Industrial Revolution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A Watt steam engine, the steam enginefuelled primarily by coal that propelled the Industrial
Revolution in Great Britain and the world.[1]

The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where
major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transport, and technology had a
profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting in the United
Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and
eventually the world. The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human
history; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.
Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented
sustained growth. In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita
income increased over 10-fold, while the world's population increased over 6-fold.
[2]
In the words of Nobel Prize winning Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in
history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo
sustained growth. ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened
before."[3]

Starting in the later part of the 18th century there began a transition in parts of Great
Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal–based economy
towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanization of
the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased
use of refined coal.[4] Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals,
improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by
coal, wider utilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile
manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[5] The
development of all-metalmachine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century
facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other
industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during
the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues
as industrialisation. The impact of this change on society was enormous.[6]

The first Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into
the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic
progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways,
and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power
generation. The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with
different historians. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in Britain in the 1780s and
was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[7] whileT. S. Ashton held that it occurred
roughly between 1760 and 1830.[8] Some 20th century historians such as John
Clapham and Nicholas Crafts have argued that the process of economic and social
change took place gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a
subject of debate among historians.[9][10] GDP per capita was broadly stable before
the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy.
[11]
The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist
economies.[12] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial
Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the
domestication of animals and plants.[13]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Innovations
o 1.1 Transfer of knowledge
o 1.2 Technological developments in Britain
o 1.3 Transport in Britain
• 2 Social effects
o 2.1 Factories and urbanisation
o 2.2 Child labour
o 2.3 Housing
o 2.4 Luddites
o 2.5 Organisation of labour
 o 2.6 Standards of living
o 2.7 Population increase
o 2.8 Other effects
• 3 Continental Europe
o 3.1 Wallonia, Belgium
o 3.2 France
• 4 United States
• 5 Japan
• 6 Second Industrial Revolution and later evolution
• 7 Intellectual paradigms and criticism
o 7.1 Capitalism
o 7.2 Socialism
o 7.3 Romanticism
• 8 Causes
o 8.1 Causes for occurrence in Europe
o 8.2 Causes for occurrence in Britain
• 9 Name history
• 10 See also
• 11 References
o 11.1 Bibliography
o 11.2 Notes

• 12 External links

Innovations

The only surviving example of a Spinning Mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number
of innovations,[14] made in the second half of the 18th century:

 Textiles – Cotton spinning using Richard Arkwright's water frame, James

Hargreaves'sSpinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (a
combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). This was patented in
1769 and so came out of patent in 1783. The end of the patent was rapidly
followed by the erection of many cotton mills. Similar technology was
subsequently applied to spinning worsted yarn for various textiles
and flax for linen.
 Steam power – The improved steam engine invented by James Watt and
patented in 1775 was initially mainly used for pumping out mines, but from the
1780s was applied to power machines. This enabled rapid development of
efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places
where waterpower was not available.
 Iron founding – In the Iron industry, coke was finally applied to all stages of
iron smelting, replacing charcoal. This had been achieved much earlier
for lead and copper as well as for producing pig iron in a blast furnace, but the
second stage in the production of bar iron depended on the use of potting and
stamping (for which a patent expired in 1786) or puddling(patented by Henry
Cort in 1783 and 1784).

These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which
allowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined.
This is not to belittle many other inventions, particularly in the textile industry.
Without some earlier ones, such as the spinning jenny and flying shuttle in the textile
industry and the smelting of pig iron with coke, these achievements might have been
impossible. Later inventions such as the power loom and Richard Trevithick's high
pressure steam engine were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain.
The application of steam engines to powering cotton mills and ironworks enabled
these to be built in places that were most convenient because other resources were
available, rather than where there was water to power a watermill.

In the textile sector, such mills became the model for the organisation of human
labour in factories, epitomised by Cottonopolis, the name given to the vast collection
of cotton mills, factories and administration offices based in Manchester. The
assembly line system greatly improved efficiency, both in this and other industries.
With a series of men trained to do a single task on a product, then having it moved
along to the next worker, the number of finished goods also rose significantly.

Also important was the 1756 rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime
mortar) by the British engineer John Smeaton, which had been lost for 1300 years.[15]

Transfer of knowledge

A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery(ca. 1766)

Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances

Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were
trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A
common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information
where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century
before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations,
like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as
a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice
was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods.
Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries.
Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable
source of information about their methods.

Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal
philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met
to discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its application to
manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said
of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching
of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution".[16] Other such
societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the
London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new
inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.

There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as

Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees'sCyclopaedia (1802–
1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of
information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial
Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as
theDescriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot's Encyclopédie explained foreign
methods with fine engraved plates.

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the

last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest
patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of
travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.

Technological developments in Britain

Textile manufacture
Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution

Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny was
one of the innovations that started the revolution

In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based on wool which was
processed by individual artisans, doing the spinning and weaving on their own
premises. This system is called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used
for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing
needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the
output.
Use of the spinning wheel and hand loom restricted the production capacity of the
industry, but incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that
manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early
decades of the 19th century. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton
goods.

Lewis Paul patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system
for drawing wool to a more even thickness, developed with the help of John Wyatt
in Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new
rolling machine powered by adonkey. In 1743, a factory was opened
in Northampton with fifty spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This
operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but
this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in
1748. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in
the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved
byRichard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.

Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding,
twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply ofyarn increased greatly, which
fed a weaving industry that was advancing with improvements to shuttles and the
loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the
effect that the new machines were seen as a threat to employment, and early
innovators were attacked and their inventions destroyed.

To capitalise upon these advances, it took a class of entrepreneurs, of which the

most famous is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these
were actually developed by people such as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright
nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the
machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes
together in a factory, and he developed the use of power—first horse power and
then water power—which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Before
long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery.

Metallurgy
Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the Younger
Blast furnaces light the iron making town of Coalbrookdale

The Reverberatory Furnace could produce wrought iron using mined coal. The burning coal
remained separate from the iron ore and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like
sulphur. This opened the way to increased iron production.

The major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution
was the replacement of organic fuels based on woodwith fossil fuel based on coal.
Much of this happened somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on
innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coalreverberatory
furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames, which
contained carbon monoxide, playing on the oreand reducing the oxide to metal. This
has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur) in the coal do not migrate into
the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It
was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory
furnace was known as an air furnace. The foundry cupola is a different (and later)
innovation.

This was followed by Abraham Darby, who made great strides using coke to fuel
his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke pig iron he made
was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods such as pots and kettles. He
had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were
thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in
forges until the mid 1750s, when his son Abraham Darby
II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig
iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron.

Bar iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges, as it
long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The
first is referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was superseded by Henry
Cort's puddling process. From 1785, perhaps because the improved version of
potting and stamping was about to come out of patent, a great expansion in the
output of the British iron industry began. The new processes did not depend on the
use of charcoal at all and were therefore not limited by charcoal sources.

Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of

imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally
from Sweden from the mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end of
the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased because of the new iron making
technology, and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as
manufactured wrought ironconsumer goods.

Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major
structural material following the building of the innovative The Iron Bridge in 1778
by Abraham Darby III.

The Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England

An improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive

commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for the cutting edge of
tools and for springs.Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in
the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation
process.
The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided the development of boilers and steam
engines, and eventually railways. Improvements in machine tools allowed better
working of iron and steel and further boosted the industrial growth of Britain.

Mining

Men working their own coal mines. Early 1900s, USA

Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales started early. Before the steam
engine,pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface,
which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was
favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side
of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the
problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft
or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water
had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by
gravity. The introduction of the steam engine greatly facilitated the removal of water
and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These
were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption
of James Watt's more efficient steam engine from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs
of engines, making mines more profitable. Coal mining was very dangerous owing to
the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided
by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and
independently by George Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn
because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp
explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew
during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high
casualty rate from rock falls.

Steam power
Main article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution
The 1698 Savery Engine – the world's first commercially-useful steam engine: built
byThomas Savery

The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of
the Industrial Revolution; however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution,
the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse- and
man-power for driving small machines.

The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in
1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and
pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in
numerous water works and tried in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The
Miner's Friend), but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and
prone to boiler explosions.

Newcomen's steam powered atmospheric engine was the first practical engine. Subsequent
steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution
The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced byThomas
Newcomen before 1712. Newcomen apparently conceived the Newcomen steam
engine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-
ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an
arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent.[17]
[18]
Newcomen's engine appears to have been based onPapin's experiments carried
out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open
to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that
the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the
piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of
cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure
differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston
displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam
to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed
in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it
and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but
within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by a
vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-
acting.

