DATA COLLECTION

in Research Methodology
Dr. Ian Kurniawan, M.Eng.
 WHAT IS DATA?

“Data is a collection of facts.”

Such as numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just

descriptions of things.
Qualitative data is descriptive Quantitative data, is numerical
information information (numbers).
(it describes something)

Discrete data can only take certain Continuous data can take
values (like whole numbers) any value (within a range)
 EXERCISE
What type of data is it (about dog)?

1. He has 4 legs
2. He has lots of energy
3. He is brown and black
4. He weighs 25.5 kg
5. He has 2 brothers
6. He has long hair
7. He is 565 mm tall
 SOURCES OF DATA
1. Primary Data
– The data collected first hand by researcher for his research

2. Secondary Data
– The data which is already collected by someone
– It is readymade data
 Sources of Data
Collection

Primary Source Secondary Source

Observation Interview Unpublished Published

Questionnaire Schedules
Books
Websites
Newspapers
Other
Magazines
Warranty Cards
Journals
Distributor Audit
Government Reports
Pantry Audits
Publications
Consumer Panels
Research reports
Mechanical Devices
Projective Techniques
Depth Interviews
Content analysis
OBSERVATION
• Study relating to Behavioral Science
• Information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observations
• Respondent is not asked/communicated.
• Eg. Brand of wrist watch
• Willingness of respondent to respond is not necessary
• Less demanding of active cooperation
OBSERVATION
• Limitations:

1. Expensive
2. Limited Data
3. Can’t observe what is going on in mind
4. Some people are rarely accessible
OBSERVATION
• Things to keep in mind:

1. What should be observed?

2. How observation should be made and recorded?
3. How to ensure accuracy?
OBSERVATION
• Structured Vs. Unstructured observations:

• Careful definition of units to be observed

• Style of recording observed information
• Standardized conditions of observation

• Structured >>> Descriptive

• Unstructured >>> Exploratory
OBSERVATION
• Participant and non-participant:

• Researched is member of group that he observes > Participant

• Ex: Going in slum and living their life

• Researched is detached from group and observes > Non - participant

• Ex: Study of slum people without being its part/member
OBSERVATION
• Controlled and Uncontrolled:

• Observation in natural setting > Uncontrolled

• Ex. Study of consumers in a mall

• Observation in predefined environment > Controlled

• Ex. Marshmallow Test
INTERVIEW
 INTERVIEW
Presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.

1. Personal Interview:
 Two persons (Interviewer and interviewee)
 Face-to-face contact
 Direct or indirect interview
 Structured (Descriptive Study) or unstructured (Exploratory Study) interview
 Pre-determined questions
 Standardized technique of recording
 Example: Investigation, documentary, exit interview etc.
 INTERVIEW
Advantages of personal interview:

1. More and in depth information

2. Interviewer can overcome the resistance by his skills
3. Greater flexibility
4. Observation method can also be applied
5. Personal information can be easily obtained
6. Greater response
7. Catch spontaneous reaction
8. Language can be adapted
9. Can also collect supplementary information
 INTERVIEW
Disadvantages of personal interview:

1. Expensive
2. Possibility of bias
3. Certain respondents may not be approachable
4. More time consuming
5. Training and selecting the field staff
6. Requirement of proper rapport with respondents
 INTERVIEW
2. Telephonic Interview:

• Faster method
• Suitable for long distances
• Cheaper than personal interview
• Simple and economical
• Higher rate of response
• Replies can be easily recorded
• No field staff is required
 INTERVIEW
2. Telephonic Interview – Demerits:

• Interview duration can not be too long

• Restricted to only those having telephonic facility
• Questions have to be short and to the point
• Non verbal responses not able to judge
 INTERVIEW
3. Group Interview:

• Number of individuals with common interest are interviewed

• Free discussion is encouraged
• Information may be obtained through questionnaire
• Eg. People’s reaction on public amenities, health projects, welfare schemes, movie
review etc.
 PREREQUISITES OF INTERVIEW
1. Interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed.
2. Honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial, unbiased
3. Must possess technical competence
4. Practical experience
5. Create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence
6. Recording responses accurately and completely
7. Interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval
8. Should not argue
9. Keep things on track
INTERVIEWING PROCESS
 Preparation

Introduction

Developing Rapport

Carrying the interview

Recording the interview

Closing the interview

 Preparation

• Copy of interview schedule

• List of names and addresses of respondents
• Prior appointment
• Grouping as per their location
• Study daily routine of respondent(s)
• Mentally prepare
• Planning strategy to deal with avoidance, reluctance, suspicion, inadequate
response, distortion etc.
 Introduction

