AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE

Custard Apple

Directorate of Plant National Institute of Plant

Protection, Quarantine and Health Management
Storage Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,
N. H. IV, Faridabad, Haryana Telangana

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation

Ministry of Agriculture
Government of India
The AESA based IPM – Custard apple (Annona squamosa L.) was compiled by the NIPHM
working group under the Chairmanship of Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, DG, NIPHM, and
guidance of Shri. Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS, JS (PP). The package was developed taking into
account the advice of experts listed below on various occasions before finalization.

NIPHM Working Group:

Chairman : Dr. Satyagopal Korlapati, IAS, Director General

Vice-Chairmen : Dr. S. N. Sushil, Plant Protection Advisor
: Dr. P. Jeyakumar, Director (PHM)
Core Members :

1. Er. G. Shankar, Joint Director (PHE), Pesticide Application Techniques Expertise.

2. Dr. O. P. Sharma, Joint Director (A & AM), Agronomy Expertise.
3. Dr. Satish Kumar Sain, Assistant Director (PHM), Pathology Expertise.
4. Dr. Dhana Raj Boina, Assistant Director (PHM), Entomology Expertise.

Other Members :

1. Dr. N. Srinivasa Rao, Assistant Director (RPM), Rodent Pest Management Expertise.
2 Dr. B. S. Sunanda, Assistant Scientific Officer (PHM), Nematology Expertise.

Contributions by DPPQ&S Experts:

1. Shri. Ram Asre, Additional Plant Protection Advisor (IPM),

2. Dr. K. S. Kapoor, Deputy Director (Entomology),
3. Shri. R. Murali, Deputy Director (Entomology),
4. Dr. Sanjay Arya, Deputy Director (Plant Pathology),
5. Dr. Subhash Kumar, Deputy Director (Weed Science)
6. Dr. C. S. Patni, Plant Protection Officer (Plant Pathology)

Contributions by External Experts:

1. Dr. AK Saxena, Principal Scientist IIHR Bangalore

2. Dr. AK Mishra, Principal Scientist and Head Division of Crop Protection, Central Institute for
Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow, U.P.
3. Dr. H. P. Patnik, Prof & Head (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Odisha Univ. of
Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneshwar-751003, Orissa.
4. Dr. K.C. Sahu, Prof & Head (Pathology), College of Agriculture, Odisha Univ. of Agriculture
and Technology, Bhubaneshwar-751003, Orissa.
5. Dr. S. N. Mohapatra Prof & Head (Nematology), College of Agriculture, Odisha Univ. of
Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneshwar-751003, Orissa.
6. Dr. B .R. Patel, Prof & Head (Entomology), C.P. College of Agriculture, S.D. Agriculture
University, Sardarkrushinagar-385506
7. Dr. SurajitKhalko, Assistant prof (Pathology)Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Cooch
Behar, West Bengal
8. Dr. Nripendra Laskar, Assistant prof (Entomology)Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Cooch Behar, West Bengal
9. Dr. Ayon Roy, Associate prof (Pathology)Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Cooch
Behar, West Bengal
 10. Dr. Tapan Kumar Hath, Prof (Entomology)Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Cooch
Behar, West Bengal
11. Dr. M. L. Kewat, Prof (Agronomy), Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P)
12. Dr. Nayak, Prof (Agronomy), Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P)
13. Dr. R. Pachori, Prof (Entomology),Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P)
14. Dr. S.B. Das, Prof (Entomology),Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P)
15. Dr. Om Gupta, Prof (Pathology), Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P)
16. Dr. Jayant Bhatt, Prof (Pathology), Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur
(M.P)
17. Dr. A.K. Rawat, Prof (Soil science), Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur
(M.P)
18. Dr. H.K. RaI, Prof (Soil science), Jawarlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P)
19. Dr. H.S. Yadava, Director of Research services, Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya, Gwalior – 474002, M.P.

For internal circulation only. Not for sale.

 CONTENTS

Custard apple - Plant description

I. Pests
A. Pests of National Significance
1. Insect and mite pests
2. Diseases
3. Nematodes
4. Weeds
5. Rodents
II. Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA) based Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
A. AESA
B. Field scouting
C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for fruit boring caterpillar
D. Light traps
E. Nematode extraction

III. Ecological engineering for pest management

IV. Crop stage-wise IPM

V. Rodent pest management
VI. Insecticide resistance and its management

VII. Nutritional deficiencies

VIII. Common weeds

IX. Description of insect pests

X. Description of diseases

XI. Description of rodents

XII. Safety measures

XIII. Do’s and Don’ts in IPM
XIV. Basic precautions in pesticides usage
XV. Pesticide application techniques
XVI. Operational, calibration and maintenance guidelines in brief
XVII. References
 AESA BASED IPM PACKAGE FOR CUSTARD APPLE
Custard apple plant description:
Custard apple (Annona squamosa L.) can be called as a delicacy of dry region due to its
very sweet delicate flesh. It is a deciduous or semi deciduous tall woody shrub of about 5-6 meters
height having irregularly spreading branches. The fruits are rich in carbohydrate mainly in the form
of sugar (23.5%), protein (1.6%), calcium (17mg/100g), phosphorus (47mg/100g) and iron
(1.5mg/100g). The custard apple of India the sitaphal or sugar apple of sweet sop has many
relatives. It is one of the finest fruits introduced in India from tropical America and found in wild
form in many parts of the country. It is common in China, Phillippines, Egypt and Central Africa.
Fruits are dark greening brown in colour and marked with depressions giving it a quilted appearance;
its pulp is reddish yellow, sweetish, and very soft (hence the common name); the kernels of the seeds
are said to be poisonous.
Custard apple growing regions in India include Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil
Nadu. Approximately 55,000 hectares are dedicated to custard apple cultivation. Along with
Maharashtra, Gujarat is another large custard apple growing state. The fruit tolerates a variety of
conditions, from saline soils to droughts. In fact, farmers usually cultivate the fruits on hills in
barren lands. Erratic rains will, however, impede fruit quality.
Annona fruits grow well throughout the plains of India at elevations not exceeding 4,000 ft.
It prefers a tropical climate, but with cool winters. The fruit tolerates a variety of conditions, from
saline soils to droughts. Farmers usually cultivate the fruits on hills in barren lands. Erratic rains
will, however, impede fruit quality. The tree displays yellow trumpet shaped flowers that emit a
pleasant sweet smell, with only a small number of flowers setting fruit. The fruits are variable in shape
with the outer being covered in rounded knobs, with the inside containing a custard like flesh.
 I. PESTS
A. Pests of National Significance:
1. Insect pests

1.1 Mealy bug: Ferrisia virgata Cockerell (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

1.2 Fruit fly: Bactrocera spp, B. zonata Saunders (Diptera: Tephritidae)
1.3 Scales: Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock (Hemiptera: Coccidae)
1.4 Fruit boring caterpillar: Heterographis bengalella Ragonot (Syn: Anonaepestis
bengalella) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
2. Diseases
2.1 Fruit rot & Anthracnose: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc.
(Perfect stage Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk
2.2 Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria spp.
2.3 Cylindrocladium leaf spot: Cylindrocladium colhounii and Cylindrocladium
scoparium
3.4 Diplodia rot: Botryodiplodia theobromae Patouillard
3.5 Black canker: Phomopsis annonacearum (Bond) Mont.
3. Nematodes
3.1 Spiral nematode: Helicotylenchus spp.
3.2 Stint nematode: Tylenchorhynchus spp.
4. Weeds

Grasses
4.1 Bermuda grass: Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae
4.2 Annual brachiaria: Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) Robyns Poaceae
4.3 Viper grass: Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl.) Panzer. Poaceae
4.4 Dropseed: Sporobolus diandrus (Retz.) P. Beauv., Poaceae
Broadleaf
4.5 Horse purslane: Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae
4.6 Black nightshade: Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae
4.7 False amaranth: Digera arvensis Forssk. Amaranthaceae
4.8 Puncture vine: Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae
4.9 Common cocklebur: Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae
4.10 Asthma herb/Spurge: Euphorbia hirta/geniculate L. Euphorbiaceae
4.11 Carrot grass: Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae
4.12 Stone breaker: Phyllanthus niruri L. Euphorbiaceae
4.13 Sensitive plant: Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae
4.14 Broadleaf woodsorrel: Oxalis latifolia Kunth Oxalidaceae
4.15 Common Purslane: Portulaca oleracea Portulacaceae
Sedges
4.16 Purple nut sedge: Cyperus rotundus L. Cypraceae

5. Rodents
5.1 Soft furred field rat: Millardia meltada Gray
5.2 Indian mole rats/Smaller: Bandicoota bengalensis Gray
5.3 Common house rat: Rattus rattus Linn
5.4. Bats

II. AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS (AESA) BASED INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

A. AESA

The IPM has been evolving over the decades to address the deleterious impacts of synthetic
chemical pesticides on environment ultimately affecting the interests of the farmers. The economic
threshold level (ETL) was the basis for several decades but in modern IPM (FAO 2002) emphasis
is given to AESA where farmers take decisions based on larger range of field observations. The
health of a plant is determined by its environment which includes physical factors (i.e. soil, rain,
sunshine hours, wind etc.) and biological factors (i.e. pests, diseases and weeds). All these factors
can play a role in the balance which exists between herbivore insects and their natural enemies.
Understanding the intricate interactions in an ecosystem can play a critical role in pest
management.
Decision making in pest management requires a thorough analysis of the agro-ecosystem.
Farmer has to learn how to observe the crop, how to analyze the field situation and how to make
proper decisions for their crop management. This process is called the AESA. Participants of
AESA will have to make a drawing on a large piece of white paper (60 x 80 cm), to include all their
observations. The advantage of using a drawing is that it requires the participants/farmers to
observe closely and intensively. It is a focal point for the analysis and for the discussions that
follow, and the drawing can be kept as a record.