A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining
hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large
machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They
were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was
cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to
go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy
to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the
19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first)
to Hungary in 1722, Germany,Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have
been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the
1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a
number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.[19]
James Watt

A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. In

close collaboration with Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting
his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the
closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam
drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the
celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant
temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer
varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine
efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs.

Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel,
although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However
by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a
double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the
rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were
commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed
496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and
308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5
kW).

The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines
powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily
and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful
engines.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine,
built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of
self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were
developed, such as the table engine. Towards the turn of the 19th century, the
Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver Evans began to
construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the
atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit
compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.

In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent, the steam engine
underwent many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers.

Chemicals

The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843)

Cement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel

The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the
Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by
the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt's
first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture
by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less
expensive chambers made of riveted sheets oflead. Instead of making a small
amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the
chambers, at least a tenfold increase.

The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well,

and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production
of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with
sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium
sulphate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture
of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide. Adding water separated the soluble
sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount
of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide
was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved
economical compared to that from burning specific plants (barilla) or from kelp, which
were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,[20] and also topotash (potassium
carbonate) derived from hardwood ashes.

These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a
host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-
effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass,
textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling
(removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.

The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish

chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French
chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile
industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the
traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in
bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St
Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world.

In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical

process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building
trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about
1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with
water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement was used by the
famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when
constructing the Thames Tunnel.[21] Cement was used on a large scale in the
construction of the London sewerage system a generation later.

Machine tools
Sir Joseph Whitworth

The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without machine tools, for they
enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools
developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific
instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The
mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work'
because of the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of
textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern
engineering industry.

Machines were built by various craftsmen—carpenters made wooden framings, and

smiths and turners made metal parts. A good example of how machine tools
changed manufacturing took place in Birmingham, England, in 1830. The invention
of a new machine by Joseph Gillott, William Mitchell andJames Stephen
Perry allowed mass manufacture of robust, cheap steel pen nibs; the process had
been laborious and expensive. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal and
the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing
had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and
the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution
progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but they required
machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools, metal
was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws
and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large
machine parts, production was very laborious and costly.
A lathe from 1911, a machine tool able to make other machines

Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large machine tool was the
cylinderboring machine used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam
engines. Theplaning machine, the slotting machine and the shaping machine were
developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was
invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the
Second Industrial Revolution.

Military production, as well, had a hand in the development of machine tools. Henry
Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century,
was employed at theRoyal Arsenal, Woolwich, as a young man where he would
have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and
worked by the Verbruggans. He later worked for Joseph Bramah on the production
of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own. He was engaged to
build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in
the Portsmouth Block Mills. These were all metal and were the first machines
formass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The
lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to
the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of
men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph
Whitworth.

James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of
the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality
machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop
measurement.

Gas lighting
Main article: Gas lighting
Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though
others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large scale introduction of this was
the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt,
the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large scale
gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur,
ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas
lighting utilities were established in London between 1812-20. They soon became
one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting had an impact on social
and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open
longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed night life to flourish in
cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than
before.

Glass making

The Crystal Palace held the Great Exhibition of 1851

A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in
Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832, this process was used by the Chance
Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and
plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created
without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the
fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of
sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.

Effects on agriculture
The invention of machinery played a big part in driving forward the British Agricultural
Revolution. Agricultural improvement began in the centuries before the Industrial
revolution got going and it may have played a part in freeing up labour from the land
to work in the new industrial mills of the 18th century. As the revolution in industry
progressed a succession of machines became available which increased food
production with ever fewer labourers.

Jethro Tull's seed drill invented in 1701 was a mechanical seeder which distributed
seeds efficiently across a plot of land. Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of
1730, was the first commercially successful iron plough. Andrew Meikle's threshing
machine of 1784 was the final straw for many farm labourers, and led to the 1830
agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.

Transport in Britain
Main article: Transport during the British Industrial Revolution
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers
and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or
wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals
had not yet been constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with
sails providing the motive power on the sea.

The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike

road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials
and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before.
Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.

Coastal sail
Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the British coast. The
trade transporting coal to London from Newcastle had begun in medieval times. The
transport of goods coastwise by sea within Britain was common during the Industrial
Revolution, as for centuries before. This became less important with the growth of
the railways at the end of the period.

Navigable rivers
See also: List of rivers of United Kingdom
All the major rivers of the United Kingdom were navigable during the Industrial
Revolution. Some were anciently navigable, notably theSevern, Thames, and Trent.
Some were improved, or had navigation extended upstream, but usually in the
period before the Industrial Revolution, rather than during it.