• Introduction with respondent

• Smile and greet the respondent

• Identify respondents by name
• Describe method by which he/she was selected
• Mention the name of organization conducting research
• Assure anonymity/confidential nature of interview
• Explain usefulness of the study
• Emphasize value of respondent’s cooperation
 Developing Rapport

• Friendly relationship
• Helps smooth functioning of interview
• Eg. Weather, current news, sports events etc.
 Carrying the interview

• Guidelines:
– Ask all questions in schedule
– Repeat question if not understood
– Don’t show disapproval/surprise
– Listen quietly with patience
– Neither argue nor dispute
– Show genuine concern and interest
– Don’t reveal your own opinion or reaction
– Keep conversation on track
 Recording the interview

• Improper recording may lose valuable information

• Note taking, use of electronic instruments like recorder, telephone, video camera
etc.
• Drawback: Fear of going on record
• Rick of lower response
• Short hand, abbreviations, only key works can be used
 Closing the interview

• Thanking with friendly smile

• Further communication of findings
INTERVIEW PROBLEMS
 INADEQUATE RESPONSE
• Partial response : Relevant but incomplete answer

• Non-response : Respondent remains silent/refuses

• Irrelevant response : Answer is irrelevant

• Inaccurate response : Reply is biased/distorted

• Verbalized response : Respondent’s failure to understand question

 INTERVIEWER’S BIAS
• Interviewer’s own attitude and expectations

• Interviewer’s own interest

• Interviewers must be selected and trained properly

 NO RESPONSE
• Failure to obtain responses from some respondents

• Non-availability : Respondents are not available at home/office etc. (busy, tired, out
of station)

• Refusal : Refuse to furnish information

• Inability : Illness or physical disability

• Inaccessibility : Due to migration, transfer etc.

LEARNING BY DOING
ACTIVITY
PREPARE A QUESTIONNAIRE ON FOLLOWING

:::THEME:::

AWARENESS
 PREPARE A QUESTIONNAIRE ON FOLLOWING

• Objective of research:
1. To assess the awareness of among people
2. To analyze the reasons behind unawareness (if any)

• Decide in advance:
1. Sample Size
2. Sample Unit(i.e. target audience)
QUESTIONNAIRE
 WHAT IS QUESTIONNAIRE?
“A document containing set of questions logically related to the problem under study.”

• If the questions are filled by respondents, then its called as ‘Questionnaire’

• If filled by interviewer, it’s called as ‘Schedule’
 QUESTIONNAIRE
ADVANTAGES
• Free from bias of interviewer
• Respondents have adequate time
• Large samples can be used to get more dependable and reliable data

DISADVANTAGES
• Used only when respondent is educated and cooperating
• Control over questionnaire is lost once it is sent
• Inflexibility
• Time and cost
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
1. Question Relevance
2. Question Wording
3. Types of questions
4. Question order or sequence
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
1. Question Relevance

• Should be relevant to research objectives

• Question should be able to answer research problem
• Single question may not be able to answer problem or attain objective
• Respondents should know the answer
• Question should not test respondents recall ability
• Should be easily understandable.
• Should be specific
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
2. Question Wording

• Vocabulary : Use of common vocabulary

• Exactness : Do you usually go to gym? Vs. How many days in a week do you go to gym?
• Simplicity : Simple words and sentence construction, avoid jargons
• Neutrality : Should not cause undue influence. E.g. You prefer Bru over Nescafe, right?
• Presumption : Shouldn’t presume about respondent E.g. How many times a day do you
drink coffee?
• Hypothetical Questions : Avoid. E.g. What would you do if …. ?
• Embarrassing Questions : Personal Questions
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
3. Types of Questions

• Open Ended
– Free Scope for respondents to answer
– Used to explore more and in depth information
– Difficult to analyze
– E.g. What are your career plans after post graduation
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
3. Types of Questions
• Closed Ended
– Dichotomous
• Can be answered with 2 responses
• E.g. Do you own or rent your house?
• Do you like Marathi movies?
– Multiple Choice Questions
• More than 2 alternatives for one question
• E.g. Which brand of jeans do you prefer?
• MCQ must contain all the possible choices
• Should not contain overlapping choices
• Alternatives should be reasonable
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
Types of questions to be avoided

• Leading Questions : Influences respondent to give a certain answer

E.g. Are you against giving too much power to the trade unions?

• Loaded Questions : Contains words which are emotionally colored.

E.g. Have you ever tried to get benefit to the business by giving bribe?

• Ambiguous Questions : Does not have clear meaning

E.g. Are you interested in a small house?
 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
Types of questions to be avoided

• Double-barreled Questions : Contain two or more different ideas

E.g. Do you favor or oppose increased job security and productivity linked wage system?