AESA is an approach, which can be gainfully employed by extension functionaries and

farmers to analyze the field situations with regards to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant health
and the influence of climatic factors and their relationship for growing a healthy crop. The basic
components of AESA are:

 Plant health at different stages

 Built-in compensation abilities of plants
 Pest and defender population dynamics
 Soil conditions
 Climatic factors
 Farmers past experience

Principles of AESA based IPM:

Grow a healthy crop

 Select a variety resistant/tolerant to major pests

 Select healthy seeds/seedlings/planting material
 Treat the seeds/seedlings/planting material with recommended pesticides especially
biopesticides
 Follow proper spacing
 Soil health improvement (mulching and green manuring wherever applicable)
 Nutrient management especially organic manures and biofertilizers based on the soil test
results. If the dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers is too high the crop becomes too succulent
and therefore susceptible to insects and diseases. If the dosage is too low, the crop growth
is retarded. So, the farmers should apply an adequate amount for best results. The
phosphatic fertilizers should not be applied each and every season as the residual
phosphate of the previous season will be available for the current season also.
 Proper irrigation
 Crop rotation

Observe the field regularly (climatic factors, soil and biotic factors)
Farmers should
 Monitor the field situation of the orchrad at least once a week (soil, water, plants, pests,
natural enemies, weather factors etc.)
 Make decisions based on the field situation and P: D ratio
 Take direct action when needed (e.g. collect egg masses, remove infested plants etc.)

Plant compensation ability

Compensation is defined as the replacement of plant biomass lost to herbivores and has been
associated with increased photosynthetic rates and mobilization of stored resources from source
organs to sinks (e.g., from roots and remaining leaves to new leaves) during active vegetative
growth period. Plant tolerance to herbivory can arise from the interaction of a variety of plant traits
and external environmental factors. Several studies have documented such compensation through
increased growth and photosynthetic rate.

Understand and conserve defenders

 Know defenders/natural enemies to understand their role through regular observations of

the agro-ecosystem
 Avoid the use of chemical pesticides especially with broad-spectrum activity

Insect zoo
In field various types of insects are present. Some are beneficial and some may be harmful.
Generally farmers are not aware about it. Predators (friends of the farmers) which feed on pests
are not easy to observe in crop field. Insect zoo concept can be helpful to enhance farmers’ skill to
identify beneficial and harmful insects. In this method, unfamiliar/unknown predators are collected
in plastic containers with brush from the field and brought to a place for study. Each predator is
placed inside a plastic bottle together with parts of the plant and some known insect pests. Insects
in the bottle are observed for certain time and determined whether the test insect is a pest (feeds
on plant) or a predator (feeds on other insects).

Pest: Defender ratio (P: D ratio):

Identifying the number of pests and beneficial insects helps the farmers to make appropriate pest
management decisions. Sweep net, visual counts etc. can be adopted to arrive at the numbers of
pests and defenders. The P: D ratio can vary depending on the feeding potential of natural enemy
as well as the type of pest. The natural enemies of custard apple pests can be divided into 3
categories 1. parasitoids; 2. predators; and 3. pathogens. The important natural enemies of
custard apple insect pests are given in ecological engineering table on page …..

Model Agro-Ecosystem Analysis Chart

Date:
Village:
Farmer:

Decision taken based on the analysis of field situations

Soil conditions :
Weather conditions :
Diseases types and severity :
Weeds types and intensity :
Rodent damage (if any) :
No. of insect pests :
No. of natural enemies :
P: D ratio :

The general rule to be adopted for management decisions relying on the P: D ratio is 2: 1.
However, some of the parasitoids and predators will be able to control more than 2 pests.
Wherever specific P: D ratios are not found, it is safer to adopt the 2: 1, as P: D ratio. Whenever
the P: D ratio is found to be favourable, there is no need for adoption of other management
strategies. In cases where the P: D ratio is found to be unfavourable, the farmers can be advised
to resort to inundative release of parasitoids/predators depending upon the type of pest. In
addition to inundative release of parasitoids and predators, the usage of microbial biopesticides
and biochemical biopesticides such as insect growth regulators, botanicals etc. can be relied upon
before resorting to synthetic chemical pesticides.
Decision making

Farmers become experts in crop management

Farmers have to make timely decisions about the management of their crops. AESA farmers have
learned to make these decisions based on observations and analysis viz. abiotic and biotic factors
of the crop ecosystem. The past experience of the farmers should also be considered for decision
making. However, as field conditions continue to change and new technologies become available,
farmers need to continue improving their skills and knowledge.

 Farmers are capable of improving farming practices by experimentation

 Farmers can share their knowledge with other farmers

AESA methodology

 Go to the field in groups (about 5 farmers per group). Walk across the field and choose 20
plants/acre randomly. Observe keenly each of these plants and record your observations:
 Plant: Observe the plant height, number of branches, crop stage, deficiency
symptoms etc.
 Pests: Observe and count pests at different places on the plant.
 Defenders (natural enemies): Observe and count parasitoids and predators.
 Diseases: Observe leaves and stems and identify any visible disease symptoms
and severity.
 Rats: Count number of plants affected by rats.
 Weeds: Observe weeds in the field and their intensity.
 Water: Observe the water situation of the field.
 Weather: Observe the weather condition.

 While walking in the field, manually collect insects in plastic bags. Use a sweep net to
collect additional insects. Collect plant parts with disease symptoms.
 Find a shady place to sit as a group in a small circle for drawing and discussion.
 If needed, kill the insects with some chloroform (if available) on a piece of cotton.
  Each group will first identify the pests, defenders and diseases collected.
 Each group will then analyze the field situation in detail and present their observations
and analysis in a drawing (the AESA drawing).
 Each drawing will show a plant representing the field situation. The weather condition,
water level, disease symptoms, etc. will be shown in the drawing. Pest insects will be
drawn on one side. Defenders (beneficial insects) will be drawn on another side. Write the
number next to each insect. Indicate the plant part where the pests and defenders were
found. Try to show the interaction between pests and defenders.
 Each group will discuss the situation and make a crop management recommendation.
 The small groups then join each other and a member of each group will now present their
analysis in front of all participants.
 The facilitator will facilitate the discussion by asking guiding questions and makes sure that
all participants (also shy or illiterate persons) are actively involved in this process.
 Formulate a common conclusion. The whole group should support the decision on what
field management is required in the AESA plot.
 Make sure that the required activities (based on the decision) will be carried out.
 Keep the drawing for comparison purpose in the following weeks.

Data recording

Farmers should record data in a notebook and drawing on a chart

 Keeping records of what has happened help us making an analysis and draw conclusions

Data to be recorded

 Plant growth (weekly): Height of plant; number of leaves

 Crop situation (e.g. for AESA): Plant health; pests, diseases, weeds; natural
enemies; soil condition; irrigation; weather conditions
 Input costs: Seeds; fertilizer; pesticides; labour
 Harvest: Yield (Kg/acre); price of produce (Rs./Kg)

Some questions that can be used during the discussion

 Summarize the present situation of the field.
 What crop management aspect is most important at this moment?
 Is there a big change in crop situation compared to last visit? What kind of change?
 Is there any serious pest or disease outbreak?
 What is the situation of the beneficial insects?
 Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders?
 Were you able to identify all pests and diseases?
 Do you think the crop is healthy?
 What management practices are needed at this moment?
 When will it be done? Who will do it? Make sure that responsibilities for all activities are
being discussed.
 Are you expecting any problems to emerge during the coming week such as congenial
weather conditions for pest buildup?
 What are the problems? How can we avoid it? How can we be prepared?
 Summarize the actions to be taken.
Advantages of AESA over ETL

One of the problems of the ETL is that it is based on parameters that are changing all the time,
and that are often not known. The damage or losses caused by a certain density of insects cannot
be predicted at all. In ETL the due recognition of the role of natural enemies in decreasing pest
population is ignored. Farmers cannot base their decisions on just a simple count of pests. They
will have to consider many other aspects of the crop (crop ecology, growth stage, natural enemies,
weather condition, etc.) and their own economic and social situation before they can make the
right crop management decisions. In ETL based IPM, natural enemies, plant compensation ability
and abiotic factors are not considered. In AESA based IPM emphasis is given to natural enemies,
plant compensation ability, abiotic factors and P: D ratio.

AESA and farmer field school (FFS)

AESA is a season-long training activity that takes place in the farmer field. It is season-long so that
it covers all the different developmental stages of the crop and their related management
practices. The process is always learner-centered, participatory and relying on an experiential
learning approach and therefore it has become an integral part of FFS.

