What Is Critical in Cms

Chapter 2
What is critical in critical

management studies?
Tjaart Nicholaas van der Linde
University of Johannesburg
South Africa
Introduction
Planet earth is being exploited beyond its means! Human beings
are in conflict with each other and with themselves. Man as such is
‘nature sick unto death’ (Žižek 2008:204). Societies are in debt, and
human beings are continuing the exploitation of earth and other
human beings through a new management fad called ‘sustainability’
as they become more narcissistic, materialistic and hedonistic in
evolving from Homo sapiens into Homo economicus!3 This is a direct
3. Homo economicus (economic man) is defined as: a theoretical human being who rationally calculates the
cost and benefit of every action before making a decision (Collins Dictionary 2016). This definition is
often expanded to include the agent making the cost – benefit analysis as ‘narrowly self-interested’.
How to cite: Van der Linde, T.N., 2016, ‘What is critical in critical management studies?’, in ‘Critical Management Studies in the
South African context’, Acta Commercii, suppl. 1, 16(2), a424. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ac.v16i2.424
31
What is critical in critical management studies?
result of modern man’s so-called ‘scientific method’ of knowledge

creation, characterised by a total focus on sense perception (the
sensible) and a total disregard for the metaphysical. Theory creation
in a social environment and the critique against these theories lack
the critical element of the metaphysical and a total disregard for
human nature. This is the critique against both theory and critical
theory: It is lacking the non-sensible and metaphysical component
that we find in human nature. The abovementioned statement by
Žižek ‘nature sick unto death’ is not ‘fashionable nonsense’ (Sokal &
Bricmont 1996), but these statements are supported by empirical
evidence. Earth exploitation is reflected in the ‘Earth Overshoot
Day’ report (Global Footprint Network 2016) where humanity
uses 1.6 times the natural resources produced by planet earth in a
year. If humans continue ‘doing business as usual, we shall consume
two times the resources produced by planet earth by the year 2030.
This means that, every six months, we humans consume one year’s
resources produced by planet earth (or a planet every six months).
In spite of this, we use a contradicting phrase such as ‘sustainability’
in both the natural and social sciences.
Societies are further overindebted. The so-called value created by
organisations4 is funded by debt as reflected in the McKinsey’s
(2015:4) report, which indicates that global debt equals 286% of
global production. The accompanying question is: ‘How can you owe
300 times more than what you can produce?’ From the two arguments
above, it can be concluded that value is not being created but
rather being destroyed. Taleb (2013) confirms this when he states
4. Organisations in this context refer to organisations in its broadest context, from profit seeking
organisations, not-for-profit organisations and institutions of government.
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that ‘in one day banks destroyed more wealth than what was created
in a hundred years of banking.’
The two arguments above lead one to conclude that the collective
(society) and the particular (humans) are entering a modern
‘apocalyptic era’ and that this so-called ‘brainy man – Homo sapiens’ is
on the brink of extinction (Žižek 2011). This poses the question:
‘Why did this happen?’ The first clue in answering the question
regarding the extinction of this ‘thinking’ species or ‘rational man’ is
the Kantian view that ‘human rationality lacks the power to answer
metaphysical questions, since our knowledge is limited by our
specific and narrowly-circumscribed capacities for organising our
field of sensation’ (Wicks 2015). Russel (1950:69) supports this with
the view that ‘[m]an is a rational man – so at least I have been told.
Throughout a long life, I have looked diligently for evidence in
favour of this statement.’ Russel’s view is enforced by the unquestioned
generation of knowledge in a social context (and in particular
management) through the research paradigms of positivism,
grounded theory, phenomenology and causality. Keat (1980)
questions Russel’s views with the statement that ‘… positivism is
unable to provide us with the basis for a rational criticism of existing
social reality’. Marcuse (1964) summarised these observations with
an aptly titled publication One-dimensional man. In the movie The
Matrix, this ‘one-dimensionality’ is adequately captured by Morpheus
when he informed Neo (The Matrix 2006):
The Matrix is a system Neo. That system is our enemy. But when you’re
inside, you look around, what do you see? Businessmen, teachers, lawyers,
carpenters – the very minds of the people we are trying to save. Many of them
…, so hopelessly dependent on the system, that they will fight to protect it.
(n.p.)
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This inability of rational man to answer metaphysical questions is

