and trust. Teacher/trainers have to trust that the students will engage
tasks. in the process and that they can work out what has to be done and by
when. Students have to trust that teacher/trainers will provide them
Citizen participation is frequently promoted as a goal of governance
with the information they need in a timely fashion and guide the
or government processes. Consumers, service users and community
process so links can be made between tasks and knowledge.
members are invited to participate in policy development and service
delivery, particularly in the health and welfare sector. Educators It can be argued that most education is undertaken to get a new job
in this sector train students in participatory strategies such as or a different job. Education is inextricably linked to doing work
needs analysis and asset-based community development so future because it suggests why tasks or projects should be done in certain
human service workers can use participatory processes in their ways. It is inherently practical regardless of whether it is delivered in
work. Participation (also called community engagement) is a goal universities, TAFE institutions or schools. The theory/practice, formal
many universities have to enhance their relevance to their local knowledge/constructed knowledge and teacher/student dualisms
communities (Egan 2005). can prevent educators and students taking up the possibilities of
participating in constructing knowledge. Project-based learning opens
Translating participatory ideals into practice has proven difficult
up these possibilities.
for many reasons (Wyse 2001). However, in a sector where
empowerment and social justice are the key principles guiding
practice (AASW 2006) and a history of ‘grassroots’ responses to social
Postscript
issues is upheld as an appropriate way of being effective, the positive When the conference flyer came out for United we stand (see
premise of participation is assumed. The Snapshot project had ideals Allan 2006) – a combined conference of social work, welfare and
of participation at several levels – community and student group community practitioners and educators – an abstract about Snapshot
– with participants engaged in both levels simultaneously. It also was written and accepted and the project team swung into action.
had ideals of imparting human services practice skills in the safe and They got a letter of support for their work from the local mayor,
usually simulated theoretical environment of the classroom. wrote letters and made phone calls requesting donations, held
barbecues and chocolate drives and raised enough money for their
PBL challenges the tension between formal theoretical knowledge
conference registrations and airfares. The students wrote the paper
and constructed practice knowledge that plays out in attempts to
about their project and, although extremely nervous about the forum
turn ideals into practice. A post-modern view of this tension reveals
and their abilities, successfully presented their work. The feedback
a contested site that is shaped around the academically constructed
was positive. They met a lot of people and learnt a great deal from
dualism of theory/practice. The dualism hides the way people learn,
other presentations and from doing their own. The students’ goal
who learns and what knowledge is developed.
of promoting children’s participation had the unforseen outcome of
Some kind of participation is inherent in the teaching/learning promoting their own participation in public processes concerned with
relationship and this is enhanced by project-based learning because education and service delivery in the field in which they were training.
the process is fluid, unpredictable and relies on mutual respect
I wanted them to write this paper but they got jobs instead.
92 Julaine Allan Snapshot of a generation: bridging the theory-practice divide with project based learning 93

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Goldstein, H. (2001). Experiential learning: a foundation for social work Dr Julaine Allan is a social worker, teacher and researcher with
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