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Chapter 1 into inferential, experimental and simulation

THE NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH approaches to research.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned
MEANING OF RESEARCH with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
Research in common parlance refers to a search behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of
for knowledge. Once can also define research as a researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
scientific and systematic search for pertinent approach to research generates results either in non-
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected
art of scientific investigation. to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective
TYPES OF RESEARCH techniques and depth interviews are used.
The basic types of research are as follows:
Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTHS,
includes surveys and fact-finding inquiries of different WEAKNESSES, KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is RESEARCH
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
In social science and business research we quite often Quantitative research designs use numbers in
use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive stating generalization about is given problem or inquiry
research studies. The main characteristic of this in contrast to qualitative research that hardly uses
method is that the researcher has no control over the statistical treatment in stating generalizations.
variables; he can only report what has happened or
what is happening. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
In analytical research, on the other hand, the RESEARCH
researcher has to use facts or information already  Methods or procedures of data gathering include
available, and analyze these to make a critical items like age, gender, educational status, among
evaluation of the material. others that call for measurable characteristics of
Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either the population.
be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic  Standardized instruments guide data collection,
or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or of data.
an industrial/business organisation, whereas  Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized
fundamental research is mainly concerned with data collected in order to show trends,
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. relationships or differences among variables. In
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the
research is based on the measurement of quantity or evidence collected.
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be  A large population yields more reliable data, but
expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on principles of random sampling must be strictly
the other hand, is concerned with qualitative followed to prevent researcher’s bias.
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving  Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify
quality or kind. findings in another setting, thus, reinforcing validity
Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research of findings.
is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is  Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop rather than discovery.
new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience or STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
observation alone, often without due regard for system  Quantitative research design is the most
and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with reliable and valid way of concluding results,
conclusions which are capable of being verified by giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving
observation or experiment. it.
 Because of a bigger number of the sample of
RESEARCH APPROACHES population, the results or generalizations are
Quantitative Approach involves the generation of more reliable and valid.
data in quantitative form which can be subjected to  Quantitative experiments filter out external
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid factors. If properly designed, and so the results
fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified gained can be seen as real and unbiased.

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 Quantitative experiments are useful for testing external validity and consider these factors in their
the results gained by a series of qualitative interpretation.
experiments, leading to a final answer and a a. Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
narrowing down of possible directions to follow. - refers to the chance failure of random
assignment to equalize the conditions by converting a
WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH true experiment into this kind of design, for purposes of
 Quantitative research can be costly, difficult analysis.
and time-consuming. Difficult because most
researchers are non-mathematicians. b. Time Series Design
 Quantitative studies require extensive - employs multiple measures before and after the
statistical treatment requiring stringent experimental intervention. It differs from the single –
standards, more so with confirmation of results. group pre-experiment that has only one pre-test and
 Quantitative methods also tend to turn out only one post-test. Users of this design assume that the
proved or unproven results, leaving little room time threats such as history or maturation appear as
for uncertainty or grey areas. regular changes in the measures prior to the
intervention.
KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Research design refers to the overall strategy 3. Pre-Experimental Design
that you choose in order to integrate the different a. One-Shot Case Study or One Group Posttest
components of the study in a coherent and logical way Only Design
thereby ensuring you will effectively address the - In this design, a single group of individuals is
research problem. measured on some dependent variable after an
Quantitative methods emphasize objective intervention has taken place. The researcher has to
measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or evaluate the experiment by interviewing people (O)
numerical analysis of data collected through polls, and trying to assess the impact of the intervention (X).
questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-
existing statistical data using computational b. One Group Pretest – Posttest Design
techniques. - The one-group pretest–posttest design usually
involves three steps: (1) administering a pretest
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS measuring the dependent variable; (2) applying the
A. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS experimental treatment X to the subjects; and (3)
Experimental research design allows the administering a posttest, again measuring the
researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows dependent variable. Differences attributed to
the researcher to answer the question “WHAT application of the experimental treatment are then
CAUSES SOMETHING TO OCCUR?” This kind of evaluated by comparing the pretest and posttest
research also allows the researcher to identify the scores.
cause and effect relationship between variables and to
distinguish the placebo effects from treatment effects. B. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Descriptive Research Designs
1. True Experimental Design In this kind of design, the researcher observes
True experimental designs (also called the phenomena as they occur naturally and no
randomized designs) use randomization and provide external variables are introduced. In this research
maximum control of extraneous variables. design, the variables are not deliberately manipulated
a. Pre-Test Design nor is the setting controlled.
b. Post Test Design The Descriptive Research Design’s main
c. Post Test Only / Control Group Design purpose is to observe, describe, and document
aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and
2. Quasi-Experimental Design sometimes to serve as starting point for hypothesis
Quasi-experimental designs are similar to generation or theory development.
randomized experimental designs in that they involve
manipulation of an independent variable but differ in Types of Descriptive Research Designs
that subjects are not randomly assigned to treatment a. Survey
groups. Because the quasi-experimental design does - A research design used when the researcher
not provide full control, it is extremely important that intends to provide quantitative or numeric description
researchers be aware of the threats to both internal and of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by
studying a sample of that population (Cresswell, 2003).

