Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Session - 1
Research Methodology
Research Methodology The Basic Concepts
At the end of this chapter you should be able to: At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Know what is Research. Understand the characteristics of research.
Understand when research gets accomplished. Appreciate the purpose of research.
Know what are the skills required by a good researcher. Comprehend the classification of research.
Know what do examiners look in a PhD work. Comprehend the research approaches.
Know how to search for facts. Have an understanding of the entire research steps.
Know the basis for scientific methods. Cont… Have an overview of various methods of research.
Know significance of research in different fields.
1. Dr Ranjit Kumar, Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, SAGE, 2005.
2. Geoffrey R. Marczyk, David DeMatteo & David Festinger, Essentials of Research Design and Search for facts
Methodology, John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Answers to questions
3. John W. Creswel, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, Solutions to problems
SAGE, 2004
Purposive investigation
4. Suresh C. Sinha and Anil K. Dhiman, Research Methodology (2 Vols-Set), Vedam Books, 2006.
Organized inquiry
5. C. R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, New Age International Publisher,
2008. Correction of the misconceived facts
6. Donald R Cooper & Pamela S Schindler, Business Research Methods, McGraw Hill Seeking to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify doubtful
International, 2007. Facts.
7. R. Pannershelvam, Research Methodology, Prentice Hall, India, 2006
8. Manfred Max Bergman, Mixed Methods Research, SAGE Books, 2006.
9. Paul S. Gray, John B. Williamson, David A. Karp, John R. Dalphin, The Research Imagination,
Cambridge University press, 2007.
10. Cochrain & Cox, Experimental Designs, II Edn. Wiley Publishers, 2006.
24-08-2018 5 24-08-2018 6
Thinking: Communication:
• Knowing • Oral
• Comprehension • Written
• Problem solving • Publishing
• Critical thinking • Patenting
• Creative thinking
Experimentation:
Truth Knowledge Belief
Problem identification: Modelling:
• Literature review
Time Management:
• Questioning Interpersonal Skills:
Euler diagram representing a definition of knowledge.
Source: Introduction to Research Methodology, 10 Day Workshop, IIT Bombay, 2012
24-08-2018 13 24-08-2018 14
Purposive investigation aiming at describing, interpreting and explaining a • Bringing to light information that might never be discovered fully during
Systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon • Establishment of generalizations and general laws and contribution to
Directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to theory building in various fields of knowledge
Emphasis on development of generalization, principles, or theories • Making reliable predictions of events yet to happen
Proper recording of data and good control over experimental variables • Analysis of inter-relationships between variables and to derive causal
Purpose is not only to arrive at an answer but also to stand up the test of explanations – Better understanding of world in which we live
criticism. contd…
24-08-2018 15 24-08-2018 16
Research Approaches
1. Narrative Study – How individual stories need to be told to gain personal experiences about 2. Quantitative Approach – Collection of quantitative data and subjecting
the research problem e.g. Gandhian Philosophy.
it to rigorous analysis in a scientific manner such as experimental,
2. Phenomenological Study – The researcher makes a case that a need exists to know more
inferential, simulations etc.
about a particular phenomenon and the common experiences of the individual with the
phenomenon e.g. Disaster Management Study.
3. Grounded Theory Study – Author states that we need a theory that explains a process
because the existing theories are inadequate, or non-existent for the population under study,
or need to be modified for the existing population e.g. Developing Wear Theory Quantitative Approach
4. Ethnographic Study – The purpose statement states why it is important to describe and
interpret the cultural behaviour of a certain group of people or how a group is marginalized
Inferential Experimental Simulation
and kept silent by others e.g. Study of Homophobia.
5. Case Study – The researcher might discuss how the study of a case/cases might help Infer relationships or Observe the effect of Observation of the dynamic
characteristics of a manipulation of one behaviour of a system (or its
inform the issue or concern e.g. Future of Computer Technology. variable over the sub-system) under
population
other controlled conditions
24-08-2018 22
(Usually) Non-probability based Typically a probability-based sample A method is a formalized way to do things.
sample e.g., the experimental method, the comparative method, and so on.