then the first critical element that is lacking in the generation of
theory and the critique of any such theory in the social sciences.
From ‘one-dimensional man’ and Morpheus’s statement, we (one-
dimensional man protecting the system) can concur with Žižek’s
(2011) prediction that we are ‘living in the end times’, and the
horseman of this modern apocalypse is the worldwide ecological
crisis, imbalances in economic systems, the biogenetic revolution
and, lastly, the exploding social divisions and ruptures. Evidence and
key indicators to these four horsemen are abundantly available in
scientific journals and popular media. What is even more surprising
is that, in the face of all the available evidence to the contrary (and
the arguments presented by critical theory and critical-management
scholars and scientists from other disciplines), the human species
carries on with ‘exploitative business as usual’, or should we perhaps
recall Morpheus’s advice to Neo?
The scenarios highlighted above generated a response from
individuals and societies (those that are not in control of the system)
with statements and rallying cries such as ‘occupy Wall Street’,
‘Rhodes must fall’, ‘decolonisation of curriculum’ and ‘all-inclusive
capitalism’. These are cries of a global society at war with itself. It is
inevitable that these phenomena would elicit a response in the
academia and from social commentators. The response is a critique
of the current social order, and this prevailing social order has a
name ‘capitalism’. It does not matter in which fashion the essence of
capitalism (the legitimatised exploitation of natural and human
resources; Žižek 2008:175) is dressed up and softened by inventing
new words, concepts and phrases – capitalism remains exploitation
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Chapter 2
(the final cause) through control. The critique of the current (and
not so current) social ‘dis’-order found its contemporary audience
through the introduction of ‘critical thinking’ and ‘critical
management studies’ in social and management scholarship. In
applied form, one finds it in what is known as the ‘Pink tide or
Bolivarian revolution’ in the Latin Americas.5 What is important to
note is that the first critique (in the Frankfurt School) was not only
limited to the exploitation by capitalism but also to the exploitation
under Marxism and other capitalist-opposing ideologies (Žižek
2008). What these concepts have in common is the common
denominator of ‘critique’, the questioning of theory, thinking and
actions in the prevailing social order (capitalism) or the in body of
knowledge that supports this all-devouring social order.
This critique against the social order is not new and did not originate
with critical theory. It has its origins in German idealism and
romanticism that was the predominant philosophical quest in the 18th
century (Taylor 1975:39). This critique arose in response to questions
raised by the Enlightenment. In the 19th century, both philosophers
and social commentators critiqued the social order and tried to establish
an alternative such as that proposed by Karl Marx. In the 20th century,
this critique continued in the Frankfurt School with their contribution
to critical theory (critiquing the social order of the day such as capitalism
and Marxism). This line of thought developed to where we find
ourselves today with critical management studies (CMS)
comprehensively presented through the work of Alvesson, Bridgman
and Wilmot (2009) and Alvesson and Wilmot (2012). Apart from the
5. It may seem that I assume and take for granted that (business) management is part of the social
order. This link is adequately argued by Alvesson and Wilmot’s (2012:17) statement that
[m]anagement is inescapably a social practice'.
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18th-century German idealistic and romantic philosophers, other

critiques mostly ignore the role of human nature.
Since Descartes and the dawn of the Enlightenment period, where
the focus was on res cogito [rational human being] with a disregard
for res extenza [the corporeal], led to a situation where man (res
cogito) became divorced from the corporeal world (res extenza) or
nature. German idealism and romanticism rejects this notion that
the external world (corporeal world) can exist separate of my mind.
These German idealistic philosophers, in particular Schiller, Schlegel,
Hölderlin and Hegel (Taylor 1975:34–35) argued, to be human came
naturally, but this unity died with the Enlightenment. The cogitans
[mind] was divorced from the extenza [body],6 which brought
conflict between mind and body. The unintended consequence was
that ‘rational modern man had to be at war with himself’ (Taylor
1975:34–35). This ‘man at war with himself’ provides us with the
second critical element not taken into consideration in a critique
against the prevailing social order. That modern man is at war with
him or herself implies modern man is in continuous contradiction
with him or herself. Descartes’s conditions of existence (res extenza)
clash with his inner telos [purpose]. To reconcile this contradiction
was the objective of German idealism and romanticism (Taylor
1975:97).
The preceding brief introduction identified two critical elements
of any social critique, namely the role of human nature (rational man
and the inability to explain the metaphysical) and the fact that
modern man is in contradiction with her of himself. The context of
the social order against which this critique is aimed needs to be
6. This is known as the mind-body problem.
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established and linked to the two critical elements of this critique.

The discussion below is neither an attack on or a defence of the
arguments on behalf of or against the current social order nor a
critique or defence of an alternative social order such as socialism.
Rather, it is a discussion to position the critique in order to determine
what is ‘critical’ (or lacking) in this critique and to arrive at a reference
point for continued discussion.
Philosophical positioning of the inquiry

In the quest to understand the environment and him or herself,
human beings desire to know their environment and themselves.
Aristotle (Metaphysics 980a-5) states that ‘all men by nature desire
to know.’ How is this knowing generated, or how does this knowing
takes place? The point of departure is the Platonic division between
episteme (types of knowledge) and how we gain that knowledge,
such as through our senses (seeing something) or by understanding.
Aristotelian ‘causes’ support this movement from sense experience
(material cause) to final cause or first principle. This highest level of
understanding (knowing) is the most difficult as it is the furthest
removed from the senses. The Cartesian separation of the res cogito
and res extenza also separates man (the knowable, the observable)
from the metaphysical (the non-observable).7 This is presented in
Figure 1.
The diagram (based on Plato’s divided line, Aristotelian causes
and Cartesian res extenza) provides us with a visual presentation of
current knowledge generation where we as humans (researchers)
7. In philosophy, the metaphysical concept refers to ‘beyond the physical’.
37
Causes Divided lineDivision Raonal man
Epistemology Metaphysics Area under
Knowledge
invesgaon.
Non-sensible
Being
Final cause Understanding Forms Metaphysical
(First principle)
Mathemacal Scienfic method