Farmers can learn from AESA

 Identification of pests and their nature of damage

 Identification of natural enemies
 Management of pests
 Water and nutrient management
 Influence of weather factors on pest build up
 Role of natural enemies in pest management

FFS to teach AESA based IPM skills:

 Active involvement of the farmers
Participatory
Farmers learn from other IPM
farmers

Not classroom training

Practical
Active involvement of the farmers

Group meetings

Regular meetings Throughout cropping season

Guided by IPM facilitator

AESA based IPM
training for farmers Learning through Design studies to solve problems
field experiments
Learning by doing

Problem oriented Farmers choose topics

Learning about crop ecology

Understanding role of beneficial insects

B. Field scouting :

AESA requires skill. So only the trained farmers can undertake this exercise. However, other
farmers also can do field scouting in their own fields at regular intervals to monitor the major pest
situation.

Surveillance on pest occurrence in the field should commence soon after crop establishment
and at weekly intervals thereafter. In each field, select five spots randomly. Select five random
plants at each spot for recording counts of insects as per procedure finalized for individual insects.

For insect pests:

Fruit borer, scale and mealy bug: population should be counted on three leaves (top and middle
portion) of new shoot at 5 sites randomly in each tree. During Fruiting stage population can be
counted on fruits on the three top and three middle branches.

Fruit fly: select five apical twigs per tree, each from top, middle and bottom portion randomly and
record number of larvae per twig. During Fruiting stage population can be counted on fruits on the
three top and three middle branches.

For diseases:
Whenever scouting, be aware that symptoms of plant disease problems may be caused by any
biotic factors such as fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens or abiotic factors such as weather,
fertilizers, nutrient deficiencies, pesticides and abiotic soil problems. In many cases, the cause of
the symptom is not obvious. Close examination, and laboratory culture and analysis are required
for proper diagnosis of the causal agent of disease. Generally fungal diseases cause the obvious
symptoms with irregular growth, pattern & colour (except viruses), however abiotic problems cause
regular, uniform symptoms. Pathogen presence (signs) on the symptoms can also be observed
like fungal growth, bacterial ooze etc. Specific and characteristic symptoms of the important plant
diseases are given in description of diseases section.
Root sampling: Always check plants that appear unhealthy. If there are no obvious symptoms on
plants, examine plants randomly and look for lesions or rots on roots and stems. Observe the
signs of the causal organism (fungal growth or ooze). It is often necessary to wash the roots with
water to examine them properly. If the roots are well developed, cut them to examine the roots for
internal infections (discolouration & signs). Count the total number of roots
damaged/infested/infected due to rot should be counted and incidence should be recorded.

Leaf sampling: Examine all leaves and/or sheaths of each plant for lesions. Leaf diseases cause
most damage during the seedling and flowering stages of plant growth. Observe for the symptoms
and signs on the infected plant parts. Determine the percent area of leaf infection by counting the
number of leaves (leaf area diameter)/plant infected due to disease and incidence should be
recorded.

Stem, flower and fruit sampling: Carefully examine the stem, flower, and fruit of plants for
symptoms and signs of fungal or bacterial diseases. The stem, flower, and capsule should be split
or taken apart and examined for discoloration caused by fungi and bacteria. Count the number of
stems, flowers and fruit infected due to disease and percent disease incidence should be
recorded.

C. Surveillance through pheromone trap catches for fruit boring caterpillar:

Pheromone traps for insect viz., fruit boring caterpillar @ 4-5/acre have to be installed, if available.
Install the traps for each species separated by a distance of >75 feet in the vicinity of the selected
field. Fix the traps to the supporting pole at a height of one foot above the plant canopy. Change
of lures should be made at 2-3 week interval (regular interval). During each week of surveillance,
the number of moths/trap/week should be counted and recorded year round. The trapped moths
should be removed and destroyed after each recording.

Procedure for observation: Total number of moths of fruit boring caterpillar / trap/week should be
recorded. The trapped moths should be destroyed and removed after each recording.

D. Light traps:
Set up light traps 1 trap/acre 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping
insects (fruit fly). Light traps with exit option for natural enemies of smaller size should be installed
and operate around the dusk time (6 pm to 10 pm).

E. Nematode sampling
Collect 100 to 300 cm3 (200-300 g) representative soil sample. Mix soil sample and pass through
a coarse sieve to remove rocks, roots, etc. Take a 600 cc subsample of soil, pack lightly into a
beaker uniformly. Place soil in one of the buckets or pans half filled with water. Mix soil and water
by stirring with paddle; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling. Pour all but heavy
sediment through 20-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in first bucket; discard
material caught on sieve. Stir material in second bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops
swirling. Pour all but heavy sediment through 200-mesh sieve into first bucket; discard residue in
second bucket. Backwash material caught on 200-mesh sieve (which includes large nematodes)
into 250-ml beaker. Stir material in first bucket; allow to stand until water almost stops swirling.
Pour all but heavy sediment through 325-mesh sieve into second bucket; discard residue in first
bucket. Backwash material caught on 325-mesh sieve (which includes small to mid-sized
nematodes and silty material) into 250-ml beaker. More than 90% of the live nematodes are
recovered in the first 5-8 mm of water drawn from the rubber tubing and the sample is placed in a
shallow dish for examination.
 III. ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING FOR PEST MANAGEMENT

Ecological engineering for pest management has recently emerged as a paradigm for
considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to effect
habitat manipulation and to enhance biological control. Ecological engineering for pest
management is based on informed ecological knowledge rather than high technology approaches
such as synthetic pesticides and genetically engineered crops (Gurr et al. 2004).

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Below Ground:

There is a growing realization that the soil borne, seed and seedling borne diseases can be
managed with microbial interventions, besides choosing appropriate plant varieties. The following
activities increase the beneficial microbial population and enhance soil fertility.

 Crop rotations with leguminous plants which enhance nitrogen content.

 Keep soils covered year-round with living vegetation and/or crop residue.
 Add organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, crop residue
which enhance below ground biodiversity of beneficial microbes and insects.
 Application of balanced dose of nutrients using biofertilizers based on soil test report.
 Application of biofertilizers with special focus on mycorrhiza and plant growth promoting
rhizobia (PGPR)
 Application of Trichoderma harzianum/ viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens for treatment
of seed/seedling/planting materials in the nurseries and field application (if commercial
products are used, check for label claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for
own consumption in their fields, registration is not required).

Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Above Ground:

Natural enemies play a very significant role in control of foliar insect pests. Natural enemy
diversity contributes significantly to management of insect pests both below and above ground.

Natural enemies may require

1. Food in the form of pollen and nectar.
2. Shelter, overwintering sites and moderate microclimate, etc.
3. Alternate hosts when primary hosts are not present.

In order to attract natural enemies following activities should be practiced:

 Raise the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the field border by arranging
shorter plants towards main crop and taller plants towards the border to attract natural
enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest population
 Grow flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the field
 Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally such as Tridax procumbens,
Ageratum sp, Alternanthera sp etc. which act as nectar source for natural enemies,
 Not to apply broad spectrum chemical pesticides, when the P: D ratio is favourable. The
plant compensation ability should also be considered before applying chemical pesticides.
 Reduce tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.
  Select and plant appropriate companion plants which could be trap crops and pest
repellent crops. The trap crops and pest repellent crops will also recruit natural enemies as
their flowers provide nectar and the plants provide suitable microclimate.

Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants, parasitoids and predators (natural
enemies) number also will increase due to availability of nectar, pollen and insects etc. The major
predators are a wide variety of spiders, ladybird beetles, long horned grasshoppers, Chrysoperla,
earwigs, etc.

Plants suitable for Ecological Engineering for Pest Management

Attractant Plants

Cluster bean Cowpea Carrot

Sunflower Buckwheat French bean

Alfalfa Maize Mustard

Casor bean Cosmos Dandelion

Repellent plants
 Marigold Asparagus Dahelia

The flowering plants suggested under Ecological Engineering for pest management strategy are
known as attractant plants to the natural enemies of the selected pests. The information is
based on published research literature. However, the actual selection of flowering plants could
be based on availability, agro-climatic conditions and soil types

Biodiversity of natural enemies observed in Ecological Engineering field at NIPHM

IV. CROP STAGE-WISE IPM
 Management Activity

Pre planting*
Common cultural practices:
 Timely sowing should be done.
 Field sanitation, rogueing
 Destroy the alternate host plants
 Apply manures and fertilizers as per soil test recommendations
Nutrients  Pits (50 x 50 x 50cm) are to be dug during summer season and
kept open for controlling soil borne pests.
 Pits should be filled with a mixture of top soil and farmyard
manure in 1:1 ratio a fortnight before planting.
Weeds  Cultivate the field before planting to destroy existing weeds in the
field.
 Summer ploughing is helpful in destroying weeds seeds and
rhizomes in the soil.
 Adopt stale seed bed technique
Resting stages of Cultural control:
diseases &pests and  Dig the planting pit during summer season and keep it open for at
nematodes least one month.
 Soil solarization: Cover the pits with polythene sheet of 45 gauge
(0.45 mm) thickness for three weeks before sowing for soil
solarization which will help in reducing the soil borne pests.
 Apply neem cake @ 2 kg/pit.
Planting*
Common cultural practices:
 Use healthy, certified and weed free seeds.
Nutrient  Planting is done in rainy season at a distance of 4m x 4m.
 Add Trichoderma and Mycorrhiza mixture @ 50 g per pit at the
time of planting.
 Apply 300 g of fertilizers mixture of Urea, Single super phosphate
and muriate of potash in equal proportion are added in each pit.
Weed  Remove existing weeds in and around the pits at the time of
planting.
 Mulching with organic or biodegradable material.
Soil borne diseases Cultural control:
and nematodes  Make a trench keeping the distance from the main stem as per
the plant canopy width and apply neem cake @ 2 kg/ plant/pit.
* Apply Trichoderma viride/harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens as seed/seedling/planting
material, nursery treatment and soil application (if commercial products are used, check for label
claim. However, biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their fields,
registration is not required).