Non-generalizable Generalizable
Methodology:
Answers Why? How? Answers How many? When?
Where? Methodology is the study of methods.
Formative, and used in earlier Tests hypotheses, and used in latter It is a discipline-specific approach and processes.
phases phases It is not a method itself: it is a branch of epistemology (philosophy of science, theory of
Data are “rich” and time-consuming Data are more efficient, but may miss science), dealing with the foundations and nature of the various methods.
to analyze contextual detail
Design may emerge as study Design is decided in advance
unfolds Techniques:
Researcher IS the instrument Various tools and techniques are the Within one method (e.g. the experimental method) you may have a number of specific
instruments techniques, or tools that are used in the implementation of such method.
Positivist/ Constructivist/
Transformative Pragmatist
Post-positivist Interpretivist
Consequences of
Determination Understanding Political and activist
actions
Empowerment,
Multiple participant
Reductionism human rights, social Problem-centered
meanings
justice oriented
Empirical
Social and historical
Observation and Collaborative Pluralistic
construction
measurement
Change,
Theory Real-world practice
Theory generation emancipatory
Verification oriented
oriented L.Raj Rodrigues
Workshop on Research Methodology/Lewlyn 28
Research Problem
29
Research Question or Issue 30
24-08-2018
Surveys
Observations Tests
Quantitative Step 6:
Choose Data Collection
Instruments/Methods
Focus Interviews
Groups
Qualitative
Documents
Mixture of Qualitative and Quantitative Experiments
Analysis
31 32
Step 7:
Identify Step 8:
Determining Develop or Type determined by the
Where, When Developing Trailing data Refining data Obtain Ethics Where the data are
who will identify data type of research
and Who Data timeline collection tools collection tools Approval coming from
collect data collection tools
Will Come
from
33 34
Step 10:
Storage & Analyze the data
Management
Thematic
Analysis
Statistics
1. Empiricism
1. Empiricism*
2. Ontology
Assumes that genuine knowledge is a priori, in other words given
3. Epistemology
directly prior to and necessarily structuring sensory experience.
4. Phenomenology
So, we should explore knowledge through observation,
5. Positivism
experimentation, repetition, logic, analysis etc.
6. Postmodernism
7. Pragmatism
8. Realism *Two Cornell Realisms -- Moral and Scientific," Philosophical Studies, forthcoming.
9. Relativism.
Deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said given subject or entity can be known.
Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of
to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within
knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief,
a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and and justification.
differences1 Gert Biesta (2010), WHY ‘‘WHAT WORKS’’ WON’T WORK: EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND THE DEMOCRATIC DEFICIT IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, University of Exeter and O¨ rebro University.
1Logic and Ontology entry by Thomas Hofwebwer in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4. Phenomenology* 5. Positivism*
Study of the appearance or experience of things. The term is generally used to dismiss what are seen as false
Attempts to create conditions for the objective study of topics interpretations of science.
usually regarded as subjective. Involved in logically deriving scientific laws from empirical
Study of the structures of subjective experience and evidence.
consciousness. Positivism assumes that there is valid knowledge (truth) only in
scientific knowledge
* Zahavi, Dan (2003), Husserl's Phenomenology, Stanford: Stanford University Press
*John J. Macionis, Linda M. Gerber, "Sociology", Seventh Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada
6. Postmodernism* 6. Pragmatism*
It is a 'condition' whereby established values are rapidly eroded by Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of
new technological advances. practice and theory.
Postmodernism is a reaction to scientific or objective efforts to Important characteristics of pragmatism
explain reality. - instrumentalism,
It is based on the position that reality is not mirrored in human - radical empiricism,
understanding of it. - verificationism,
- conceptual relativity, and
7. Realism* 8. Relativism*
Belief that reality exists independently of observers. Relativism is the concept that points of view have no
Realism is a philosophy of mind rooted in the common sense. absolute truth or validity.