Reasoning objects • Observe
Efficient cause
• Annalise
Becoming
• Comment
Sensible
Formal cause
Opinion
Percepon Material objects • Causality

Theory and crical theory
Material cause Imaginaon Images accepted (but lacking)
FIGURE 1: Philosophical positioning.
observe phenomena through our senses. We see something, hear

something or read something that stimulates the senses and creates
an image (imagination). We then look for some evidence to see if the
phenomenon repeats itself through material objects. Through
mathematical means, we describe the observed phenomena and
assume that we have created knowledge. To move to the
epistemological level of ‘understanding’ (to become wise), however,
we need to understand the ‘…ness’ of something. This ‘wise-ness’
was exhibited by King Solomon with the example of the two mothers
and one child. King Solomon understood the ‘…ness’ of ‘mother-
ness’, which is tender loving care, doing everything to protect their
child. This ‘…ness’ lies at the metaphysical level of forms and the
epistemological level of understanding.
This ‘…ness’ or Platonic metaphysical world is represented by the
Aristotelian causa finalis [final cause]. The final cause is preceded, by
the material cause, the formal cause and the effective cause. Aristotle
relates this final cause to the ‘first principle’, that is, the ‘first thing’
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that ‘causes’ a thing to be. He also argues that the final cause is the
most difficult to understand as it is the furthest removed from the
senses.
Modern man (that is, man affirmed in res cogito observing the res
extenza) followed the Platonic road to knowledge creation. This
knowledge can be categorised as the Aristotelian material and formal
cause, but only a small part of it pertains to the effective cause and
nothing to the final cause. Knowledge created by modern man ends
with the Platonic knowledge level in which we use mathematics
(statistics) to commit intellectual fraud (Taleb 2007:230–252) to
protect the system.
This philosophical position can be summarised as one pertaining
to the unknown knowns, identifying the void of the non-sensible
and metaphysical created by modern man. It refers to those
foundational or critical elements that we should know but do not
know.
A social science: The unknown knowns

The discussion below is intended neither to critique nor to revisit
the body of knowledge (deleting or adding) related to critical theory
and critical management studies, and I am indebted to the inclusivity
and comprehensiveness of the work by contemporary authors.
However, a brief review of some important concepts generated by
these authors is required to provide some context for the current
research project. This will assist us to determine what is ‘critical’,
that missing link to the non-sensible and metaphysical, that which is
missing in the prevailing social order. The discussion does not claim
39
to be comprehensive but will be limited to a discussion of the

prevailing literature.
The first reference that can be contributed to the enlightenment
and the separation of the thinking man from the bodily man (res
cogito and res extenza) goes back to Adam Smith (1758:13). Smith uses
the example of ‘making a pin’, indicating how this process can be
divided into 18 separate and distinct operations. The commentator
in the movie Seabiscuit uses the example of how the work of a
dressmaker is broken up into its separate activities. The result of this
division is that the human being became divorced form the fruits of
his or her labour. A blacksmith becomes a welder, a dressmaker
becomes a button sewer, and a carpenter becomes a knob turner.
Due to this separation (of value creation into separate activities that
can be controlled), humans do not see the value that they create as
the human being and his or her labour becomes a commodity (Marx
1867:1–7). As a consequence, their reason for existence disappears.
Through customisation, humans have been alienated from their
purpose or inner télos. This alienation is a direct result of advances in
technology.
Any economic activity is built on the exploitation and destruction
of resources. Marx (1867) expressed it in the following way:
Moreover, all progress in capitalistic agriculture is a progress in the art, not
only of robbing the labourer, but of robbing the soil. The more a country
starts its development on the foundation of modern industry, the more rapid
is the process of destruction. (p. 254)
This claim by Marx immediately questions the role of technology and
the fashionable concept of ‘sustainability’. As ‘robbery’ occurs, there
cannot be something like ‘sustainability’ (apart from sustaining robbery)
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Chapter 2
as it is based on a process of destruction through the use of technological

advancement. This then leads us to the next social problem, which is
that advances in technology assist a ‘society … [to] sustain its hierarchic
structure while exploiting ever more efficiently the natural and mental
resources’ (Marcuse 1964:loc. 2795). This view is further supported by
Žižek (2011) who argues that technological advances will have the
following effect:
[T]he global economy is tending towards a state in which only 20 percent of
the workforce will do all the necessary work, so that 80 percent of the
population will become basically irrelevant, … unemployed. (p. 211)
Apart from the exploitation upon which Marcuse and Žižek
commented, technological advance also led modern man to (falsely)
believe that technology will ultimately save the human species (and
planet earth).
The nature of this social order (capitalism) is continuously under
threat. John McDonnell (2015) – the British shadow chancellor –
argues that ‘Karl Marx has come back into fashion.’ Yanis Varoufakis
(2015)– the Greek Finance minister during the 2015 Greek crisis –
describes the response of Greece’s creditors (Troika – the IMF, the
World Bank and the European Central Bank) as follows: ‘What they
are doing with Greece has a name: terrorism.’ Perhaps the voice with
the most following is that of Pope Francis (2013) who describes
capitalism as the ‘new tyranny’, a description which he supports by a
statement: ‘Not to share wealth with the poor is to steal.’
Despite these views and statements, the alternatives to capitalism
did not perform any better. Instead of contra-capitalism, it went
under the name of ‘alternative modernity’. The first response in this
‘alternative modernity’ was the French revolution.
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Singer (1983:loc. 710), in his publication Hegel: A very short