Vegetative stages (1-5 years)

 Common cultural practices:
 Destroy crop debris
 Avoid water logging
 Avoid water stress
 Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical spray, when 1-2
larval parasitoids are observed
 Custard apple bears flowers on current season growth and very
rarely on older branches. The early completion of season is
essential for the initiation of new growth. Therefore manual
defoliation during the mid-summer is recommended.
Common mechanical practices:
 Use light trap @ 1/acre and operate between 6 pm and 10 pm
 Install pheromone traps @ 4-5/acre for monitoring adult moths
activity (replace the lures with fresh lures after every 2-3 weeks)
 Erecting of bird perches @ 20/acre for encouraging predatory
birds such as King crow, common mynah etc.
Common biological practices:
 Conserve natural enemies through ecological engineering
 Augmentative release of natural enemies
Nutrient Application of manures & fertilizers: (per plant)
The bearing trees of Custard apple should be fertilized as follows
2nd to 5th year
FYM 20 kg
N 400 g
P 250 g
K 800 g
 Nitrogen should be applied in the form of FYM and oil cakes each
at 25% and the remaining 50% with chemical fertilizers. While P2O5
in the form of super phosphate and K2O in the form of sulphate of
potash.
 Manures are applied in 2 to 3 equal doses i.e. first dose in
December-January, 2nd done in June-July, 3rd dose in September,
Potash application can be reduced if the soil is rich in this nutrient.
 Nitrogen containing fertilizers should be applied in three equal
splits in January, July and November months; phosphorus
containing fertilizers in two splits in January and July months and
Potassium containing fertilizers may be applied as singly dose in
January.
 Adopt ring method of fertilizer application.
 A mixture of zinc sulphate 0.5%, manganese sulphate 0.2%, boric
acid 0.1%, urea 1% and lime 0.4% has to be sprayed two or three
times in a year to control chlorosis in leaves.
 Intercrops: During pre bearing period short growing crops like
groundnut, ragi, bajra wheat, pulses and vegetables (except
solanaceous crops) can be profitably grown in the inter spaces.
 In the bearing orchards green manure crops like sunhemp, green
gram, cowpea etc., are raised and incorporated into the soil during
the monsoon period.
Weeds  Timely Interculture and hand weeding should be done with hand
tools for initial 5 years.
 Mulching: After weeding and manuring, application of dry-leaf
mulch or paddy husk to a thickness of 8 cm in the basin keeps
down the weed growth and decreases the number of irrigations,
and improves the fruit quality.

 In the initial years of planting, intercrops like groundnut, minor

millets, linseed and gram should be grown.

Mealy bug Cultural control:

 Collect and destroy the mealy bug infested leaves, twigs and
fruits.
 Flooding of orchard with water in the month of October kill the
eggs.
 Ploughing of orchard in November.
 Avoid plant stresses - healthy plants are much less susceptible to
attack

Biological control:
 Release Cryptolaemous montrouzieri beetles @ 10/tree or @ 30
larvae/plant twice at 15 days interval.
 The Coccinellid Menochilus (Chilomenes) sex maculatus (F) is a
predator of the nymphs and adults, and the Hymenopterous
parasite Anaysis alcocki (Ashm.) Anagyrus dactylopii and
Aenasius advena are three parasitoids on mealy bugs.
 Release of coccinellid Scymnus coccivora @ 10 beetles /tree or
@ 30 larvae/plant is a good predator of both nymphs and adults.
Scale insect Cultural control:
• Collect and destroy damaged leaves
• Apply well rotten sheep manure @ 4 t/ acre in two splits or
poultry manure in 2 splits
• Control ants and dust which can give the scale a competitive
advantage.
Biological control:
• Field release of ladybird beetle.
• Spray dormant oil in late winter before spring.
• Spray horticultural oil, if needed, year round.

Anthracnose Cultural Control:

 Prune dead twigs before flowering, and remove infected fruit
and dead leaves regularly.
 Leaf and soil analysis should be done to maintain adequate
nutrient concentration in plants particularly calcium and
nitrogen
 Avoid planting susceptible varieties.
Leaf spot(S) Cultural control:
 Collect and burn the infected plant parts to minimize the
spread of the disease.
 Increase air circulation by proper training and pruning.
Flowering and fruiting
Nutrient  The bearing trees of Custard apple should be given 250 g N, 125 g
P2O5, and 125 gK2O per plant before the commencement of rainy
season.
6th year onwards (per plant)
FYM 30 kg
N 600 g
P 500 g
K 1200 g
Weeds  Remove weeds from basins around the trees by hand weeding
followed by mulching with organic materials.
 Control weeds between rows by shallow cultivation and grow the
cover crops as mentioned in vegetative stage.
Mealy bug Cultural control:
 Collect and destroy the mealy bug infested leaves, twigs and
fruits.
 Flooding of orchard with water in the month of October kill the
eggs.
 Ploughing of orchard in November.
 Avoid plant stresses - healthy plants are much less susceptible to
attack

Biological control:
 Release Cryptolaemous montrouzieri beetles @ 10/tree or @ 30
larvae/plant twice at 15 days interval.
 The Coccinellid Menochilus (Chilomenes) sex maculatus (F) is a
predator of the nymphs and adults, and the Hymenopterous
parasite Anaysis alcocki (Ashm.) Anagyrus dactylopii and
Aenasius advena are three parasitoids on mealy bugs.
 Release of coccinellid Scymnus coccivora @ 10 beetles /tree or
@ 30 larvae/plant is a good predator of both nymphs and adults.
Fruit borer/ Fruit Cultural control:
boring caterpillar  Collect and destroy affected fruits.
Physical Control:
 Adopt bagging of fruits.
Biological control:
 Use of braconid parasitoids (Apanteles spp.) to parasitize larvae;
Fruit fly Cultural Control:
 Collect fallen infested fruits and destroy them.
 Provide summer ploughing to expose the pupae.
Physical control:
 Immersion of fruits in hot water (45 to 47°C) for 60 minutes to kill
eggs and maggots
 Use 10 traps per acre of methyl eugenol.
Biological control:
 Field release of natural enemies Opius compensates and
Spalangia philippines.
Scale insect Cultural control:
 • Collect infeseted plant parts and destroy them.
• Apply well rotten sheep manure @ 10 t/ ha in two splits or poultry
manure in 2 splits
• Control ants and dust which can give the scale a competitive
advantage.
Biological control:
• Field release of Vadalia and Australian ladybugs.
• Spray dormant oil in late winter before spring.
Anthracnose Cultural Control:
 Prune dead twigs before flowering, and regularly remove
infected fruit and dead leaves.
 Leaf and soil analysis should be done to maintain adequate
nutrient concentration in plants particularly calcium and
nitrogen
 Avoid planting susceptible varieties.
Leaf spot (s) Cultural control:
 Collect and burn the infected plant parts to minimize the
spread of the disease.
 Increase air circulation by proper training and pruning.
Cultural control:
 Mulch under trees to reduce soil splash.
 Remove dead twigs and mummified fruit each season.
 Prune tree skirts to 50 cm above the ground.
 Regularly monitor fruit for infection during the season so that
spraying can start before fruit diseases get too severe.
Diplodia rot Cultural control:
 Use mulching under trees to reduce soil splash.
 Remove dead twigs and mummified fruits.
 Maintain proper plant canopy to reduce the high humidity by
appropriate pruting and training. Pruin trees 50 cm above the
ground.
Black canker Cultural control:
 Use mulching under trees to reduce soil splash.
 Regularly monitor the diseases and remove dead twigs and
mummified fruits.
 Follow proper plant canopy by appropriate prunning and
training.
 Prune trees 50 cm above the ground.
Spiral nematode Cultural control:
(Helicotylenchus sp.)  Fallow, flooding and deep summer ploughing,
Stunt nematode  Timely planting, manuring and irrigation,
(Tylenchorhynchus  Use cover crops, antagonistic crops, trap crops,
sp.)  Follow crop rotation
 Grow resistant/tolerant varieties
Physical control:
 Practice soil solarization
 Phytosanitary measures: Follow International/ Domestic
regulatory measures.
Note: The pesticide dosages and spray fluid volumes are based on high volume sprayer.
 V. RODENT PEST MANAGEMENT

 Disturb and destroy the habitat (burrows) of the rodents by

practicing clean cultivation
 Minimize the alternate food sources and secured habitation by
removing the weeds and crop residues in/ around the fields
 Practice burrow smoking using paddy straw or other natural
smoking materials in ANGRAU/ NIPHM burrow fumigator’ for
2-3 minutes for each burrow.
 Encourage the establishment of natural predator like barn
owls by establishing barn owl perches/ wooden boxes in and
around the crop fields.
 Use traps to catch and kill rodents
 Practice burrow smoking as individual and community, preferably on a campaign approach.
 Organize community rodent control campaigns using rodenticide poison baits through
packeting and pocketing, before crop entering into reproductive phase (i.e. before P.I.). The
optimum time for organizing mass rodent control campaigns will be 6 weeks after
transplanting.