It is the view that the world described by science (perhaps ideal Everything has relative and subjective value according to
science) is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might differences in perception and consideration.
take it to be.
* Brink, D., (1984) “Moral Realism and the Sceptical Arguments from Disagreement and Queerness,” Australasian Journal
of Philosophy, 62: 112–25.
* Sir Isaiah Berlin, 'Alleged Relativism in Eighteenth Century Thought,' in The Crooked Timber of Humanity, Princeton:
Brock, S and Mares, E., (2007) Realism and Antirealism (Chesham: Acumen)..
Princeton Univ. Press, 1999, p.89
24-08-2018 49
- Can influence subject behavior.
24-08-2018 50
Documented study of a specific real-life situation or imagined scenario. Use of sampling techniques whose findings may be expressed
Analysis of the prescribed cases should lead to interpretations or solutions, numerically, and are amenable to mathematical (statistical)
supported by the line of reasoning employed, and assumptions made. manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate (forecast) future
+ Focus is on individual or small group events or quantities.
+ Able to conduct a comprehensive analysis from a comparison of cases + An efficient means of gathering large amounts of data
+ Allows for identification of variables or phenomenon to be studied + Can be anonymous and inexpensive
- Time consuming
- Feedback often incomplete
- Depth rather than breadth
- Wording of instrument can bias feedback
- Not necessarily representative.
- Details often left out.
24-08-2018 51 24-08-2018 52
Small number of people (usually between 4 and 15, but typically 8) brought Analyzing all the issues under consideration in detail
together with a moderator to focus on a specific product or topic. Focus during a discussion, examination, discourse or the
groups aim at a discussion instead of on individual responses to formal
material available in the text form.
questions, and produce qualitative data (preferences and beliefs) that may or
may not be representative of the general population. + Examines actual discourse produced for a particular
+ Aid in understanding audience, group, users purpose (job, industry)
+ Small group interaction more than individual response
+ Helps in understanding of context, production,
+ Helps identify and fill gaps in current knowledge regarding: perceptions,
attitudes, feelings, etc. audience, and text
- Does not give statistics + Schedule for analysis not demanding
- Marketing tools seen as “suspect”
- Labor intensive
- Analysis subjective.
24-08-2018 53 - Categories often fluid, making analysis difficult.
24-08-2018 54
Analysis of measurable and verifiable data such as surface finish, Building an experimental set-up and systematically changing the independent
variables and studying their influence on dependent variables, so as to test a
hardness, strength, earnings, revenue, wages, market share, etc. to
hypothesis or arrive at a conclusion.
arrive at a meaningful outcome.
+ Random sampling, or selection, of subjects (which are also stratified)
+ Isolates systematically the most important variables (often from + Introduction of a treatment
case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via survey, + Use of a control group for comparing subjects who don’t receive treatment
questionnaire, observed readings, measured parameters etc.) with those who do
+ Identifies a cause-and-effect relationship
+ Possible to collect large amounts of data
+ Seen as more objective, less subjective
+ Not very troublesome
- Adherence to scientific method (seen as positive too)
+ Biases not as likely - Must have proved internal and external validity
- Data restricted to information available.
24-08-2018 55 - Treatment and control might seem artificial.
24-08-2018 56
Combines the results of several studies that address a set of Goal is to predict and classify behaviors:
related research hypotheses is to more powerfully estimate the Prediction forecasts an interval variable (Diagnostic
true "effect size" as opposed to a smaller "effect size" derived in a scores)
single study under a given single set of assumptions and Classification forecasts a nominal variable
conditions.
+ Takes the results of true and quasi-experiments and identifies + Important in industry, education to predict behaviors
interrelationships of conclusions - Need substantial population
+ Systematic - Restricted range of variables can cause misinterpretation
+ Replicable - Variables cannot be added together; must be weighted
+ Summarizes overall results and looked at in context of other variables.
- Quality of studies used?
24-08-2018 57 24-08-2018 58