introduction, informs us that the French revolution was the result of
criticism against the existing social order. This is a consequence of
the Enlightenment where humans has the right to assert itself, to
become ‘free’. However, the result of this revolution (new freedom)
was revolutionary terror (much the same as we see with the so-called
Arab spring and the destruction of property in South Africa) with
and without legal formalities that inflicted punishment through a
quick death at the guillotine.
Marxism and its various variants in the form of Leninism,
Stalinism and Maoism did not perform any better and is now history.8
This modern modernity is also known as ‘the great proletarian
cultural revolution’, the aim of which was not only to take over state
power but an economic reorganisation to create a new form of
everyday life, a ‘new crime’ that destroyed another crime (Žižek
2008:205). Žižek (2008:176–179) also argues that this proletarian
revolution merely displaced the social order to turn an
advanced country into a backward country. For Chairman Mao, the
proletarian revolution should have taken place amongst the
impoverished masses of the Third World, for example in the Latin
Americas.
A workable social order might have been Bolivarianism (Pink
tide) in the Latin American states. The only viable economic idea
from this so-called left is the ‘basic citizen’s income’, a form of rent
8. Even socialism in the EU is now under threat from austerity measures enforced by the troika
(Varoufakis 2015).
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Chapter 2
ensuring the dignified survival of all citizens. The term ‘rent’

characterises capitalism in which ‘rent’ should be paid to the owners
of capital, rent collected and paid by those who dispose of natural
resources and, finally, ‘rent’ to the workforce. There is, however,
also ‘another’ rent, a rent paid to all citizens of the state. This basic
citizen income (independently of what you do) was signed into law
in Brazil in 2004. How will this be funded? This citizen’s income
will be funded through ‘the very profit seeking process which
sustain capitalist productivity [that is] is to be taxed [additionally] to
provide for the poor.’ The same model was followed by other Latin
American countries such as Chile and Venezuela.9 However, Žižek
(2011:233–243) is of the opinion that other countries (and citizens)
are being exploited by this alternative social order and that
‘something has to give’.
The discussion above, arguing that the current situation is
untenable and that the alternatives did not perform any better, might
lead the reader to despair. Life and particularly the social order and
economic life may appear to be futile. These unknown knowns
(those characteristics and/or knowledge that we take for granted
without understanding where they come from and that we just
‘assume’) firmly fit into the Platonic epistemology of imagination,
perception and opinion without understanding the driving force
behind all of these so-called forms of scientific knowledge influenced
by human nature.
9. In Africa (Zimbabwe) it went under the name of ‘indigenisation’ (Roberson 2016).
43
An observation of futility
In the South African context, the contradiction between the ‘good‘
for capitalists10 and the ‘good‘ for a particular community is portrayed
in the case of Xolobeni vs. Transworld (a fully owned subsidiary of
the Australian Mineral Commodities Company [MRC]). The owners
of capital, MRC, want to mine pristine tribal land in the Transkei
area of South Africa whilst the Xolobeni community is opposed to
this as it will destroy their ancestral land and life style. They have
effectively (legally) stopped the mining process, but there is a
resurgence from MRC to develop the mine, and this has created
conflict in which some of the activists (those opposing the mining
operations) were killed (Tabelo 2016).
The forecast for the community (and society) is grim. In the movie
Star Trek, the Borg states: ‘Resistance is futile. You are being assimilated.
We will succeed’ (Star Trek: The First Encounter). The statement by the
Borg (Star Trek) is analogous to Morpheus’s (The Matrix) statement to
Neo: ‘Look around you Neo. Carpenters, lawyers … They will do
everything in their power to protect the system.’ The Borg (capitalists)
will succeed, but why will they succeed?
Gibran (1974:41–57) informs us through his essay entitled ‘Satan’
about the dilemma in which theoreticians, critical commentators,
managers and ordinary humans find themselves on a daily basis.
The essay introduces us to a priest walking through an abandoned
village street on a cold rainy night and hearing a groan of suffering
coming from the dark. Upon investigation, he encounters an
individual severely injured by an attack and close to death. Upon
10. The term ‘capitalists‘ is used in its Marxian form, meaning the owners of capital, those with the
money (Marx 1867:135).
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further investigation, the priest determines that it is Satan lying