Bats management:
Cultural control:
 Ripening fruits are protected by placing them between empty coconut shells.
 Cloth bags are used to cover and protect ripening fruit.
 Old fishing nets are placed over fruit trees keeping fruit bats from getting access to fruit.
Mechanical control:
 Fishing nets are strung up between trees to trap bats in flight.
 Fishing lines with numerous dangling hooks are strung up around home gardens in order to
snare bats.
 Long poles, with fishing lines and hooks, are hung in fruit trees so that the hooks dangle at
the periphery of the tree.
 Human effigies are placed in fruit trees scaring off bats.
 Scaring devices, made from tin cans, are hung in trees and are pulled at regular intervals
during the night.
 Oil lamps are sometimes burnt in trees to ward off fruit bats.

VI. INSECTICIDE RESISTANCDE AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Insecticide resistance: Resistance to insecticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the

sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the
expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species’
(IRAC). Cross-resistance occurs when resistance to one insecticide confers resistance to another
insecticide, even where the insect has not been exposed to the latter product.

Causes of resistance development: The causes and rate at which insecticide resistance
develops depend on several factors, including the initial frequency of resistance alleles present in
the population, how rapidly the insects reproduce, the insects’ level of resistance, the migration
and host range of the insects, the insecticide's persistence and specificity, and the rate, timing and
 number of applications of insecticide made. For instance, insect pests that survive in large
populations and breed quickly are at greater advantage of evolving insecticide, especially when
insecticides are misused or over-used.

General strategy for insecticide resistance management: The best strategy to avoid insecticide
resistance is prevention and including insecticide resistance management tactics as part of a
larger integrated pest management (IPM) approach.

1) Monitor pests: Monitor insect population development in fields to determine if and when control
measures are warranted. Monitor and consider natural enemies when making control decisions.
After treatment, continue monitoring to assess pest populations and their control.
2) Focus on AESA. Insecticides should be used only as a last resort when all other non-chemical
management options are exhausted and P: D ratio is above 2: 1. Apply biopesticides/ chemical
insecticides judiciously after observing unfavourable P: D ratio and when the pests are in most
vulnerable life stage. Use application rates and intervals as per label claim.
3) Ecological engineering for pest management: Flowering plants that attract natural enemies
as well as plants that repel pests can be grown as border/intercrop.
4) Take an integrated approach to managing pests. Use as many different control measures as
possible viz., cultural, mechanical, physical, biological etc. Select insecticides with care and
consider the impact on future pest populations and the environment. Avoid broad-spectrum
insecticides when a narrow-spectrum or more specific insecticide will work. More preference
should be given to green labeled insecticides.
5) Mix and apply carefully. While applying insecticides care should be taken for proper
application of insecticides in terms of dose, volume, timing, coverage, application techniques as
per label claim.
6) Alternate different insecticide classes. Avoid the repeated use of the same insecticide,
insecticides in the same chemical class, or insecticides in different classes with same mode of
action and rotate/alternate insecticide classes and modes of action.
7) Preserve susceptible genes. Preserve susceptible individuals within the target population by
providing unsprayed areas within treated fields, adjacent "refuge" fields, or habitat attractions
within a treated field that facilitate immigration. These susceptible individuals may outcompete and
interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and therefore the impact of
resistance.

VII. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES/ DISORDERS

Sr. Nutrients Symptoms
no.
1. Iron deficiency
Cause: Insufficient iron available to the tree. Generally
caused by poor root health or over-liming.
Identification notes: Causes an overall yellowing or
whitening of leaves with the veins remaining green.
Treatment: Apply a foliar spray of iron chelate or soluble
ferrous sulphate.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
nutrient levels. To avoid over-liming, calculate lime or
dolomite rates carefully in accordance with soil analysis
results. Mulch trees to improve root health.
2. Sulphur deficiency
Cause: Insufficient sulphur available to the tree.
Identification notes: Healthy leaf (bottom) for
comparison. Causes a uniform yellowing of the leaves
but the veins do not remain green. Rarely seen in well-
managed orchards.
Treatment: Not serious enough to warrant treatment.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
nutrient levels. Where deficient, use fertilisers with a
higher sulphur content.
3. Manganese deficiency
Cause: Insufficient manganese available to the tree.
Generally caused by high soil pH or high levels of soil
phosphorus or zinc.
Identification notes: Affected leaves are a mottled
pale-green, with green veins. Yellowing is more
pronounced towards the leaf tips. Rarely seen in well-
managed orchards.
Treatment: Apply foliar spray of manganese sulphate
and urea.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
nutrient levels. Apply manganese to the soil when
indicated by leaf and soil analysis results.
4. Magnesium deficiency
Cause: Insufficient magnesium available to the tree.
Generally results from excessive use of potassium.
Identification notes: Yellowing occurs in bands on
either side of the midrib while the margin of the leaf
remains green. A reddish-brown discolouration
sometimes develops in the yellow areas. Most common
in acid sandy soils.
Treatment: Do leaf and soil analyses to check soil pH
and magnesium levels. Apply dolomite or magnesium
oxide (choice depends on pH level). A short-term
response can be achieved with a foliar spray of Epsom
salts and urea.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
soil pH and nutrient levels. Apply magnesium to the
ground under the trees according to leaf and soil
analysis results. Do not apply excessive amounts of
 potassium fertiliser.
5. Nitrogen deficiency
Cause: Insufficient nitrogen available to the tree.
Identification notes: Left: mild symptom showing the
pale green leaves. Right: severe symptom where the
oldest leaves turn bright yellow and fall prematurely.
Treatment: Do a leaf analysis to confirm the diagnosis.
Adjust the fertiliser program according to the leaf
analysis results.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
nutrient levels. Apply appropriate amounts of nitrogen
fertiliser throughout the growing season.
6. Boron deficiency
Cause: High uptake of boron from the soil. Generally
caused by applying boron unevenly or at high rates.
Identification notes: Leaves near growing point
yellowed, growth bud appear white or brownish dead
tissue.
Treatment: Apply boron at 2.0 g/m2 and broadcast over
the ground area under the canopy. Boron and calcium
sprays during flowering and early fruit set are beneficial
in reducing internal fruit browning.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
boron levels. Take particular care to apply boron at the
correct rates.
7. Potassium deficiency
Cause: Insufficient potassium available to the tree.
Generally caused by an imbalance of potassium,
calcium and magnesium in the soil. More common in
light soils where heavy leaching occurs and in trees with
heavy crop loads.
Identification notes: Yellowing begins at the margin of
the leaf and spreads towards the veins. Small black
spots develop within affected areas.
Treatment: Do a leaf analysis to confirm the diagnosis.
Adjust the fertiliser program according to the results.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
nutrient levels. Apply appropriate amounts of potassium
fertiliser throughout the growing season.
8. Boron toxicity
Cause: High uptake of boron from the soil. Generally
caused by applying boron unevenly or at high rates.
Identification notes: Note the small brown spots
developing inside the burnt margin.
Treatment: No applicable
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor
boron levels. Take particular care to apply boron at the
correct rates. Apply boron evenly when spraying it on
the ground or applying it by fertigation.

9. Manganese toxicity
 Cause: High uptake of manganese from the soil. Occurs in soils with high manganese
levels when pH falls below 5.5 (1:5 water test).
Identification notes: Affected leaves have an irregular yellow or whitish margin.
Treatment: Do a leaf analysis to confirm the diagnosis. Apply lime or dolomite to raise
soil pH to 6.5 (1:5 water test).
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor nutrient levels. In high
manganese soils, maintain soil pH at 6.5 or above (1:5 water test).

10. Zinc deficiency

Cause: Insufficient zinc available to the tree. Generally caused by high soil pH or high
levels of soil phosphorus.
Identification notes: Affected leaves are yellow-green with green veins, smaller than
usual, narrow and slightly distorted.
Treatment: Apply zinc to the ground under the tree. In severe cases, also spray chelated
zinc onto the spring flush.
Prevention: Do annual leaf and soil analyses to monitor nutrient levels. Apply zinc to the
ground under the trees annually according to leaf and soil analysis results.

