International Seminar On Non-Conventional Energy Sources for Sustainable Development of Rural Areas,

IJAERD- International Journal of Advance Engineering & Research Development

e-ISSN: 2348-4470, p-ISSN:2348-6406
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Review on Concrete Technology

Pravesh Shukla1, Manish Kumar Sahu2, Lokesh Singh3
1,2
Civil Engineering Department, G.D.R.C.E.T, Bhilai,
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, G.D.R.C.E.T , Bhilai

Abstract - Concrete is considered as the backbone of construction industry which is a composite material composed of
coarse aggregate bonded together with fluid cement that hardens overtime. Concrete industries are one of the major
consumers of natural resources as they spends annually 1.5 billion tons of cement, 900 million liters of water and 9 million
tons of sand and water, so there is need to find an alternative ecofriendly material which will save our natural resources
from being depleted. In this paper the author explains about the materials used in preparation of concrete along with its
types and tests. The main aim of the sustainable development is to find alternative resources, which would decrease negative
effect of concrete industry on environment and contribute to preservation of natural resources. The objective of this paper is
to explain about process of preparing concrete and also about harmful effect of the materials used in it.

Keywords - Mixes and Tests of Concrete

I. INTRODUCTION

India has done a major leap on developing the infrastructure such as industrial structures, power projects and express
highways etc., to meet the requirements of globalization. Concrete leads main role and a large quantum of concrete is being
utilized for the construction of civil engineering works. The construction industry uses billion tons of raw material each year,
is the largest user of natural resources in the world. Concrete is the most useful material in construction liable for the
depletion of natural resources and increases the shortage of the ingredients such as steel, cement, and aggregates
consequently there is a large demand for these materials in the commercial sector [8]. Concrete is a synthetic construction
material made by mixing of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregate and water in the proper proportions and it is also a well
known heterogeneous mix of cement, water and aggregates [1].Conventionally concrete is mixture of cement, sand and
aggregate. Properties of aggregate affect the durability and performance of concrete, so fine aggregate is an essential
component of concrete. The most commonly used fine aggregate is natural river or pit sand. Fine and coarse aggregate
constitute about 75% of total volume. It is therefore, important to obtain right type and good quality aggregate at site, because
the aggregate form the main matrix of concrete or mortar [3, 4]. Concrete industry spends annually 1.5 billion tons of cement,
900 million liters of water and 9 billion tons of sand and stone. Since concrete industry is one of the major consumers of
natural resources, until today many efforts were made in order to replace non-renewable resources with renewable one
[2].The global consumption of natural sand is very high, due to the extensive use of concrete. In general, the demand of
natural sand is quite high in developing countries to satisfy the rapid infrastructural growth, in this situation developing
country like India facing shortage in good quality natural sand [5, 6]. Generally in India, natural sand deposits are being
depleted and causing serious threat to environment as well as the society. Increasing extraction of natural sand from river
beds causing many problems, loosing water retaining sand strata, deepening of the river courses and causing bank slides, loss
of vegetation on the bank of rivers, exposing the intake well of water supply schemes, disturbs the aquatic life as well as
affecting agriculture due to lowering the underground water table etc. [7].

II. HISTORY

The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed) [9]. the perfect passive
participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow). Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of
cement was twelve million years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a
bed of limestone burned due to natural causes. These ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s [10]. On a
human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years. Concrete like materials were used since 6500 BC
by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the
regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing
properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and
underground waterproof cisterns. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive
in the desert [11]. Some of these structures survive to this day [11]. In both Roman and Egyptian times, it was re-discovered
that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater. Similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made
concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant [12]. Crystallization of
stratlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance[13] German archaeologist Heinrich

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 International Journal of Advance Engineering and Research Development (IJAERD)
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Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates
roughly to 1400–1200 BC.[14,15] Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan
Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete [16]. Concrete was used for construction in many ancient structures
[17]. The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to 476 AD, a span of more than seven hundred years [10]. During
the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of
pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman
Architectural Revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed for
revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension [18]. Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was a
new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free
from many of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick [19]. Modern
tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern Portland-cement concrete (ca.
200 kg/cm2 [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]) [20]. However, due to the absence of reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than
modern reinforced concrete, and its mode of application was also different [21]. Modern structural concrete differs from
Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into
forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often
consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas
Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension [22].