there. Satan begs the priest for help. Upon seeing the priest’s
hesitation, Satan engages in a discussion with the priest and informs
the priest that their destiny is entwined – they cannot do without
one another. If Satan dies, what will the priest do as there will be no
work to do? There will be no sinners, no evil and no hunger. It is not
only the priest that will be without work but also people in other
occupations such as doctors, nurses and lawyers. Furthermore, what
about the priest’s duty to save sinners? In the end, the priest picks
Satan up, dresses his wounds and saves him.
This is the same dilemma in which we as theoreticians and
managers in business and society find ourselves. We critique
management but are managers. We critique capitalism whilst we
partake in the processes and proceeds of capitalism. We ask for a
different social system than capitalism, but we require the fruits
(profits) of capitalism to power a different social system. We ask for
critical thinking but are one-dimensional ourselves. This is the
second critique against critical theory and critical management
studies (or for that matter social studies): We are part of this
contradicting system, no matter how violent it is.
Zizek’s (2008:151) interpretation and commentary that ‘not even
Hitler was violent enough’ and that ‘the killing of 30 million Chinese
during the cultural revolution’ was not enough to stop capitalism,
reflects on the futility of fighting the system (capitalism) and can
serve as a wake-up call that something else (instead of a revolution –
a violent reaction) is required to reach a breaking point where ‘good’
can be interpreted as ‘good’ for society and not only for individuals.
The aim is for humans (and creation) to co-exist without any form
45
of exploitation, sub-ordination and control. This requires that

humans need a return to their reason for existence, their purpose in
life and their relationship with nature. It requires a reconnection to
the sensible and the metaphysical, a reconnection with what we
observe through our senses and mind with the metaphysical – that
which our senses cannot observe and our mind cannot comprehend.
It requires a change in human nature.
We can now establish a point of reference, not only in terms of
this discussion but also for future discussions. Do we stay comfortable
in our contradicting social environment, ignoring our télos or higher
purpose (the metaphysical), do we stay biased and ‘one-dimensional’,
or do we change?
Human nature
This section introduces the nature of modern man in an attempt to
align what is critical in the contemporary social order with the way
forward. The two concepts that will be presented is the birth of
modern man through ‘enlightenment’ and its related concept
‘freedom’.
The birth of modern man

Any social science is confronted by contradictions. The analogy of a
coin serves as the best example here. A coin consists of three sides.
Initially one would think that a coin has a heads side and a tails side,
but the link between these two opposites is the side of the coin (the
third side) that represents reality (though not yet truth). This also
establishes the unspoken reality of research and knowledge creation.
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Knowledge is a representation of reality at a specific moment in time

and space presented to us through our senses. It is not the truth as
Cooper (2012:44–46) informs us that the truth ‘is unchanging, always
the same.’ The moment one introduces the human agent who is
predictably irrational (Ariely 2008), one cannot use the term ‘truth’.
Rather, one should use the term reality as it is bound through the
senses in time and context. The defining moment for rational man in
time and context was when Descartes stated: ‘esse est percipi’ [I think
therefore I am]. This is the birth of modern man where the existence
of the self is demonstrated and everything outside of the self is in
doubt, even God (Taylor 1975:6). According to Kant (Taylor
1975:66), the birth of enlightenment also leads to the notion of
rational freedom, and it is not only rational freedom that all humans
desire but ‘freedom’ tout court. This ‘freedom’ is then also an essential
requirement for separating man from the metaphysical – those
unknown knowns that can bound man in its rationality.
The contradiction of freedom

One of the outcomes of enlightenment, and one that is used as a
morally laden concept today, is the concept of freedom. In the
context of social science and more specifically management, one
has to ask: What does freedom mean? Marx (1867:135–136)
informs us that, in a free market (as presented by capitalism), the
owner of money and the owner of labour meet in the market and
deal with each other on the basis of equal rights. Both are therefore
equal and free in the eyes of the law. If the owner of labour sells
himself to the owner of capital, he or she ‘… converts himself from
a free man into a slave, from an owner of a commodity [labour]
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into a commodity’ (Marx 1867:135). Žižek (2008:205) explains this

relationship as follows: As an individual, you have the freedom of
choice (rational choice) to decide about your actions. The moment
you exercise your choice (actually doing it), you become a slave not
only of yourself but also of the master. You exercise your freedom
to be employed by an organisation (Marx’s owner of money), but
the moment you sell your commodity (labour) you become the
slave of the master (the owner of money). The same argument
applies to any other inherent human commodity that you exchange
for something else: the master-slave relationship is being
established. Hegel (Singer 1983:loc. 756) informs us that ‘this term
“freedom” is an indefinite, and incalculably ambiguous term …
liable to an infinity of misunderstandings, confusions and errors.’
According to Hegel, freedom is when we can freely choose between
alternatives based on reason and not be coerced by external
circumstances. However, the contradiction in freedom in the
modern organisation is that ‘[you can] reason about whatever you
want and as much as you want – but obey!’ (Žižek 2008:87).
In confronting this contradictory nature of social science and
management, we require a radical new way of seeing reality, a
new way of seeing life. But how do we change? Hadot (1995:28)
provides us with a solution in that ‘[p]hilosophy is an art of living
that cures us of our illnesses by teaching us a radical new way of
life.’ Before Hadot, Plutarch informs us of the following (Eikeland
2008):
[T]he multitudes who come to Athens to school were, at the outset, wise, later
they became lovers of wisdom, later still orators, and as time went on, just
ordinary persons, and the more they laid hold on reason the more they laid
aside their self-opinion and conceit. (p. 51)
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Ancient Greek philosophy as a response: Human