The Severn, in particular, was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands
which had been imported into Bristol from abroad, and for the export of goods from
centres of production in Shropshire (such as iron goods from Coalbrookdale) and
the Black Country. Transport was by way of trows—small sailing vessels which could
pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. The trows could navigate the
Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such
as Bridgwater and even as far as France.

Canals
Main article: History of the British canal system

Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Llangollen,Wales

Canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing
centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time itself
the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to
allow bulk materials to be easily transported across the country. A single canal horse
could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a
national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the
organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually
largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the
railways from the 1840s on.

Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most
enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.

Roads
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local
parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier)turnpike trusts were set up to
charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were
turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and
Wales was the responsibility of some turnpike trust. New engineered roads were
built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and John Macadam. The major turnpikes
radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to
reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means
of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were
conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stage coaches carried the
rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.

Railways
Main article: History of rail transport in Great Britain

Puffing Billy, an early railway steam locomotive, constructed in 1813-1814 for colliery work.

Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and
were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal.
These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to
haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the
steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from
the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early
years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and
Darlington Railway in 1825 and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830.
Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the
1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution.

After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their
rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the
factories.

Railways helped Britain's trade enormously, providing a quick and easy way of
transport and an easy way to transport mail and news.

Social effects
Main article: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution
In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of
a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and
gentry.

Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new
mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long
hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. However, harsh working
conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-
industrial society was very static and often cruel—child labour, dirty living conditions,
and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.[22]

Factories and urbanisation

Manchester, England ("Cottonopolis"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory

chimneys

Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. Arguably the first was John
Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. However, the rise of
the factory came somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanised.

The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large
numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories.
Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries
of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis", and arguably the world's first industrial
city. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were
typically water-powered and built to serve local needs. Later each factory would have
its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.

The transition to industrialisation was not without difficulty. For example, a group of
English workers known as Luddites formed to protest against industrialisation and
sometimessabotaged factories.
In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some
industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their
workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his
pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and
often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.

By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material
went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and
other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah
Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton were other prominent early industrialists, who
employed the factory system.

Child labour

A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery

The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chance of surviving
childhood did not improve throughout the industrial revolution
(although infantmortality rates were reduced markedly).[23][24] There was still limited
opportunity for education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay
a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was
no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial
system was completely new there were no experienced adult labourers. This made
child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the
Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland
in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described
as children.[25]

Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in
population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work
in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders,[26] 10-20% of an
adult male's wage.[27] Children as young as four were employed.[27] Beatings and long
hours were common, with some child coal miners working from 4 am until 5 pm.
[27]
Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell
into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions.[27] Many children
developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25.
[27]
Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper apprentices",
working without wages for board and lodging.[27] Those who ran away would be
whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent
escape.[27] Children employed as "scavengers" by cotton mills would climb under
machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost
hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were
decapitated.[27] Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorous fumes
would cause many to develop phossy jaw.[27] Children employed at glassworks were
regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to
poisonous clay dust.[27]

Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal
mines[28] and textile factories[29] and these helped to popularise the children's plight.
The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir
change in the young workers' welfare.

Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners
resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to
buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833
and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed
in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not
permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited
to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however,
their scarcity made enforcement difficult.[27] About ten years later, the employment of
children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of
child labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe and the United States up
to the 20th century.[30] By 1900, there were 1.7 million child labourers reported in
American industry under the age of fifteen.[31]

Housing
Over London by Rail Gustave Doré c. 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted
environments created in the new industrial cities

Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendour of the
homes of the owners to the squalor of the lives of the workers. Poor people lived in
very small houses in cramped streets. These homes would share toilet facilities,
have open sewers and would be at risk of damp. Disease was spread through a
contaminated water supply. Conditions did improve during the 19th century as public
health acts were introduced covering things such as sewage, hygiene and making
some boundaries upon the construction of homes. Not everybody lived in homes like
these. The Industrial Revolution created a larger middle class of professionals such
as lawyers and doctors. The conditions for the poor improved over the course of the
19th century because of government and local plans which led to cities becoming
cleaner places, but life had not been easy for the poor before industrialisation.
However, as a result of the Revolution, huge numbers of the working class died due
to diseases spreading through the cramped living conditions. Chest diseases from
the mines,cholera from polluted water and typhoid were also extremely common, as
was smallpox. Accidents in factories with child and female workers were regular.
Strikes and riots by workers were also relatively common.

