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 Introduction to
ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCES
 Introduction to
ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCES

R S Khoiyangbam • Navindu Gupta

The Energy and Resources Institute

© The Energy and Resources Institute, 2015

ISBN 978-81-7993-455-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

All export rights for this book vest exclusively with The Energy and Resources
Institute (TERI). Unauthorized export is a violation of terms of sale and is subject
to legal action.

Suggested citation
Khoiyangbam, R.S., and N Gupta. 2012. Introduction to Environmental Sciences.
New Delhi: TERI

Published by
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) Tel. 2468 2100 or 4150 4900
TERI Press Fax 2468 2144 or 2468 2145
Darbari Seth Block India +91 • Delhi (0) 11
IHC Complex, Lodhi Road E-mail teripress@teri.res.in
New Delhi – 110 003 Web www.teriin.org

Printed in India
Preface

Natural environment is made up of complex multiple variables and

substances. Man’s ceaseless pursuit to improve technology has added up
only to the overall complexity. Many a time man has surpassed and failed
the nature’s restorative capabilities and in due course environmental
problems magnify and are scaled up from local to global levels.
Environmental science attempts to integrate and realign all the known
technology and sciences, arts and management to solve environmental
issues. As environmental science became a converging domain for many
disciplines, many of the available textbooks on environmental topics are
too specialized, which is excellent for their purpose but found difficult for
the introductory level students. Introduction to Environmental Sciences
attempts to cover all the necessary fundamental aspects of the course in
an introductory level to fulfil this purpose. All the contributors of this
book are, or have been, actively engaged in teaching the subject areas of
their specialization in different universities, higher research institutions
and colleges in the country.
This book is intended for all students taking an introductory level of
environmental sciences and its allied courses. The book may also appeal
to all the undergraduate students, in both technical and general streams,
for their compulsory course work in environmental studies. Other
intended audience of the book may include environmental instructors,
both in colleges and in higher education, and professionals engaged in
the environmental management, community health practice, extension
works, to mention some.
This book contains 18 chapters. Chapter 1 starts out with the scope
and relevance of environmental sciences in the modern times. Chapter
2 gives an insight into the various chemical processes operating in
environment. Chapter 3 underlines the importance of statistical tools in
environmental studies and interpretation. The fourth chapter highlights
the essential environmental laws in India. Chapter 5 explains the concept
of sustainability science. Chapter 6 focuses on restoration ecology of
degraded environments. Chapters 7–12 cover pollution studies, monitoring
and analysis and demography. Chapters 13 and 14 are devoted,
VI Preface

respectively, to forest resources and management and understanding

wildlife and wilderness as an important factor for maintaining ecological
balance. Chapter 15 deals with environmental impact assessment and
environmental planning. Chapter 16 highlights the importance of
environmental education in mass awareness and resources conservation.
Chapter 17 is devoted to natural and human-made disaster and their
management. The final chapter discusses greenhouse gases emission and
global warming.
The hallmark features of the book are its comprehensive and balanced
coverage of the entire syllabus for introductory level students. The book
combines the latest knowledge of the subject matter in an easy-to-
learn format for rapid and logical comprehension to key environmental
issues. The book covers topics such as biostatics, principles of analytic
methods, disaster management, and so on, generally omitted in other
books. Analysis manual for water and soils have also been incorporated
in the book.

We are very grateful to all the authors for their contribution.

Any suggestions, valuable comments, and constructive criticism from

readers towards further improvement of the book shall be welcomed.

R.S. Khoiyangbam
Navindu Gupta
Acknowledgements

We express our sincere gratitude and heartfelt thanks to all the

contributors of this book who have written the respective chapters of
their field of eminence and all those whose work has been cited in this
book. We are also extremely grateful to Dr. H.S. Gupta, Director, and
Dr. K.V. Prabhu, Joint Director (Research), Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, for taking keen interest in the book and for their
constant guidance.
Sincere acknowledgements are also due to Dr. P.K. Aggarwal, Dr.
M.C. Jain, Dr. Sushil Kumar, and Dr. H.C. Joshi, former Heads of
Division of Environmental Sciences, IARI, New Delhi, and also to Dr.
S.D. Singh, Head, CESCRA, for their guidance and encouragement in
conceptualizing the book in the present shape. The first author/editor
would also like to thank the Principal, D.M. College of Science, Manipur
for giving permission to make contribution to the book.
We are also grateful to Dr. S.L. Mehta, former DDG (Education) ICAR
and Vice-Chancellor MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan, for sharing his rich
experience and insights and also providing guidance and encouragement
in the preparation of this long-awaited book on the subject.