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b. Correlational goal of developing a scale – matched approach, where
Correlational research has three types: data from different disciplines can be integrated.
 Bivariate Correlational Studies – obtain scores
from two variables for each subject then use them to IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
calculate a correlation coefficient. The term bivariate ACROSS FIELDS
implies that two variables are correlated (variables are
selected because they are believed to be related). Quantitative Research across Disciplines
 Quantitative Research and Anthropology
Examples: Children of wealthier (V1), better educated  Quantitative Research and Communication
(V2) parents earn higher salaries as adults.  Quantitative Research and Sports Medicine
 Quantitative Research and Medical Education
 Prediction Studies – use correlation co-efficient  Quantitative Research and the Behavioral
to show how one variable (the predictor variable) Sciences
predicts another (the criterion variable).  Quantitative Research and Education and
Psychology
Examples: Which high school applicants should be  Quantitative Research and the Social Sciences
admitted to college?
KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES
 Multiple Regression Predictor Studies – Bernard (1894) defines a variable as something
suppose the high school GPA is not the sole predictor that can take more than one value and value can be
of college GPA, what might be other good predictors? words or numbers.
All of these variables can contribute to the overall A variable specifically refers to a characteristic or
prediction in an equation that adds together the attribute of an individual or an organization that can be
predictive power of each identified variable. measured or observed and that varies among the
people or organization being studied. (Creswell, 2002).
c. Ex Post Facto Studies
- These are non-experimental designs that are The Nature of Variables and Data
used to investigate causal relationships. They examine Generally speaking, variables can be classified
whether one or more pre-existing conditions could as one of the four types:
possibly have caused subsequent differences in 1) Nominal variables represent categories that
groups of subjects. Researchers attempt to discover cannot be ordered in any particular way.
whether differences between groups have results in an 2) Ordinal variables represent categories that
observed difference in the independent variables. can be ordered from greatest to smallest.
3) Interval variables have values that lie along an
d. Comparative Design evenly dispersed range of numbers.
- involves comparing and contrasting two or 4) Ratio variables have values that lie along an
more samples of study on one or more variables, often evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is an
at a single point of time, Specifically, this design is used absolute zero as opposed to net worth, which can have
to compare two distinct groups on the basis of selected a negative debt-to-income ratio level variable.
attributes such as knowledge level, perceptions, and
attitudes, physical, or psychological symptoms. For Kinds of Variables
example a comparative study on the health problem Several experts have lumped together that
among rural and urban older people from district following as the major kinds of variables.
Mehsana, Gujarat. 1. Independent Variables – those that probably
cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are
e. Evaluative Research invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent,
- seeks to assess or judge in some way of or predictor variables.
providing information about something other than 2. Dependent Variables – those that depend on
might be gleaned in mere observation or investigation the independent variables; they are the outcomes or
of relationships. For example, where a test of children results of the influence of the independent variable.
in school is used to assess the effectiveness of 3. Intervening or Mediating Variable – “stand
teaching or the deployment of a curriculum. between” the independent and dependent variable and
they show the effects of the independent variable on
f. Methodological the dependent variable.
– in this approach, the implementation of a variety 4. Control Variables – special types of
of methodologies form a critical part of achieving the independent variable that are measured in a study

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because they potentially influence the dependent 3) Apply to specific context.
variable. 4) Define the aim or desired outcome of this study.
5. Confounding Variables – those that are not
actually measured or observed in a study. They exist Choosing a Topic for a Research Study
but their influence cannot be directly detected in a Layder (2013) stresses that in choosing a
study. research topic, it is important to select a topic that
interests and motivates you. It should It should be
Chapter 2 “doable” with the resources at your disposal and within
IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE the required time frame. Needless to say, the research
PROBLEM topic should be focused and well-defined.

Writing a Research Title Describing the Background of the Study

A research title or research project is a product The background of the study is basically an
of real world observations, dilemmas, wide reading, overview of the research study and explains why you,
selective viewing (television programs, films, as researcher, are doing the study. It provides
documentaries, videos, etc.), meaningful interactions information that is important or essential to understand
with significant others and deep reflection. the main body of the research investigation.
The title of the research is the research problem
or inquiry in capsule form. Great care must be taken in Stating Research Questions
the formulation of the research title. It must clearly Types of Research Question
reflect the topic of investigation. And it must be There are two types of research questions:
original, clear, concise or specific. 1. Problem Question – are general and
explanatory and have a crucial influence on the form
Broad Topics and content of topic questions.
Broad topics should be narrowed down: 2. Topic Questions – are specific and descriptive
The following are examples of broad topics:
 Blended Learning in English Classes Indicating Scope and Delimitation
 Presidential Election Results The scope and delimitation of the study sets
 Agri-business boundaries and parameters of the problem inquiry and
 Social Networking narrows down the scope of the inquiry. The scope is
 Vegetarianism the domain of your research – what is in the domain,
and what is not.
Specific Topics
Specific topics are researchable. Example of Scope and Delimitation from Actual
The following are examples of specific research Studies
topics:
Title of the Study:
 A Correlation Study on the Use of Blended
Consumers’ Response to PETA’s Advocacy
Learning in Freshmen English Classes and Student
Advertisements on Vegetarianism (Del Mundo, 2009)
Achievement
 The Impact of Agri-business on the Philippine
The study was conducted to find out the consumers’
Economy.
responses toward vegetarianism in advocacy
 Campaign Events and Materials and their Impact advertisements. The researcher chose vegetarianism
on Presidential Election Results among many advocacy issues; the reason for this is
 The Cause-Effect Relationship of Social that vegetarianism is a growing consumer market. The
Networking and Online Selling aspects studied were the respondents’ feedback to
 Effects of Vegetarianism on Physical Health selected most popular advertisement of PETA toward
vegetarianism, how the advertisements of catch
Techniques in Narrowing Down a Topic into a attention and interest, how they affect lifestyles, and
Research Question how they generate action.
1) Examine the Literature. Published articles are
an excellent source of ideas for research questions.
they are usually at an appropriate level of specificity
and suggest research questions that focus in the
following:
2) Talk over with others.

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