Luddites
Main article: Luddite
The Leader of the luddites, engraving of 1812

The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs.
The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and
spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many
weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer
compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour
to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers,
weavers and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken
their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became
known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first
attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained
popularity, and the British government took drastic measures using
the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and
hanged, or transported for life.

Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as agricultural

labourers in the 1830s, when large parts of southern Britain were affected by
the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and
rick burning was a popular activity. However the riots led to the first formation
of trade unions, and further pressure for reform.

Organisation of labour
See also: Trade union#History

The Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common, 1848

The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus
facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the
interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by
withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers
had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or
suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and
these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind
of bargaining.

The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Many strikes
were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In England,
the Combination Act forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from 1799 until
its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.

In 1832, the year of the Reform Act which extended the vote in England but did not
grant universal suffrage, six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly
Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in
the 1830s. They refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week, although by this
time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further
reduced to six shillings. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the
Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure
law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the
members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George
Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas
Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and
transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle martyrs. In the 1830s
and 1840s the Chartist movement was the first large scale organised working class
political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice.
Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by
Parliament without consideration.

Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual
support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such
as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the
working class.

Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842,
a General Strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through
the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.[32]

Eventually effective political organisation for working people was achieved through
the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began
to support socialist political parties that later merged to became the British Labour
Party.

Standards of living
The history of the change of living conditions during the industrial revolution has
been very controversial, and was the topic that from the 1950s to the 1980s caused
most heated debate among economic and social historians.[33] A series of 1950s
essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic
consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder,
suffered severe reductions in their living standards.[33]

Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of
the world including England and France, until the latter part of the 19th century. Until
about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35
years, and only slightly higher in England. The U.S. population of the time was
adequately fed, were much taller and had life expectancies of 45–50 years.[34] A vivid
description of living standards of the mill workers in England in 1844 was given by
Fredrick Engels.[35]

During the period 1813-1913 there was a significant increase in worker wages .[36][37]
[38]

Population increase
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and
Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically
after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in
1801 to 16.8 million in 1851 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million.
[39]
As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century,[citation
needed]
Britain's population doubled every 50 years.[40][41] Europe’s population doubled
during the 18th century, from roughly 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled
again during the 19th century, to around 400 million.[42]

Other effects
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a
massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced
rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.

During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased

dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age
of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.[23]

The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to
massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in
other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural
communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in
cities,[43] a figure that has risen to nearly 50% at the beginning of the 21st century.
[44]
In 1717Manchester was merely a market town of 10,000 people, but by 1911 it
had a population of 2.3 million.[45]

The greatest killer in the cities was tuberculosis (TB).[46] By the late 19th century, 70
to 90% of the urban populations of Europe and North America were infected with M.
tuberculosis, and about 40% of working-class deaths in cities were from TB.[47]

Continental Europe
The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great
Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in
Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British
engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809
part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its
similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian
governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such
as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of
the British technology were adopted.
Wallonia, Belgium

Lifts on Canal du Centre (1888 - 1917) near La Louvière, Wallonia

Workers' housing at Bois-du-Luc (1838-1853) in La Louvière

Renowned for its coal and steel, Wallonia has experienced strong industrial growth
since the Middle Ages. For many years, heavy industry was the driving force behind
the region's economy. Indeed, Wallonia was the birthplace of the industrial revolution
on continental Europe:

Before railway construction on the Continent demanded huge quantities of maleable

iron mainly for rails, for which low quality iron sufficed, Wallonia was the only
Continental region to follow the British model successfully. Since the middle of the
1820s, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and
rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi. Excelling
all others, John Cockerill's factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production,
from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.[48]

Wallonia came to be regarded as an example of the radical evolution of industrial

expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille" was coined in Wallonia),[49] the
region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after England. But
it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel, 'Especially in
the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, (...) there
was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...'.
[50]
Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a
reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the
world after England."[51] "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast
furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent."[52] Michel De Coster,
Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: "The historians and the economists
say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its
population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-
mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass
industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated" [53]

Demographic effects

Wallonia's Sillon industriel (the blue area in the north is not in Wallonia)

Gallow frame of the Crachet inFrameries IN Wallonia's French Châssis à

molettes or Belfleur (FrenchChevalement
Official Poster of the Liège's World fair in 1905

Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions
in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs
from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in
another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Wallonia is the second
industrial country after England, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very
different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos say:

The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a
strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle
Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of
large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region
(Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of
the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per
cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in
France and 25 per cent in England. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect
the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the
traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process,
even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between
1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine,Sambre and Meuse valleys, between
the Borinage and Liège, where there was a huge industrial development based on
coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was rapid. During these eighty years the
number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to
more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this
region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it
did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of
industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory.
Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later
and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area
around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.[54]

France
The industrial revolution in France was a particular process for it did not correspond
to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue
that France did not go through a clear take-off.[55] Instead, France's economic growth
and industrialisation process was slow and steady along the 18th and 19th centuries.
However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer :

 French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789–1815),

 industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860),
 economic slowdown (1860–1905),
 renewal of the growth after 1905.

This section requires expansion.

United States
Main article: Technological and industrial history of the United States

Slater's Mill

The United States originally used horse-powered machinery to power its earliest
factories, but eventually switched to water power, with the consequence that
industrialisation was essentially limited to New England and the rest of
the Northeastern United States, where fast-moving rivers were located. Horse-drawn
production proved to be economically challenging and a more difficult alternative to
the newer water-powered production lines. However, the raw materials (cotton)
came from the Southern United States. It was not until after the Civil War in the
1860s that steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing,
allowing the industry to fully spread across the nation.

Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in
1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era,[56] and a
significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future.
This cotton mill was designed to utilise horse-powered production, however the
operators quickly learned that the economic stability of their horse-drawn platform
was unstable, and had fiscal issues for years after it was built. Despite the losses,
the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large
amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in
Slater's Mill.[57]

Samuel Slater (1768–1835) is the founder of the Slater Mill. As a boy apprentice
in Derbyshire, England, he learned of the new techniques in the textile industry and
defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in
1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. Slater founded Slater's
Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793. He went on to own thirteen textile mills.
[58]
Daniel Dayestablished a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge,
Massachusetts in 1810, the third woollen mill established in the U.S. (The first was
in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John
H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of
"America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its
tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from Worcester to Providence,
was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills
operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of
America's Industrial and Technological Development.

While on a trip to England in 1810, Newburyport merchant Francis Cabot Lowell was
allowed to tour the British textile factories, but not take notes. Realising the War of
1812 had ruined his import business but that a market for domestic finished cloth
was emerging in America, he memorised the design of textile machines, and on his
return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell
and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham,
Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory After his death in 1817,
his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him.
This enterprise was capitalised in apublic stock offering, one of the first uses of it in
the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, utilising 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and
ten thousand horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered by some
to be a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The
short-lived utopia-like Lowell System was formed, as a direct response to the poor
working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato
Famine, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.

The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham,

Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company, with the development of machine
tools, tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision
required for watches.

See also: History of Lowell, Massachusetts

Japan
Main articles: Meiji Restoration and Economic history of Japan
In 1871 a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured
Europe and the USA to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state led
industrialisation policy to prevent Japan from falling behind. The Bank of Japan,
founded in 1877, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was
expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.

Second Industrial Revolution and later evolution

Main article: Second Industrial Revolution

Bessemer converter

The insatiable demand of the railways for more durable rail led to the development of
the means to cheaply mass-produce steel. Steel is often cited as the first of several
new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a "Second
Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass
manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry
Bessemer invented a new furnace which could make wrought iron and steel in large
quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s. This second
Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the chemical
industries, petroleumrefining and distribution, electrical industries, and, in the 20th
century, the automotive industries, and was marked by a transition of technological
leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.
The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid
industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The
increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the
importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.

Marshall McLuhan analysed the social and cultural impact of the electric age. While
the previous age of mechanisation had spread the idea of splitting every process into
a sequence, this was ended by the introduction of the instant speed of electricity that
brought simultaneity. This imposed the cultural shift from the approach of focusing
on "specialised segments of attention" (adopting one particular perspective), to the
idea of "instant sensory awareness of the whole", an attention to the "total field", a
"sense of the whole pattern". It made evident and prevalent the sense of "form and
function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This had major
impact in the disciplines of painting (with cubism), physics, poetry, communication
and educational theory.[59]

By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial
corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General
Electric, and Bayer AG joined the railroad companies on the world's stock markets.