purpose and human action
Van der Linde (2015) expresses the opinion that a Copernican
revolution11 is required in management thought, that is, a new way
of thinking about management. Although I accept the argument
that theoreticians and practitioners of management require a new
way of thinking about management, I am of the opinion that it will
be a futile exercise as human thinking is mediated by its experience
and already tainted by being in the ‘system’. Therefore, only
critiquing the system, as is done in critical theory and CMS, will
not suffice. A change in the social order and management practices
requires action.
In contemporary scholarship, this ‘action’ is supported by
Alvesson and Wilmot (2012:25), arguing that critique does not
end with critical reflection on the phenomena under observation.
Rather, it also requires practice that must be actively engaged
with and struggled for. I agree with this argument that action
(doing) is required as it was adequately expressed by Socrates:
‘[W]hen Hippias demanded the definition of justice from Socrates,
he finally responded with these words: instead of speaking of it, I
make it understood by my acts’ (Hadot 1995:23). In ancient
Greece, the motivating force behind the best human life was
informed and practiced by lôgos [reasoned speech] and práxis
[doing] aimed at phrónêsis [the right thing], hence Socrates’s
statement.
11. Kant refers to his ‘Copernican revolution’. As Copernicus changed our thinking about the
universe, Kant changed our view of how we think about knowledge (Wall 2005:239).
49
Why ancient Greek philosophy to guide modern human

action?
All critical commentators would agree that a new way of thinking
about the prevailing social order and management is required.
The question must then be asked: Why ancient Greek philosophy?
Hadot (1995:19–29) provides us with arguments in favour of
returning, through Greek philosophy, to the ancient Greek way
of life.
One of the consequences of the enlightenment and the resultant
modern man is the separation between mind and body (or, the mind-
body problem), a separation between the sensible and the non-
sensible or metaphysical. Eighteenth-century German philosophers
attempted to reconcile mind and body, but modern man in the form
of Homo economicus still treats them as separate. In ancient Greek
philosophy, there is no separation between mind and body. It is a
living práxis based on and supported by lôgos [reasoned speech] in
achieving phrónêsis.
The focus in education (particularly in developing countries)
today is on transferring facts – assumed to be knowledge. Technology
such as Google provides us with ‘Just-in-Time Knowledge’ (JIK) or
‘knowledge on demand’. Einstein informs us that ‘[e]ducation is not
the transferring of facts but the stimulation of the mind to think.’
This is what ancient Greek philosophy has as its purpose. The
philosophical discourse was aimed at ‘forming’ rather than
‘informing’, at ‘becoming‘ rather than at ‘being’. The subjects
(humans) are being formed by transforming their souls – a
reconnection with the metaphysical. The experience gained in
50
Chapter 2
solving a problem was not the solution itself but the wisdom12 and
experience gained on this road towards the solution; was in the way
that you do it, the práxis.
A new way of thinking provides us with the theoretical concepts
of how society (and therefore management) should operate.
However, theory is never an end in itself and must be put in the
service of practice. Aristotle enlightens us with the following
statement in Metaphysics (981a14): ‘[A]nd we even see men
succeeding more than those who have theory without experience.’
But where does this praxis start?
The starting point in this (praxis) transformation process is ‘Gnothi
seauton’ [know thyself]. In knowing yourself, you know your place in
the natural and cosmic order (and your relationship to God), you
know your limitations, you know your relationship with other
human beings, you know your relationship to nature, and lastly, you
know your purpose (final cause or first principle). This is presented
in the Platonic movement from ‘becoming to being’ (from sense
knowledge to wisdom). It requires a reasoned action in every aspect
of the subject’s life and in the life of the city – which was accepted
universally in Athens for living the ‘good life’.
A good life
Instead of a ‘Copernican revolution‘ or new way of thinking about
management, I propose that we as management theoreticians,
managers and human beings review and rediscover the wisdom and
12. The term ‘wisdom’ is used in the Platonic context where knowledge is formed by mathematical
objects whilst wisdom is formed by Forms, an understanding of the metaphysical or in ordinary
grammar, the ‘…ness’ of something.
51
concepts from the ancients and those who came before us. I propose
that we practice what we preach and turn our thinking into praxis. In
this context, I recommend that we as theoreticians and managers
follow German idealism and its romantic approach of turning to the
Greek city states (polis – of which Athens is the best known) where
individuals in society (the particular in the collective) strove for the
‘good life’. In this context, the term ‘good life’ according to Aristotle
(Nicomachean ethics and politics) means a virtuous life that takes
into consideration the end (or first principle). My approach will thus
start with the Athenian collective or polis where the first principle
(or the end) to be achieved is established by the Athenian Oath.
After the 2008 financial disaster, the alumni of Harvard University,
the class of 2009 (MBA OATH 2009), rediscovered the Athenian
Oath and started a movement in which they encouraged people with
an MBA (read ‘management and managers’) to make a pledge
according to the ancient Athenian Oath. This oath was pledged by all
males coming of age in the polis (city state) of Athens, and it guided
their actions and activities within the city state. This Athenian Oath
reads as follows (translated) (National League of Cities 2013):13
We will never bring disgrace to this our City by an act of dishonesty or
cowardice. We will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the City both
alone and with many. We will revere and obey the City’s laws, and will do
our best to incite a like reference and respect in those above us who are
prone to annul them or set them at naught. We will strive unceasingly to
quicken the public’s sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways, we will
transmit this City not only, not less, but greater and more beautiful than it
was transmitted to us. (n.p.)
13. The expanded version of the Athenian Oath as adapted by the Alumni of Harvard, class of 2009,
is available at www.mbaoath.org
52
Chapter 2
Two concepts underpinning the oath, namely télos and phrónesis, are
fundamental to living the ‘good life’ in society (polis).
Télos: Purpose
The first constituent part of the good life is the end or telos.14 This
part deals with our purpose, our aim, what we want to achieve. In
contemporary management vocabulary, the concept of télos is also
known as an objective, goal, target or vision. The example used by
Aristotle is that of a target with a bullseye. The bullseye represents
our aim: What we want to achieve is to hit the bullseye. Hitting this
bullseye every time is the perfection of our práxis. As indicated above,
this is a very simplistic view of télos. However, no discussion on
teleology can proceed without an understanding of the Aristotelian
concept of causa [causes] of which the final cause or causa finalis is
the last cause (the Aristotelian causes, in order, are the material
cause, formal cause, efficient cause and final cause).15 This final cause
is not only applicable to nature and natural things but also to humans
and society. It attempts to answer the question: ‘Why are we
(humans) here, what is our purpose in this city (society)?’ Aristotle
links final cause to the concept of ‘first principle’ or télos, but he also
makes it very clear that this is the most difficult level of understanding
to achieve and to perform when he states the following: ‘… the most
universal, are on the whole the hardest for men to know; for they are
the furthest from the sense’ (Metaphysics 981a26).
14. Although the original ancient Greek words are used with an English translation, the
translation in itself may be inadequate to provide the correct meaning of use in the original text
(Hadot 1995:vi).
15. For a thorough reading of the Aristotelian causes, the reader is referred Aristotle’s Physics,
Metaphysics and Categories.
53
The essence of human télos or our purpose in this city is reflected