R.S. Khoiyangbam
Navindu Gupta
Foreword

Existence of life depends on the most abundant resources of the

planet—land, air, and water. But the world is faced with one of the most
paradoxical situations in its history—feeding the burgeoning population
while conserving the resources for consumption by the present population
has been predicted to be unsustainable. Undoubtedly, the development,
both industrial and agricultural, especially in the twentieth century, has
very adversely impacted the environment. Expectedly, ‘environment’ rather
than ‘development’ has taken centre stage, at the both national and inter-
national levels. But it is, indeed, heartening to see the world sensitized
to the twin dangers of the climate change and loss of biodiversity, which
are threatening the very existence of mankind. Many international con-
ventions, summits and treaties, which have been organized during the
last decade, have received unprecedented attention not only of the world
leaders but also of the common man. Global climate change is a reality:
opinions may differ on the magnitude and disastrous forecasts but not on
its adverse impacts on flora and fauna. Admittedly, in the name of develop-
ment irreparable damage has been done to the environment and, needless
to emphasize, anthropogenic activities harming the environment have to
be minimized; new technologies and production systems should be, to the
extent possible, environmentally sustainable. Awareness about the envi-
ronmental issues at all the levels, education (right from early schooling),
research and policy matters, is required. Environmental sciences have to
be given due importance in educational and research establishments all
over the world but there is dearth of good books and journals in the field.
The book Introduction to Environmental Sciences by R. S. Khoiyangbam
and Navindu Gupta is very timely and well-conceived publication; it covers
almost all important areas of the vast subject. The need of such publication
has been felt since long, especially, to cater to the curricular requirements
of educational and research institutions to impart basic knowledge in the
environment sciences in accordance with the modern trends. The hallmark
of the book is its comprehensive and balanced coverage of the entire syl-
labus for the introductory as well as the advanced level students. Most of
the chapters have been contributed by renowned experts in their fields. The
book combines the latest knowledge of the subject matter in an easy-to-
X Foreword

learn format for quick and logical comprehension of the key environmental
issues; it also covers topics such as biostatistics, principle of analytical
methods, disaster management, and environmental management system
which rarely find place in other books on the subject. Analysis manual for
water and soil have also been incorporated in the book.
I am sure the book will be of great help not only to the students,
teachers, and researchers but also to the professionals and policy-makers.

H.S. Gupta
Director
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Contents

Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Foreword ix

1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES: SCOPE AND

IMPORTANCE 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science 3
1.3 Scope of the Subject 3
1.4 Importance of the Subject 5
1.5 Types of Environment 6
1.6 Earth, Humans, and Environment 7
1.7 Environmental Ethics 8
1.8 Environmental Economics 9
1.9 Environmental Legislation 11
1.10 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Factors in the
Environment 12

2. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Environmental Segment 16
2.3 Toxic Chemicals in the Environment 18
2.4 Water Pollution 21
2.5 Air Pollutants 35
2.6 Control Techniques for air pollutants 44

3. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOSTATISTICS 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Basic Concepts 52
3.3 Tabular Form of Data Presentation 52
XII Contents

3.4 Measures of Central Tendency 55

3.5 Measures of Variability 60
3.6 Correlation 64
3.7 Regression Analysis 68
3.8 Elements of Probability Theory 72
3.9 Basic Laws of Probability 74
3.10 Random Variable and Probability Distribution 75
3.11 Binomial Distribution 77
3.12 Poisson Distribution 78
3.13 Normal Distribution 79

4. ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 81
4.1 Environmental Provisions in the Constitution of India 81
4.2 Factories Act, 1948 82
4.3 Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 84
4.4 Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling)
Rules, 1989 85
4.5 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 86
4.6 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 88
4.7 Anti-pollution: Acts and Amendments 89
4.8 Water Act, 1974 90
4.9 Air Act, 1981 92
4.10 Environmental Protection Act, 1986 93
4.11 Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 95

5. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 99
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 History and Concept 99
5.3 Basic Principles of Sustainable Development 101
5.4 Post-Brundtland World 102
5.5 Roots of Sustainability 105
5.6 Sustainable Development Indicators 106
5.7 Paradigm Towards a New
Discipline—sustainability Science 109
5.8 Conclusions 111
 Contents XIII

6. RESTORATION ECOLOGY 115

6.1 Introduction 115
6.2 Causes of Environmental Degradation 115
6.3 Consequences of Environmental Degradation 118
6.4 Restoration of Degraded Ecosystems 120
6.5 Forest Lands 120
6.6 Mined Areas 124
6.7 Shifting Cultivated Areas 127
6.8 Wetlands 129
6.9 Wastelands 131
6.10 Restoration of Agricultural lands 136
6.11 Waterlogged Soils 144

7. SOIL POLLUTION 149

7.1 Introduction 149
7.2 Functions of Soil 150
7.3 Land and Soil Resources in India 150
7.4 Soil Pollution 151
7.5 Soil Pollution Control 154
7.6 Soil as a Sink of Pollution 156
7.7 Soil Degradation 156
7.8 Problem Soils 158
7.9 Soil Quality 160
7.10 Approaches for Maintenance of Soil Quality 163
7.11 Policy Measures to Improve Soil Quality 167
7.12 Conclusions 169