1. Stone Fruits: Disorders

Some fruits instead of attaining full size remain very small and become brown and dry up. These
are known as stone fruits which are retained on tree for a long period. Competition among the
developing fruits and high temperature are supposed to cause stone fruit formation.
2. Fruit Cracking: Disorders

This usually happens from a heavy rainfall or irrigation after a prolonged dry spell. Evenly
distributed irrigation schedule and constant and uniform moisture level in the soil will reduce this
problem.

VIII. COMMON WEEDS

1. Bermuda grass: 2. Purple nut sedge: 3. Annual brachiaria:

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Cyperus rotundus L. Brachiaria deflexa
Pers. Poaceae Cypraceae (Schumach.) Robyns
Poaceae

4. Horse purslane: 5. Viper grass: 6.Black nightshade:

Trianthema Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl.) Solanum nigrum L.
portulacastrum L. Panzer. Poaceae Solanaceae
Aizoaceae
7.Common cocklebur: 8. False amaranth: Digera 9. Puncture vine: Tribulus
Xanthium strumarium L. arvense Forssk. terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae
Asteraceae Amaranthaceae

10. Asthma herb 11. Carrot grass: 12. Stone breaker:

Euphorbia: hirta L. Parthenium hysterophorus Phyllanthus niruri L.
Euphorbiaceae L. Asteraceae Euphorbiaceae

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tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTPQkeED3qIARbkc0jNHoSv-
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13. Sensitive plant: 14. Dropseed: Sporobolus 15. Broadleaf woodsorrel:

Mimosa pudica L. diandrus (Retz.) P. Oxalis latifolia Kunth
Fabaceae Beauv., Poaceae) Oxalidaceae
http://jimbotany.com/Monastery_Plants/Port
ulaca%20oleracea%20%202012-07-30.jpg
16. Common Purslane:
Portulaca oleracea
Portulacaceae

IX. DESCRIPTION OF INSECT PESTS

1. Mealy bug:
Biology:
 Egg: The egg period is 28-32 days. Female and male adults live for 23 to 28 days,
respectively. Pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods is 6-7, 8.-9 and 1-2
days, respectively. The total life span of female and male is 46 -49 and 23 -29 days. The
reproduction took place both sexually as well as parthenogenetically and female laid an
average of 155 eggs during its life period.
 Nymph: Yellow to pale white in colour. It has three to four nymphal instars and the total
nymphal period is 21 to 29 days.
 Adult: Females apterous, long, slender covered with white waxy secretions. The life-
span of the adult female is 12-31days.
Life cycle:

Symptoms of Damage:
 The tiny small bugs usually suck sap from twigs, leaves and flowers. Infested fruits will
have uneven shapes, poor quality, and are susceptible to secondary infections by
pathogens.
 Infestation of mealy bug on custard apple fruit
http://era.deedi.qld.gov.au/1653/6/5probcus.pdf
Natural enemies of mealybug:
Predators: Ladybird beetle namely Menochilus sexmaculatus, Rodolia fumida, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri.
*For management refer to page number------------------------
2. Fruit borer/ Fruit boring caterpillar :
Biology:
 Eggs are laid singly on immature fruit. Upon hatching, the caterpillar bore into the fruits
where they pupate.
 Larva: Fully developed gray to black coloured caterpillars are about 20 mm long.
 Adult: Light brown with transparent wing
Damage symptoms:
 Caterpillar makes irregular tunnels and damages the mesocarp by feeding the internal
content of the fruits.
 The presence of excreta of the caterpillars near the entry holes on the affected fruits
 The growth of affected fruits are arrested and later fall down.

Larvae feeding on fruits

Natural enemies of fruit boring caterpillar:
Predators: Chrysoperla zastrowii Sellimi, coccinellids, king crow, common mynah, wasp,
dragonfly, spider, robber fly, reduviid bug, preying mantid, fire ants, big eyed bugs (Geocoris sp),
pentatomid bug (Eocanthecona furcellata), earwigs, ground beetles, rove beetles etc.
*For management refer to page number------------------------

3. Fruit fly:
Biology:
 Egg: Under optimum conditions, a female can lay more than 3,000 eggs during its lifetime,
but under field conditions from 1,200 to 1,500 eggs per female is considered to be the
usual production. Development from egg to adult under summer conditions requires about
16 days.
 Larva: The mature larva emerges from the fruit, drops to the ground, and forms a tan to
dark brown puparium.
 Pupa: Pupation occurs in the soil. About nine days are required for attainment of sexual
maturity after the adult fly emerges.
 Adult: Brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.
Life cycle:
 2.http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/pdep/target_pest_disease_profiles/guava_fruit_fly_profile.html
3. http://www.fightthefruitfly.org/information.html

Damage symptoms:
 Maggots bore into the semi ripened fruits and feed on the pulp.
 Affected fruits become shrivelled, deformed, rot and drop.
Natural enemies of fruit flies:
Parasitoids: Diachasmimorpha longicaudata, D. tryon, D. kraussi, Fopius arisanus.
4. Scales:
Biology:

Egg: The eggs are pink to dark red and are laid under the scale’s wax covering of adult females.
Females lay about 2000 eggs.
Nymph: First stage (instar) nymphs, called crawlers hatch from eggs over a period of 2 to 3
weeks. Immediately after hatching the first instar crawlers come out which are pink in colour. They
disperse on the leaves and twigs and find a suitable feeding place to settle. The crawlers undergo
three moults and develop into adults. The wax-covering secreted around their body gives them a
star-like appearance. Soft scales have 3 or 4 instars in the female and 5 in the male

Adult: The adults are elliptical, reddish brown with short anal process. The adult female is reddish
which is coated with a thick layer of pinkish-white wax. Adults are mostly found on twigs and
branches. The size of the female is about 2 to 4 mm in length and 1 to 3.5 mm in width. Males are
not known in this species. Females have 2 to 3 immature stages without any pupa-like instars
while males have 4 immature stages with the two pupa-like instars.
ttp://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/scales/florida_wax_scale.htm

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN91300.pdf
Damage symptoms:
 The direct damage is caused by insertion of stylets during feeding by the nymphs, which
causes premature leaf drop and drying of twigs.
 Sooty mould develops on honeydew excreted by these scale insects and incase of severe
infestations shoots or branches die and host’s death may also occur.
Natural enemies:
Parasitoids: Coccophagus lycimnia, Metaphycus eruptor and Scutellista cynea

Natural Enemies of Custard apple Insect Pests

Parasitoids

Larval parasitoids
 1. Diachasmimorpha longicaudata 2. Fopius arisanus

Nymphal and adult parasitoids

3. Coccophagus lycimnia 4. Scutellista cynea

1. http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/beneficial/d_longicaudata.htm
2. http://www.tephritid.com/digital.php?act=page&pid=28&id=25
3.http://www.entocare.nl/english/products_pulvinaria.htm
4.http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/Scutellista-caerulea.php

Predators

1. Chrysoperla 2. Coccinellid 3. Reduviid bug 4. Spider

5. Robber fly 6. Fire ant 7. Mirid bug 8. Scynimus coccivora

9. Big-eyed bug 10. Earwig 11. Ground beetle 12. Pentatomid bug
13. Preying mantis 14. Geocoris spp. 15. Oligota spp. 16. Orius spp.

17. Hover fly 18.Cryptolaemus 19. Black drongo 20. Common mynah

5. http://www.warpedphotosblog.com/robber-fly-and-prey
6.http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/queensland-launched-a-war-against-the-fire-ant-invasion-but-12-years-later-
they8217re-still-on-the-march/story-fnihsrf2-1226686256021
7. http://www.britishbugs.org.uk/heteroptera/Miridae/blepharidopterus_angulatus.html
8. http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/images/scymnus-coccivora2.jpg
9. http://bugguide.net/node/view/598529
10. http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnhallmen/2901162091/
11.http://www.mattcolephotography.co.uk/Galleries/insects/Bugs%20&%20Beetles/slides/ Ground%20Beetle%20-
%20Pterostichus%20madidus.html
12. http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/rider/Pentatomoidea/Genus_Asopinae/ Eocanthecona.htm
13. http://spirit-animals.com/praying-mantis/
14. http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/hemipt/Dicyphus.htm
15. http://www.fugleognatur.dk/forum/show_message.asp?MessageID=560188&ForumID=33
16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orius_insidiosus_from_USDA_2_(cropped).jpg
17. http://nagpurbirds.org/blackdrongo/picture/1639
18. http://biobee.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/cryptolimus-400-266.jpg
19 http://nickdobbs65.wordpress.com/tag/herbie-the-love-bug/
20. http://www.arkive.org/common-myna/acridotheres-tristis/

X. DESCRIPTION OF DISEASES

1. Anthracnose:
Disease symptoms:
 Infection begins at blossom-end of the fruit and later spreads on entire fruit surface,
affected fruits shrivel and they may cling to the tree or fall down.
 Necrotic spots of 2-10 mm in diameter appear on unripe fruits which turn into dark
brown to black spots. These spots coalesce later and cover entire fruit.
Favourable condition:
 Wet and windy conditions favour the disease
Survival and spread:
 Older fruits left on the trees provide inoculum for disease spread.
2. Leaf spot
Disease symptoms:
 Alternaria leaf spot: Small yellowish spots first appear along the leaf margins, which
gradually enlarge and turn into brownish patches with concentric rings. Severe infection
leads to drying and defoliation. Dark brown-purplish patches appear on the infected
fruits andrachis just below its attachment with the shoots.
 Cylindrocladium leaf spot: Upper: dark purple spots about 1 to 2 mm in diameter
develop first on the shoulders of the fruit and then spread down the sides. Spots
enlarge and then later dry out and crack. Similar in appearance to spotting bug
damage, but spots are irregular in shape whereas spotting bug lesions are round, and
damage does not extend very far into the fruit

Cylindrocladium leaf spot symptoms on leaf and fruit

Survival and spread:
 The pathogen survives through spores (conidia) or mycelium in diseased plant debris or
other hosts. .
Favourable conditions:
 Relative humidity above 70% coupled with warm weather (12-25 ºC temp.) and
intermittent rains favours disease.
3. Diplodia rot
Disease symptoms:
 Diseased fruits show symptoms of purplish to black spots or blotches confined to the
surface of the fruit and eventually covered with white mycelia and black pycnidia.
 Diplodia rot is distinguished by its dark internal discolouration and the extensive corky
rotting produces.
 The penetrated flesh eventually softens or hardens and cracks, depending on the
presence of secondary microbes.