Intellectual paradigms and criticism

Capitalism
Main article: Capitalism
The advent of the Age of Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework which
welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge—a
factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by
scientific analysis, and the development of the political and sociological analyses,
culminating in Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations. One of the main arguments for
capitalism, presented for example in the book The Improving State of the World, is
that industrialisation increases wealth for all, as evidenced by raised life expectancy,
reduced working hours, and no work for children and the elderly.

Socialism
Main article: Socialism
Socialism emerged as a critique of capitalism. Marxism began essentially as a
reaction to the Industrial Revolution.[60] According to Karl Marx, industrialisation
polarised society into the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production, the
factories and the land) and the much larger proletariat (the working class who
actually perform the labour necessary to extract something valuable from the means
of production). He saw the industrialisation process as the
logical dialectical progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full
development of capitalism, which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the
development of socialism and eventually communism.

Romanticism
Main article: Romanticism
During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new
industrialisation developed. This was known as the Romantic movement. Its major
exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William
Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe
Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in
contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills" of Blake's
poem "And did those feet in ancient time".Mary
Shelley's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be
two-edged.

Causes

Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial
Revolution. (The empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There is data for the years
1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and 2003)

The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for
debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and
institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil
War in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the
spread of disease was lessened, thereby preventing theepidemics common in
previous times.[61] The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose
significantly, leading to a larger workforce. The Enclosuremovement and the British
Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-
intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in
agriculture into cottage industry, for exampleweaving, and in the longer term into the
cities and the newly developedfactories.[62] The colonial expansion of the 17th
century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation
of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is
the scientific revolutionof the 17th century.[63]

Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological
innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology
was the invention and improvement of the steam engine.[64] However, recent
research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented
interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.[65]

Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in
the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates.[66] He explains that the
model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that "the
archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites
the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact
that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals
as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more
physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.

The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important

driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In
other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often
imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded amongst them.[67] Internal tariffs were
abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France
and 1839 in Spain.

Governments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a

developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies 1623) is considered an
influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of
industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key
enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the
patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to
monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors
and increasing the pace of technological development. However monopolies bring
with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance,
the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.[68] Watt's
monopoly may have prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William
Murdoch or Jonathan Hornblower, from introducing improved steam engines,
thereby retarding the industrial revolution by about 16 years.[69]

Causes for occurrence in Europe

A 1623 Dutch East India Companybond.

European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial
markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled
18th century industrial growth.

One question of active interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred
in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century,
particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical
Antiquity[70] or the Middle Ages.[71] Numerous factors have been suggested, including
education, technological changes[72] (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), "modern"
government, "modern" work attitudes, ecology, and culture.[73] The Age of
Enlightenment not only meant a larger educated population but also more modern
views on work. However, most historians contest the assertion that Europe and
China were roughly equal because modern estimates of per capita income on
Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing
power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars[74]) whereas
China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars.

Some historians such as David Landes[75] and Max Weber credit the different belief
systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The
religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity, and
Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men
like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu(Taoism),
and Buddha (Buddhism). Whereas the Europeans believed that the universe was
governed by rational and eternal laws, the East believed that the universe was in
constant flux and, for Buddhists and Taoists, not capable of being rationally
understood.[citation needed]Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal
deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable yellow
river that connects these deposits to the sea.[76]

Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: "The capital to finance
the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution
in England."[77] In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing
kingdoms, with the three major ones being the Marathas, Sikhs and the Mughals. In
addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors—agriculture of
subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It
is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace
treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over. Absolutist dynasties
in China, India, and the Middle East failed to encourage manufacturing and exports,
and expressed little interest in the well-being of their subjects.[78]

Causes for occurrence in Britain

As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other
economies. After the Industrial Revolution, it was overtaken later by the United States.
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive
lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance
of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many
overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the
Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. It has been pointed out, however, that
slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national
income during the years of the Industrial Revolution.[79]Even though slavery
accounted for minimal economic profits in Britain during the Industrial Revolution,
Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12% of England's industrial output.[80]

Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have
allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological
developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly
China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European
nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the
only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been
destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy[81]). Britain's extensive exporting cottage
industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of
manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted
overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much
of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position—an island
separated from the rest of mainland Europe.

Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to
the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small
geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution
made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of
natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Walesand
the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and
water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of
industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England
provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point
for the birth of the textiles industry.

The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater
receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said
to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. In large part due to the Enclosure
movement, the peasantry was destroyed as a significant source of resistance to
industrialisation, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that
made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.[82] (This point
is also made in Hilaire Belloc's The Servile State.)