in the last sentence of the Athenian Oath where it is stated that the
goal is to ‘… transmit this City not only, not less, but greater and
more beautiful than it was transmitted to us.’ Our télos as human
beings is a fundamental requirement for our existence. This
teleological approach is reconfirmed and supported by Pope Benedict
when he speaks of reason. According to Žižek (2011:92), he ‘…
speaks of a pre-modern teleological reason, the view that the
universe is a harmonious whole in which everything serves a
higher purpose.’
The other elements of the oath inform us about what we need to
do and how to do it (the doing). This is reflected in the concept of
phrónêsis.
Phrónêsis or the golden mean

The second constituent part of living the ‘good life’ is the action or
activity (the doing) that needs to take place to achieve the end or first
principle. This second part in striving to achieve the end (the oath
pledged) – often taken for granted – is the concepts of phrónêsis and
phrónêmos. In modern terminology, phrónêsis is known as the golden
mean, and phrónêmos is a human being acting virtuously (that is,
acting through reasoned deliberation).
What is this phrónêsis or golden mean then? The easiest way to
describe it is as the mean between two contraries or two excesses.
The example mostly used (by and since Aristotle) is that of a soldier.
The contradiction is that a soldier can either be a coward (a
deficiency), at the one extreme, or reckless (also a deficiency), at the
other extreme. However, if the soldier does the correct thing (defend,
54
Chapter 2
attack, fight), he is courageous. This courageous soldier is then acting

(doing the right thing) through reasoned deliberation (without
taking into consideration bodily pleasure and harm – which are
driven by the senses). This ‘doing’ attitude from ancient Greek
history is also reflected in the battle of Thermopylae. (In this instance,
the soldiers were Spartans and not Athenians, but the underlying
principles were practiced in all of the Greek city states).
An important characteristic of phrónêsis is the existence of a
continuum between two extremes (Categories 10b26–13b12). The
more experience you gain (through deliberation and doing) in
pursuing the télos, the more it will become a héxis ([habit] – a thing
that you do unconsciously without even thinking about it) of doing
the right thing. Aristotle (Eikeland 2008:63) indicates three qualities
that the agent must possess in order to act virtuously. Firstly, they
need to act with knowledge. This knowledge is aligned with the télos.
Secondly, the doing (actions) must be chosen for its own sake and
not be determined by ulterior motives. Lastly, these actions must
spring from an unchanging, virtuous character.
One of the activities required in the Athenian Oath (We will revere
and obey the City’s laws) can serve as an example of phrónêsis. You
cannot obey and act according to one law of the polis. You need to
obey and act according to all the laws of the polis. This acting (instead
of thinking) was adequately demonstrated by Socrates in Plato’s ‘The
death of Socrates’ (Plato 1997) where, until his death, Socrates revered
and obeyed the city’s laws (which was a direct cause of his being
sentenced to death).
As a human being, through knowing your inner purpose (télos),
through applying rational reasoning (lôgos), you will be doing the
55
right thing (phrónêsis), and by gaining experience (doing it