Favourable condition:
  Optimum temperature is 25.9°C to 31.5°C and relative humidity is 80%
Survival and spread
 The pathogen persists in infected plant parts which serve as source of inoculums.
4. Black canker
Disease symptoms:
 Irregularly shaped spots ranging from small specks to large blotches.
 Spots have an indistinct ‘feathered’ edge.
 Tissue damage under the spots is no more than 10 mm deep.

Favourable conditions:
 The disease is favored by extremely wet weather and cool-to-moderate temperatures
(15ºC to 20ºC). When prolonged rainy periods exist in the spring and provide at least
six hours of continuous wetness
Survival and spread
The pathogen persists in infected plant parts which serve as source of inoculums.
5. Spiral nematode and Stunt nematode:
Life cycle:
 Nematodes molt four times during each life cycle with a molt occurring at the end of
each larval stage.
 Therefore, molts separate the first and second larval stages, the second and third larval
stages, the third and fourth larval stages, and also the fourth larval stages and
immature adults.
 The 5th stage larva grows to the limit of its new cuticle, at the same time developing into
a sexually mature adult male or female.
Disease cycles:
1. Anthracnose:

2. Leaf spot:

3. Cylindrocladium leaf spot:

 4. Diplodia rot:

5. Black canker:

XI. DESCRIPTION OF RODENT PESTS

1) Lesser bandicoot: Bandicota bengalensis

 Distributed throughout India and infests almost all crops.
 Robust rodent (200 to 300 g body weight) with a rounded head and
a broad muzzle. Dorsum covered with grey-brownish rough hairs.
Tail is naked, shorter than head and body.
 Breeds throughout the season and litter size 6-8 in normal
conditions.
 Nocturnal and fossorial. Burrows are characterized by the
presence of scooped soil at the entrance and mostly burrow
openings are closed with soil.
 It is a major pest in irrigated rice crop
2) Field mouse: Mus booduga
 Distributed in peninsular India to cutch in Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha and in North east.
 Habitats especially irrigated crop fields.
 Tiny mouse (10g) with slender, short, naked and bicolor tail
 Nocturnal and fossorial.
 Breeds throughout the year
 Individually it is a minor pest but, accumulated losses will be
more.

3). Soft furred field rat: Millardia meltada

 Distributed in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh southwards to western
and southern India, also finds in foothills of eastern Himalayas.
Found mostly in semi arid areas.
 Small rodent (40-60gm) with soft fur, dorsum light grey and
bicolored tail equal to the head and body.
 It is associated with T. indica and Musboodga in northern part
and with Bandicotabengalensis in southern part.
 Nocturnal and tonsorial with simple burrows.
 Found majorly in rain-fed paddy and rice-sugarcane
ecosystem.

5. Indian gerbil:Tateraindica
 Distributed throughout the India. Inhabits rain-fed crop fields/
fallow/wastelands
 Medium sized (100-250 g.) with light brownish dorsum and
longer tail than head and body
 Earmarked enlarged eyes, rounded ears and bicolour tail with
terminal black tuft.
 Nocturnal and fossorial, with semi circular openings in burrows
with zigzag shape and 2 to 4 openings and emergency exits.
 Inhabits dry land crop fields, fallow and wastelands in ruderal,
sandy, gravel plains habitats.
 Minor pest in rice fields.

XII. SAFETY MEASURES

A. At the time of harvest

Harvest fruits when they have developed full bright color for the variety, but while they are still firm
to touch. At this stage, the seeds will be young, white, and tender and the flesh firm and white. As
the fruit passes the prime stage for eating and becomes over-mature, the fruit surface becomes
dull, the seeds harden and darken, and the flesh becomes spongy. Prompt picking stimulates fruit
set and increases yields.

Fruits can be snapped from the plant, but less damage usually occurs if they are clipped
with a sharp knife or scissors. A short piece of stem should be left attached to the fruit. Handle the
 fruit carefully to avoid damage, wipe it to give a clean, bright appearance. Staking of plants may
be necessary to prevent branches touching the ground later in the season as the number and size
of the fruits increase. Rain, wind and irrigation can cause the branches to break or droop. Avoid
fruit touching the ground as it may spoil the fruit.

B. Post-harvest storage
Brinjal fruits loose water and quality quickly at warm temperature after harvest. Ideal would be to
store fruits in a cool space (7 to 13 °C and a relative humidity of 90-95%). In some countries,
eggplant fruits are wrapped in plastic shrink film to reduce weight loss and maintain firmness, due
to the high relative humidity. However, wrapped fruits decay rapidly if the film is not perforated. It is
obvious that this practice is very expensive and is only worth it if high prices are fetched in the
market.

XIII. DO’S AND DON’TS IN IPM

S. Do’s Don’ts
No.
1. Deep ploughing is to be done on bright sunny days Do not plant or irrigate the field after
during the months of May and June. The field should ploughing, at least for 2-3 weeks, to allow
be kept exposed to sun light at least for 2-3 weeks desiccation of weed’s bulbs and/or rhizomes
of perennial weeds.
2. Grow only recommended varieties. Do not grow varieties not suitable for the
season or the region.
3. Sow/plant early in the season Avoid late sowing as this may lead to
reduced yields and incidence of pests
4. Always treat the seeds/seedlings/planting material Do not use seeds/seedlings/planting without
with approved chemicals/bio products for the control treated with biocides/chemicals.
of seed borne diseases/pests.
5. Plant in rows at optimum depths under proper Do not plant seeds beyond 5-7 cm depth.
moisture conditions for better establishment.
6. Apply only recommended herbicides at Pre-emergent as well as soil incorporated
recommended dose, proper time, as appropriate herbicides should not be applied in dry soils.
spray solution with standard equipment along with Do not apply herbicides along with irrigation
flat fan or flat jet nozzles. water or by mixing with soil, sand or urea.
7. Maintain optimum and healthy crop stand which Crops should not be exposed to moisture
would be capable of competing with weeds at a deficit stress at their critical growth stages.
critical stage of crop weed competition
8. Use NPK fertilizers as per the soil test Avoid imbalanced use of fertilizers.
recommendation.
9. Use micronutrient mixture after sowing based test Do not apply any micronutrient mixture after
recommendations. sowing without test recommendations.
10. Conduct AESA weekly in the morning preferably Do not take any management decision
before 9 a.m. Take decision on management without considering AESA and P: D ratio
practice based on AESA and P: D ratio only.
11. Install pheromone traps at appropriate period. Do not store the pheromone lures at normal
room temperature (keep them in refrigerator).
12. Release parasitoids only after noticing adult moth Do not apply chemical pesticides within
catches in the pheromone trap or as pheromone trap seven days of release of parasitoids.
or as per field observation
13. In case of pests which are active during night spray Do not spray pesticides at midday since,
recommended biocides/ chemicals at the time of most of the insects are not active during this
their appearance in the night. period.

14. Spray pesticides thoroughly to treat the undersurface Do not spray pesticides only on the upper
of the leaves. surface of leaves.
15. Apply short persistent pesticides to avoid pesticide Do not apply pesticides during preceding 7
residue in the soil and produce. days before harvest.

16. Follow the recommended procedure of trap crop Do not apply long persistent on trap crop,
technology. otherwise it may not attract the pests and
natural enemies.