• Long Question : Lengthy question

• Double negative : E.g. Don’t you oppose this bill?

 QUESTION CONSTRUCTION
4. Question Order or Sequence
• One question should follow another in logical sequence
• Sequence should have relation
E.g. What is volume of your trading?
How many trades do you make in a week?
 MECHANICS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Introduction
2. Pre-coding
3. Spacing
4. Paper
5. Printing
6. Margins
7. Note of thanks
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
 MEASUREMENT SCALE

Assigning numbers or symbols to Involves creating a continuum on

the characteristics of certain which measurement of objects are
objects located

E.g. Recommendation of Flipkart E.g. Recommendation of Flipkart

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALE

Nominal Ordinal

Interval Ratio
 Nominal
• Lowest level of measurement
• Numbers are assigned for purpose of identification of objects
• Numbers don’t represent superiority of inferiority
• Each number is assigned to only one object

In which of the following department do you

Example: What is your religion?
work?
1. Hinduism
1. Marketing
2. Sikhism
2. HR
3. Christianity
3. Finance
4. Islam
4. Production
5. Buddhism
5. IT
6. Any other
6. Any other
 Nominal
• Uses
– To identify food habits, gender, caste, respondents, brand, attributes, players of hockey team etc.

• How to analyze?
– Counting
– Making frequency distribution table
 Ordinal
• Next higher level than Nominal scale
• In nominal, superiority/inferiority can not be measured
• In ordinal scale, one can tell which object has more or less characteristic than other
• It can not answer how much more or how much less

Example: Rank the attributes

Attribute Rank
Ranking in class: while choosing a
1. Shashi Food Quality restaurant for dinner.
2. Mohan Prices
3. Krishna
Menu Variety
Ambience
Service
 Ordinal
• Ranks can not be added, multiplied, subtracted or divided
• Difference in score has no meaning

• Uses
– Quality ranking, ranking of teams, ranking of preferences of color, soft drinks, socio-economic status,
occupational status etc.

• How to analyze?
– Median
– Percentile
– Quartiles
– Rank Correlation
– + all analysis of nominal scale
 Interval
• Next higher to ordinal scale
• Difference in score has meaningful interpretation

• Example: How important is price to you while buying a car?

Least Important Unimportant Neutral Important Most Important
1 2 3 4 5

How do you rate the work environment of your organization?

Very Good Good Neutral Bad Very Bad
5 4 3 2 1
 Interval
• Difference has meaningful interpretation but ration does not have meaningful interpretation

Very Unlikely Unlikely Neutral Likely Very Likely

Scale A 1 2 3 4 5
Scale B 0 1 2 3 4
Scale C -2 -1 0 1 2
 Interval
• Numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided

• How to analyze?
– Mean
– Standard Deviation
– Correlation
– T-test
– Z-test
– Regression Analysis
– Factor Analysis
– + all analysis of ordinal scale and nominal scale
 Ratio
• Highest level of measurement
• Ratio of measurement is meaningful

• Example:
– How many chemist shops are there in your locality?
– How much distance you need to travel from your home to college?

• Uses:
– Weight, distance, income, sales etc.

• How to analyze?
– Coefficient of variance + geometric mean + harmonic mean + all other analysis of nominal, ordinal and
interval scale
 SUMMARY
Scale Characteristic Examples Permissible Statistics

Numbers are used to label Players of team India,

Nominal %, Mode, Chi-Square
and classify objects Caste, Religion, Gender etc.

Numbers indicate relative

position of object. Preference ranking, Social Percentile, Quartile,
Ordinal
Difference in magnitude Class etc. Median, Rank Correlation
cant be known.
Correlation, t-test, z-test,
Difference is meaningful,
Interval Attitude, Opinion etc. ANOVA, regression, factor
ratio is not.
analysis

Age, Income, Market G. Mean, H. Mean, Coeff.

Ratio Ratio is meaningful
Share, Sales etc. Of variance
MOTIVATION RESEARCH
 WHAT IS MOTIVATION RESEARCH?

• Motivation Research is used to obtain a better understanding of why people

respond as they do to products, ads and various other marketing situations.

• It helps to expose hidden motives.

• It concentrates on emotional or hidden stimuli to consumer action.

 OBJECTIVES
• Motivation research is to discover
– underlying motives,
– desires,
– instincts and
– emotions
TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION RESEARCH

Projective Depth
Techniques Interviews
 Projective Techniques
• Test is conducted to establish the personalities of the respondents and their reactions.

• They project or reflect the subject’s thought about what he or she sees, feels, perceives thus
producing the reactions.