Britain's population grew 280% 1550-1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew
50-80%. 70% of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750-1800. By 1800,
only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible
because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal,
flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined
materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced
manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to
2.02 ha) for fodder while even early steam engines produced 4 times more
mechanical energy.

In 1700 5/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain while the Netherlands had none;
so despite having Europe's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people
and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century it was the only
European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would
have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.[83]

Protestant work ethic

Main article: Protestant work ethic
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of
an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.
[84]
The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max
Weber) and the particular status of theBaptists and the dissenting Protestant sects,
such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil
War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of
the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in theGlorious Revolution of 1688,
and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of
the national debt by theBank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest
in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.

Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as
well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters
were still free to study at Scotland's four universities). When the restoration of the
monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became
mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking,
manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in
education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was
given to mathematics and the sciences—areas of scholarship vital to the
development of manufacturing technologies.

Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along

with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects
were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow
Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional
financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of
capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be
to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific
revolution of the 17th century.

This theory doesn't explain how the second country to be industrialised-Belgium,

was Catholic.

Name history
The earliest use of the term "Industrial Revolution" yet located seems to be a letter of
6 July 1799 by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing that the process had
started in his country.[85] In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and
Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for "Industry": "The idea of a new
social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen,
between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s
and Wordsworth at the turn of the century." The termIndustrial Revolution applied to
technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Louis-
Auguste Blanquidescription in 1837 of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich
Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an
industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil
society". Credit for popularising the term may be given toArnold Toynbee, whose
lectures given in 1881 gave a detailed account of it.[86]

See also
Business and economics portal

General
  Capitalism in the nineteenth century
 Industrialisation
 Deindustrialisation
 Dual revolution
 Dialectics of progress
 Ecological impact of colonial Americans before 1877
 Economic history of the United Kingdom
 Electrification
 Information revolution
 Pre-industrial society
 Protestant work ethic
 Papermaking
 Paper
 Scientific Revolution

Other

 Industrial growth in the Muslim World

 Industrial Revolution in China
 Petroleum Revolution
 Science and invention in Birmingham
 Technological and industrial history of the United States

References
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Notes

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Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511589-9Read it
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Nicolson Ltd. ISBN 0-349-10484-0
8. ^ Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England,
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01079-9Read it
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Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved 2007-11-14. "it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or
maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income.
(Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the
same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per
capita incomes in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year."
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"[consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th
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century"
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Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher
Education Supplement, 15 January 2004".
14. ^ The Industrial Revolution – Innovations
15. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) "Building construction: the reintroduction
of modern concrete"
16. ^ The Lunar Society at Moreabout, the website of theBirmingham Jewellery
Quarter guide, Bob Miles.
17. ^ Hulse, David H: The Early Development of the Steam Engine; TEE
Publishing, Leamington Spa, U.K., 1999 ISBN 1 85761 107 1
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Newcomen (Landmark, Ashbourne, 1997), 44.
19. ^ Rolt and Allen, 145
20. ^ Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan L. (June 1952), Chemical Revolution, Ayer Co,
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Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, page 30 ISBN 0-
415-38218-1
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century was due mainly to declining adult mortality. Sustained decline of the
mortality rates for the age groups 5-10, 10-15, and 15-25 began in the mid 19th
century, while that for the age group 0-5 began three decades later". Although the
survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate &
overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the average Briton
was about as old in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, page 28). Population size
statistics from mortality.org put the mean age at about 26.
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Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge
CB2 1ST.
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Britain". dailymail.co.uk(London). Retrieved 19 September 2010.
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81. ^ The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth.
Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were
 those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship
of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal
Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced ever 4 to 5 years, this created a
great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of
rope can also be see as a similar factor.
82. ^ Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord
and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, pp. 29-30, Boston, Beacon Press,
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84. ^ Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the
First Industrial Nation. Northwich: Arley Hall Press.ISBN 0951838245. Argues that
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thecommercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible, for example.
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86. ^ Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. London: Edward Arnold.
p. 11. ISBN 9780713165319.

External links
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to: Industrial
revolution

 Industrial Revolution at the Open Directory Project

 Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution
 "The Day the World Took Off" Six part video series from the University of
Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when
and where it did."
 BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution
 National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and
personalities
 Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living by Clark Nardinelli – the
debate over whether standards of living rose or fell.
  Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution
 Revolutionary Players website
 The Industrial Revolution --Articles, Video, Pictures, and Facts

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