8. DEMOGRAPHY: MEANING AND SCOPE 171

8.1 Introduction 171
8.2 Why to Study Population at All? 172
8.3 Sources of Demographic Data 172
8.4 World Population Growth for 100 years 173
8.5 Some Terminologies used in Demography 174
8.6 Fertility 176
8.7 Mortality 178
8.8 Common Measures of Population Growth 184
XIV Contents

8.9 Growth of Income 184

8.10 Population and Environment 186
8.11 Urbanization and Environment 187
8.12 Overpopulation 188
8.13 Growing demand for Food and Facilities 188
8.14 Pollution to Air and Soil 189
8.15 Water Resources 191
8.16 Forest 193
8.17 Conclusion 194

9. INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS 199

9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 pH 199
9.3 Ion Meter 205
9.4 Electrical Conductivity Meter 207
9.5 Spectro Photometers 213
9.6 Flame Photometers 222
9.7 Limitations of Flame Photometer  226

10. ANALYSIS OF POLLUTED SOIL AND SEDIMENT 227

10.1 Introduction 227
10.2 Moisture Content (Gravimetric Method)
(Jackson 1973) 227
10.3 Bulk Density 228
10.4 Texture 228
10.5 Determination of pH 232
10.6 Conductivity 234
10.7 Organic Carbon (Walkley–Black method) 235
10.8 Total Nitrogen 236
10.9 Nitrate Nitrogen 238
10.10 Available Phosphorous 240
10.11 Potassium (Neutral Normal Ammonium
Acetate Method) (Hanway and Heidel 1952) 242
10.12 Determination of Sodium 243
10.13 Determination of Chloride 244
10.14 Determination of Alkalinity 246
 Contents XV

11. ANALYSIS OF POLLUTED WATER 249

11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Water Sampling Techniques 249
11.3 Temperature 251
11.4 Determination of Turbidity 251
11.5 Determination of pH 255
11.6 Electrical Conductivity 256
11.7 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids 257
11.8 Dissolved O2 (Winkler method) 258
11.9 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 260
11.10 Determination of Chloride 262
11.11 Determination of Fluoride Content 264
11.12 Determination of Salinity 265
11.13 Determination of Hardness 265
11.14 Determination of Permanent Hardness 267
11.15 Determination of Alkalinity 268
11.16 Calcium and Magnesium Content 269
11.17 Determination of Sodium Content 270
11.18 Determination of Potassium Content 271

12. NOISE POLLUTION 275

12.1 Introduction 275
12.2 Types of Noise 276
12.3 Characteristics of Sound 276
12.4 Decibels 277
12.5 Measurement of Noise 277
12.6 Perception of Sound and Hearing Mechanism 279
12.7 Effects of Noise Exposure 279
12.8 Control of Noise 281
12.9 Conclusion 283

13. FOREST RESOURCES 285

13.1 Forests and Forestry 285
13.2 Forest Resources—timber and Forest Produce 287
13.3 Major Types of Forests in India 289
13.4 Mangrove Ecosystems of India 295
XVI Contents

13.5 Over-exploitation of Forest 298

13.6 Shifting Cultivation 301
13.7 Forest Management and Conservation 302

14. WILDLIFE RESOURCES 307

14.1 Introduction 307
14.2 Types of Biodiversity 307
14.3 Importance and Value of Biodiversity 309
14.4 Threats to Biodiversity and Species Extinction 311
14.5 Genetic Erosion 313
14.6 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 314
14.7 Biodiversity Hotspots 317
14.8 Measurement of Biodiversity 318
14.9 Conservation Measures: In situ and Ex Situ conservation 319
14.10 Earth Summit and Agenda 21 320
14.11 Biological Diversity Act, 2002 321

15. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND PLANNING 325

15.1 Concept of Environmental Impact Assessment 325
15.2 Various Methods of EIA and Their Relative Advantages 326
15.3 EIA as a Management Tool 328
15.4 Environmental Audit 329
15.5 Case Studies of Mega-developmental Projects 331
15.6 Environmental Economics 331
15.7 Concepts of Environmental Planning 334
15.8 Demographic Consideration 337
15.9 Development Indices 338

16. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS 341

16.1 Introduction 341
16.2 Objectives of Environmental Education 341
16.3 Guiding Principles and Goals of Environmental
Education 343
16.4 Formal and Non-Formal Environmental Education 345
16.5 Environmental Education in India 348
16.6 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations 350
16.7 Role of Mass Media in Environmental Conservation 351
 Contents XVII

17. DISASTER MANAGEMENT 355

17.1 Introduction 355
17.2 Disaster Management—definition and Types 357
17.3 Frequently Occurring Disasters in India 359
17.4 Pre- and Post-Disaster Management 370
17.5 Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People 374

18. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND GLOBAL

WARMING 379
18.1 Introduction 379
18.2 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect 379
18.3 Radiation Balance 381
18.4 Sources and Sinks of Major GHGs 384
18.5 Global Warming Potential of GHGs 392
18.6 Measurement of GHG Emission from Soils 395
18.7 Inventories of GHG Emissions 402
18.8 Conclusion 411
Index 413
About the Authors 427

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