III. TYPES OF MIXES USED IN CONCRETE

Researchers classified mixes into three types mainly name are [23]

(i) Nominal Mixes

(ii) Standard/Prescribed Mixes
(iii) Designed Mixes

3.1. Nominal Mixes

The specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed
cement aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal
circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified. The proportion of cement and aggregate is fixed, only the
water cement ratio is varied. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability
varies widely in strength.

3.2. Standard/Prescribed mixes

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and may result in under- or over-rich
mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed
standard mixes. Here the structural Engineer prescribes a standard concrete mix ratio that he thinks will produce the required
concrete. He may also indicate the type and size of aggregate to be used. The Builder/site engineer prepares the mixes based
on the ratio that has been prescribed.

3.3. Designed Mixes

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix proportions are determined by the
producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the
selection of mix proportions with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed
performance. Proportioning concrete based on the specified design mixes involves; more steps, and the use of tabulated data
and charts. The approach results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. This is
because the characteristics of the materials to be used and the characteristics of the concrete required are incorporated in the
design procedure.

IV. GRADE DESIGNATION FOR CONCRETE

According to Yunusa (2011) every concrete has its strength in N/mm2 when subject to test after 28 days of curing in any
medium. The choice of concrete grade depends on the purpose and usage as shown in Table 1 [23].

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 International Journal of Advance Engineering and Research Development (IJAERD)
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Table 1: Grades of Concrete

Grade of concrete in N/mm2 Ratio of cement, sand & Usage
aggregate
M-10 1:4:8 Blinding concrete
M-15 1:3:6 Mass concrete
M-20 1:2.5:5 Light reinforced concrete
M-25 1:2:4 Reinforced concrete/precast
M-30 1:1.5:3 Heavy reinforced concrete/pre-cast
M-35 1:1.5:2 Pre-stressed/precast concrete
M-40 1:1:1 Very heavy reinforced concrete/pre-
cast/pre-stressed

V. MATERIALS USED IN CONCRETE

The materials used in the concrete and the method to prepare it are as follows [23]

5.1. Cement
Concrete without admixtures and of high cement content, over about 460 kg/m3 are liable to prove difficult to pump, because
of high friction between the concrete and the pipeline. Cement contents below 270 to 320 kg/m3 depend upon the proportion
of the aggregates may also prove difficult to pump because of segregation within the pipe line.

5.2. Aggregate
The maximum size of crushed aggregate is limited to one-third of the smallest inside diameter of the hose or pipe based on
simple geometry of cubical shape aggregates. For uncrushed (rounded) aggregates, the maximum size should be limited to 40
percent of the pipe or hose diameter. The shape of the coarse aggregate, whether crushed or uncrushed has an influence on the
mix proportions, although both shapes can be pumped satisfactorily. The crushed pieces have a larger surface area per unit
volume as compared to uncrushed pieces and thus require relatively more mortar to coat the surface. Coarse aggregate of a
very bad particles shape should be avoided. Difficulties with pump mixed have often been experienced when too large a
proportion of coarse aggregate is used in an attempt to achieve economy by reducing the amount of cement such mixes are
also more difficult and costly to finish. The grading of coarse aggregate should be as per IS: 383-1970. If they are nominal
single sized then 10 mm and 20 mm shall be combine in the ratio of 1:2 to get a graded coarse aggregate. In the same way 10
mm, 20 mm and 40 mm aggregates shall be combine in the ratio of 1:1.5:3 to get a graded coarse aggregate. Fine aggregate
of Zone II as per IS: 383-1970 is generally suitable for pumped concrete provided 15 to 30 percent sand should pass the 300
micron sieve and 5 to 10 percent should pass the 150 micron sieve.

5.3. Water
Water is very actively participated in the chemical action with cement. Potable fresh water with pH value of 7 available from
local sources free from deleterious materials should be used.

VI. PROCESS OF PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

The various stages of manufacture of concrete are

a) Batching
b) Mixing

6.1. Batching

6.1.1 Volume Batching

Volume batching is not a good method for proportioning the material because of the difficulty it offers to measure granular
material in terms of volume. Volume of moist sand in a loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry
compacted sand. The effect of bulking should be considered for moist fine aggregate. For unimportant concrete or for any
small job, concrete may be batched by volume.