consistently), you will live the ‘good life’. This good life that you
practice according to your télos needs to become a práxis through a
reasoned, deliberated lôgos.
The quest to re-think management is not a new phenomenon or
a social fad but a continuous process that started with the advent of
management. The critique against management (and social sciences)
at this point in the evolutionary process is the ‘one-dimensionality of
man’. This one-dimensionality is informed, maintained and
supported by the ‘system’. Nigel Farage (the UKIP leader in the UK)
expresses the frustration of ordinary citizens in society with the
prevailing system through the following statement after the Brexit
referendum by saying the following (Farage 2016):
We have fought against the multinationals, we have fought against banks, we
have fought against lies, corruption and deceit, and today honesty, decency
and belief in nation, I think now, is going to win. I hope this victory brings
down this failed project … (n.p.)
This failed project is a reference to the European Union, which, from
a critical perspective, is just another form of central control.
The reader is further referred to the deliberation in the section
where it was argued that, under the auspices of liberté [French
revolution], a new form of exploitation was established, namely
democracy. Žižek (2009:183) reports that ‘[t]oday the enemy is not
called the Empire or Capital. It is called Democracy.’ The terror
created by democracy was clearly illustrated during the referendum
in the UK on 23 June 2016 where democracy exhibited its reign of
terror with the ‘Brexit’ vote. Financial markets were in turmoil, and
the so-called ‘technocrats‘ in the European Union are already calling
56
Chapter 2
for another form of capitalism with Adler (2016:n.p.) reporting that

‘[t]hat’s why you’ve been hearing the words “EU” and “reform” of late
from the nervous mouths of some you’d least expect, such as
Germany’s Angela Merkel, and Donald Tusk.’
The current critique against the social order and exploitation
(natural and mental) will carry on unabated. Crises created by
modern man will become more frequent and more severe as it wants
to disrupt the current social order, the one-dimensionality of human
thinking.
A critical re-think is only that: think. Action is required, but it
cannot be in the form of a revolution (which only results in terror).
The required action is práxis linked to a higher purpose (télos), a re-
connection with the metaphysical that will create a whole that
recognises the natural and cosmic order in which humans exist.
Chapter 2: Summary
Critical theory and critical management studies entail a critique
against the prevailing social order and management. This critique is
based on the ‘sensible’ world – that world that we perceive through
our senses – and the assumption of a rational human being. This
critique is questionable as it ignores human nature, which belongs to
the non-sensible and metaphysical world. The impact of management
thinking on society and nature is based on the sensible world that
results in the exploitation of humans and nature. The only way to
change this impact is not by ‘creative’ or ‘new’ thinking but by
understanding human nature that drives this behaviour. To
investigate the causes of this exploitation, we need to look at
57
human nature. The discussion starts with the Cartesian enlightenment

that separates mind from body (res cogitans and res extenza). This
separation created modern rational humanity that is in continuous
contradiction with itself and divorced from the natural and cosmic
order, a divorce which resulted in humanity becoming one-
dimensional. This divorce was further entrenched by Adam Smith
who broke up the value creation process into activities. A blacksmith
became a welder, and according to Marx, the labour of the labourer
became a commodity. This divorce between mind and body, between
the labourer and the fruits of labour, between human and nature is a
critical issue that is ignored by the critique of any social order. To
align mind and body, to reconcile humans and nature, we need to
turn back to ancient Greek philosophy and the concepts of télos,
práxis and phrónêsis. The doing then becomes more important than
the thinking.
58
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Chapter 2

What is critical in critical

result of modern man’s so-called ‘scientific method’ of knowledge

This inability of rational man to answer metaphysical questions is

18th-century German idealistic and romantic philosophers, other

established and linked to the two critical elements of this critique.

Philosophical positioning of the inquiry

7. In philosophy, the metaphysical concept refers to ‘beyond the physical’.

Causes Divided lineDivision Raonal man

Epistemology Metaphysics Area under

Mathemacal Scienfic method

Percepon Material objects • Causality

FIGURE 1: Philosophical positioning.

observe phenomena through our senses. We see something, hear

A social science: The unknown knowns

to be comprehensive but will be limited to a discussion of the

as it is based on a process of destruction through the use of technological

Singer (1983:loc. 710), in his publication Hegel: A very short

ensuring the dignified survival of all citizens. The term ‘rent’

9. In Africa (Zimbabwe) it went under the name of ‘indigenisation’ (Roberson 2016).

further investigation, the priest determines that it is Satan lying

of exploitation, sub-ordination and control. This requires that

The birth of modern man

Knowledge is a representation of reality at a specific moment in time

The contradiction of freedom

into a commodity’ (Marx 1867:135). Žižek (2008:205) explains this

Ancient Greek philosophy as a response: Human

Why ancient Greek philosophy to guide modern human

The essence of human télos or our purpose in this city is reflected

Phrónêsis or the golden mean

attack, fight), he is courageous. This courageous soldier is then acting

right thing (phrónêsis), and by gaining experience (doing it

for another form of capitalism with Adler (2016:n.p.) reporting that

human nature. The discussion starts with the Cartesian enlightenment

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Causes Divided lineDivision Raonal man

Mathemacal Scienfic method

Percepon Material objects • Causality