There are five most commonly administered tests of this kind namely:
1. Word Association Test
2. Sentence Completion Test
3. Story Completion Test
4. Third Person Test
5. Pictorial Techniques
 WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
• Word association test is a list of words ranging from twenty-five to seventy-five is given.

• The word suggested by the researcher is to be associated by the respondent by the most fitting word he thinks.

• This is widely used to measure the effect of the brand names and advertising messages.

• Here, it is not possible to give all the seventy-five words. On illustrative basis, let us have fifteen words:

1. Perfume……….. 6. Two-wheelers………… 11. Pencils…………

2. Tooth paste 7.Four-wheelers………… 12. Fridges…………………….
3. Hair oil……….. 8. Tyre ……………………… 13. Cupboards…………
4. Shampoo………………………. 9. Glass wares…………. 14. Television………………….
5. Shoes………… 10. Ink……….. 15. Video cassettes………………
 SENTENCE COMPLETION TEST
• Sentence completion tests are designed to discover emotional responses of the respondent.

• It is the easiest, most useful and reliable test to get the correct information in an indirect manner.

• The respondent is asked to complete the sentence given.

For instance, the questions may be:

1. I like instant coffee because……………
2. I use electric kitchen gadgets because………………….
3. I do not use pain-killers like aspirin because……………..
4. I do not like red, brown and black colours because……….

• The way the questions are asked, do not reflect right or wrong answers.

• However, the emotional values and tensions are reflected in the answers so given.
 STORY COMPLETION TEST
• Story is giv en to respondent

• Responde nt needs to complete it

 THIRD PERSON TEST
• The respondent is given a photograph of a third person—may be a friend, a colleague, a neighbour, a star,
a player, a professional etc.

• The researcher is interested in knowing what the third person thinks of an issue as heard through the
respondent.

• It is assumed that the respondent’s answer will reveal his own inner feelings more clearly through the
third person than otherwise it would have been possible.

• Scenario 1 (Normal) : Why don’t you use instant coffee?

• Answer : It does not taste good.

• Scenario 2 (TPT) : Why do you think your neighbor does not use instant coffee?
• Answer : She is lazy, spend-thrift and not a good housewife.
 PICTORIAL TECHNIQUES
1. Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT):
– Consists of set of pictures
– Researcher can draw inferences about personality structure, attitude etc.
 PICTORIAL TECHNIQUES
2. Rorschach test:
– Card hav ing inkblot
– Design is symmetrical but meaningless
– Respon dent has to describe
 Depth Interviews
• Designed to discover underlying motives and desires
• Explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents
• Requires great skills

Example:
1. How do you like to spend your free time?
2. What kind of music/movies do you like?
3. What do you do when you are alone? Do you like being alone?
4. Do you have friends that get mostly A’s in school?
5. Are you close to anyone in your family? Who?
SUMMARY
• Data is a collection of facts

• Two types of data:

– Qualitative data is descriptive information
– Quantitative data, is numerical information
• Discrete data can only take certain values (like whole numbers)
• Continuous data can take any value (within a range)

• Two sources of data:

– Primary : First hand data
– Secondary : Already available data

• Observation : Information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observations

– Structured Vs. Unstructured
– Participant and non-participant
– Controlled and Uncontrolled
• Interview : Presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses.

• Questionnaire : A document containing set of questions logically related to the

problem under study

• Measurement : Assigning numbers or symbols to the characteristics of certain objects

• Scale : Involves creating a continuum on which measurement of objects are located

– Nominal : Lowest level of measurement in which numbers are assigned for purpose of
identification of objects
– Ordinal : Superiority/inferiority can be measured but not intensity
– Interval : Difference in score has meaningful interpretation
– Ratio : Ratio in score has meaningful interpretation
• Classification of Scales:
– Single item vs Multiple item scale
– Comparative Vs Non comparative
– Comparative:
• Paired comparison : Comparison of two or more objects
• Constant Sum : A certain sum is to be allocated to various objects/brands
• Rank Order : Ranking of objects/brand
• Q-sort : Sorting on the basis of similarity of answers
– Non-comparative
• Graphic : Use of graph or smiley
• Itemized :
– Likert : 5 point, agree/disagree scale
– Semantic Differentiation : Two bipolar statements
– Stapel Scale : Measure direction and intensity of attitude.
• Motivation Research : Helps to expose hidden motives
– Word association test : Association of words by respondent
– Sentence completion tests : Complete an incomplete sentence
– Story completion test : Complete an incomplete story
– Third person test : Response from third person’s point of view
– Pictorial techniques : Use of pictures
• Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT): Consists of set of pictures
• Rorschach test: Consists of inkblot