XIV. BASIC PRECAUTIONS IN PESTICIDES USAGE

A. Purchase
1. Purchase only just required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500, 1000 g/ml for single application
in specified area.
2. Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags; Do not purchase
pesticides without proper/approved labels.
3. While purchasing insist for invoice/bill/cash memo
B. Storage
1. Avoid storage of pesticides in house premises.
2. Keep only in original container with intact seal.
3. Do not transfer pesticides to other containers; Do not expose to sunlight or rain water;
Do not store weedicides along with other pesticides.
4. Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
5. Keep away from reach of children and livestock.
C. Handling
1. Never carry/ transport pesticides along with food materials.
2. Avoid carrying bulk pesticides (dust/granules) on head shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for preparing spray solution
1. Use clean water.
2. Always protect your nose, eyes, mouth, ears and hands.
3. Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
4. Use polythene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask and
a cap or towel to cover the head (Do not use polythene bag contaminated with
pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Prepare the spray solution as per requirement
7. Do not mix granules with water; Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing
solution
8. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc. while opening sealed container. Do
not smell pesticides.
9. Avoid spilling of pesticides while filling the sprayer tank.
 10. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polythene bags
E. Equipment
1. Select right kind of equipment.
2. Do not use leaky and defective equipment
3. Select right kind of nozzles
4. Do not blow/clean clogged nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth brush tied with the sprayer
and clean with water.
5. Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1. Apply only at recommended dose and dilution
2. Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition; Do not apply just before the
rains and after the rains; Do not apply against the windy direction
3. Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery
operated ULV sprayer
4. Wash the sprayer and buckets etc. with soap water after spraying
5. Containers buckets etc. used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic
purpose
6. Avoid entry of animals and workers in the field immediately after spraying
7. Avoid tank mixing of different pesticides
G. Disposal
1. Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. throw it in
barren isolated area if possible
2. The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone/stick and buried deep into
soil away from water source.
3. Never reuse empty pesticides container for any other purpose.

XV. PESTICIDE APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

Equipment
Category A: Stationary, crawling pest/ disease
Vegetative Insecticides  Lever operated
stage and knapsack sprayer
i) for crawling fungicides (Droplets of big size)
and soil borne  Hollow cone nozzle @
pests 35 to 40 psi
 Lever operating speed =
15 to 20 strokes/min
ii) for small or
sucking leaf  Motorized knapsack
borne pests sprayer or mist blower
(Droplets of small size)
 Airblast nozzle
 Operating speed: 2/3rd
throttle
Reproductive Insecticides  Lever operated
stage and knapsack sprayer
fungicides (Droplets of big size)
 Hollow cone nozzle @
35 to 40 psi
 Lever operating speed =
15 to 20 strokes/min
Category B: Field Flying pest/ airborne pest
Vegetative Insecticides  Motorized knapsack
stage and sprayer or mist blower
Reproductive fungicides (Droplets of small size)
stage  Airblast nozzle
(Field Pests)  Operating speed: 2/3rd
throttle
Or
 Battery operated low
volume sprayer
(Droplets of small size)
Spinning disc nozzle
Mosquito/ Insecticides  Fogging machine and
locust and and ENV (Exhaust nozzle
spatial fungicides vehicle) (Droplets of
application very small size)
(migratory  Hot tube nozzle
Pests)
Category C: Weeds
Post- Weedicide  Lever operated
emergence knapsack sprayer
application (Droplets of big
size)
 Flat fan or floodjet
nozzle @ 15 to 20
psi
 Lever operating
speed = 7 to 10
strokes/min
Pre-emergence Weedicide  Trolley mounted
application low volume
sprayer (Droplets
of small size)
 Battery operated
low volume
sprayer (Droplets
of small size)
 XVI. OPERATIONAL, CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES IN BRIEF

1. For application rate and

dosage see the label and
leaflet of the particular
pesticide.

2. It is advisable to check the

output of the sprayer
(calibration) before
commencement of spraying
under guidance of trained
person.

3. Clean and wash the machines

and nozzles and store in dry
place after use.

4. It is advisable to use
protective clothing, face mask
and gloves while preparing
and applying pesticides.

Do not apply pesticides

without protective clothing and
wash clothes immediately
after spray application.
5. Do not apply in hot or windy
conditions.
6. Operator should maintain
normal walking speed while
undertaking application.

7. Do not smoke, chew or eat

while undertaking the spraying
operation

8. Operator should take proper

bath with soap after
completing spraying

9. Do not blow the nozzle with

mouth for any blockages.
Clean with water and a soft
brush.

XVII. REFERENCES:

 http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GN506DZJMd0/UBiAdTmZF8I/AAAAAAAAAUA/x7ZJrmMWf18/s1600/custard.JPG
 http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_fruits_custard apple.html
 http://www.crec.ifas.ufl.edu/extension/greening/ndccg.shtml#Calcium
 http://nhb.gov.in/report_files/orange/ORANGE.htm
 http://aphorticulture.nic.in/
 https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/LyraEDISServlet?command=getScreenImage&oid=13466353
 https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/169291-Sporobolus-diander
 http://www.hear.org/pier/images/thumbnails/starr-050729-3213.jpg
 http://www.uoguelph.ca/~gbarron/MISCELLANEOUS/altern3.jpg
 http://www.caes.uga.edu/applications/publications/files/html/B1336/images/image04.jpg
 http://www.cropsforthefuture.org/publication/Manuals/Annona%20extension%20manual.pdf
 http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/fruit-and-vegetables/a-z-list-of-horticultural-diseases-and-disorders/anthracnose
 http://www.hear.org/pier/images/thumbnails/starr-050729-3213.jpg
 http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/repository/calag/img6204p167b.jpg
 http://era.deedi.qld.gov.au/1653/6/5probcus.pdf
 http://www.organicgardeninfo.com/images/mealybug-destroyer.jpg
 http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured_insects/images/rodolia-fumida2.jpg
 http://m4.i.pbase.com/g5/98/670198/2/67511694.sm3rvt0I.jpg
 http://baba-insects.blogspot.in/2012/02/telenomus.html
 http://www.nbaii.res.in/Featured%20insects/chelonus.htm
 http://spirit-animals.com/praying-mantis/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly
 http://www.warpedphotosblog.com/robber-fly-and-prey http://nickdobbs65.wordpress.com/tag/herbie-the-love-bug/
 http://somethingscrawlinginmyhair.com/2011/09/17/yellowjacket-with-prey/
 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=pXRVKymuLqEC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=life+cycle+of+Heterographis+bengalella&sou
rce=bl&ots=zRk7I2wrVY&sig=WCweUeF-
oBgEKjHQg3IISabGUMc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Q2NGU7nCEsGzrgfNkIAw&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=life%20cycle%20
of%20Heterographis%20bengalella&f=false
 http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/custard%20apple%20images
 http://pikul.lib.ku.ac.th/insect/007-
013%20INSECTS%20of%20Thailand/012%20Thai%20Insect%20Families/Pyralidae/Annodiella%20bengalella%20L.jpg
 http://pikul.lib.ku.ac.th/insect/007-
013%20INSECTS%20of%20Thailand/012%20Thai%20Insect%20Families/Pyralidae/Anonaepestis%20bengalella%20S.jpg
 http://pikul.lib.ku.ac.th/insect/007-013%20INSECTS%20of%20Thailand/012%20Thai%20Insect%20Families/Pyralidae/
 http://m.russellipm-agriculture.com/insects/bactrocera-zonata-biology
 http://www.acgov.org/cda/awm/agprograms/images/pfflarge.jpg
 http://www.alexanderwild.com/Ants/Natural-History/Soldier-Ants/i-fRW7mWk/1/L/megacephala1-L.jpg
 http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-
uxgBrHLvE20/Uy27N4ymqII/AAAAAAAAA7o/d1fvDIBid4U/s1600/D_longicaudatus_side_FB_IMG_1412.tif
 http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/repository/calag/img6501p21.jpg
 http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN91300.pdf
 http://www.ento.csiro.au/biology/ladybirds/layout_images/frontCover.jpg
 http://tnau.ac.in/eagri/eagri50/HORT181/lec18.pdf
 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=GepY5GLJjHIC&pg=PA125&lpg=PA125&dq=anthracnose+of+custard+apple&source=bl&ot
s=Mj8sKm9qRI&sig=5wfXA8XF_n4_Ax0Tojc8jtMBNN0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lzRGU4C9BseHrQevtYG4Cw&ved=0CGwQ6AEwDQ
#v=onepage&q=anthracnose%20of%20custard%20apple&f=false
 http://www.diark.org/img/species_pict/large/Glomerella_cingulata/
 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/147387/custard-apple
 http://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/horticulture/CONTENTS/custard_apple.htm
 http://www.dinofert.com.au/technical-information/plant-nutrition-guide/item/13-custard-apple
 http://www.cropsforthefuture.org/publication/Manuals/Annona%20extension%20manual.pdf
 http://www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/global/rejuvenate-local-knowledge/rats-bats-and-traps-indigenous-methods-of
 http://era.deedi.qld.gov.au/1653/6/5probcus.pdf
 http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/fruit-and-vegetables/a-z-list-of-horticultural-diseases-and-disorders/anthracnose
 http://www.cropsforthefuture.org/publication/books-and-
reports/Control%20of%20Post%20Harves%20Disease%20(Botryodiplodia%20sp.)%20of%20Rambutan%20and%20Annona%2
0Species.pdf
 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=GepY5GLJjHIC&pg=PA125&lpg=PA125&dq=black+canker+of+custard+apple&source=bl&o
ts=Mk0lQs4hWN&sig=R5u1lc1HCVm3-o6SMMlcz1kxILM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IY0WVPqwM4-
OuAS91YCgDw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=true