6.1.2. Weigh Batching

Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials. Use of weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy,
flexibility and simplicity. Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipment. On large work sites, the weigh
bucket type of weighing equipment is used.

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 International Journal of Advance Engineering and Research Development (IJAERD)
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6.2. Mixing
Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass
becomes homogeneous, uniform in color and consistency. There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete
(i) Hand mixing
(ii) Machine mixing

6.2.1 Hand mixing

Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works. As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is
desirable to add 10 per cent more cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method. Hand mixing should be
done over an impervious concrete or brick floor of sufficiently large size to take one bag of cement. Spread out the measured
quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate layers. Pour the cement on the top of it, and mix them dry by
shovel, turning the mixture over and over again until uniformity of color is achieved. Water is taken in a water-can fitted with
a rose-head and sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over. This operation is continued till such time a good
uniform, homogeneous concrete is obtained.

6.2.2 Machine Mixing

Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced concrete work and for medium or large scale
mass concrete work. Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete to be produced
is large. They can be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers. Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with
time interval, whereas continuous mixers produce concrete continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is working.
In normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are used. Batch mixer may be of pan type or drum type. The drum type
may be further classified as tilting, non-tilting, reversing or forced action type. As per I.S. 1791–1985, concrete mixers are
designated by a number representing its nominal mixed batch capacity in liters. The following are the standardized sizes of
three types:
a. Tilting: 85 T, 100 T, 140 T, 200 T
b. Non-Tilting: 200 NT, 280 NT, 375 NT, 500 NT, 1000 NT
c. Reversing: 200 R, 280 R, 375 R, 500 R and 1000 R

VII. TESTS OF CONCRETE

Generally to test the concrete it is necessary to pass it from the different tests is available. For which the standard cubes size
of dimension 150mm x 150mm x 150mm were produced for the compression strength test while beams of 100mm x 100mm
x 500mm were produced for the flexural test [23]

7.1. Workability Tests

Slump test was carried out to determine the workability of each mix. The tests were carried out in all cases in accordance
with the requirements of BS 1881: Part 102(1983) for slump test and BS 1881: Part103 (1983) for compacting factor tests.

7.2. Compressive Strength Test

The compressive testing machine was used to test the entire concrete cubes for crushing strength at 7, 14 and 28 days
respectively. The various weights were taken in order to determine the various densities of the sample produced. The average
failure loads were used to obtain the compressive strength.

7.3. Flexural Strength Test on Sample Beams

The tensile strength testing machine was used to test the flexural strength of the concrete beams at 7, 14 and 28 days
respectively after taking their weights in order to ascertain their densities. Results should be recorded based on the average
tensile strength.

The concrete should follow the criteria discussed below

a) Characteristic compressive strength required in the field at 28 days = 35 N/mm2

b) Type and size of coarse aggregate = 20-10 mm and 10-5 mm crushed aggregates as per grading.
c) Fine aggregate = River sand of Zone II as per IS: 383-1970.
d) Degree of workability = 50 – 100 mm slump at pour after 90 Minutes.
e) Minimum cement content = 340 kg/m3.
f) Maximum free water/cement ratio = 0.45.
g) Standard deviation for good site control = 5.0 N/mm2.
h) Accepted proportion of low results= 5%.

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VIII. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS DUE TO CONCRETE

The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental and social consequences. Some are harmful,
some welcome, and some both, depending on circumstances. A major component of concrete is cement, which similarly
exerts environmental and social effects [24]. The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon dioxide, a
major greenhouse gas (the other two being the energy production and transportation industries). As of 2001, the production of
Portland cement contributed 7% to global anthropogenic CO 2 emissions, largely due to the sintering of limestone and clay at
1,500 °C (2,730 °F) [25]. Concrete is used to create hard surfaces that contribute to surface runoff, which can cause heavy
soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be used to divert, dam, and control flooding. Concrete is a
contributor to the urban heat island effect, though less so than asphalt [26]. Workers who cut, grind or polish concrete are at
risk of inhaling airborne silica, which can lead to silicosis [27]. Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural
disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and
unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete (before curing is complete) is
highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective equipment.

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