Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture (English Edition)

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Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese

Culture (English Edition)
de Roger J. Davies, Osamu Ikeno
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The Japanese are generally tolerant of ambiguity, so much so that it is considered by many to be characteristic of
Japanese culture. Although the Japanese may not be conscious of aimai, its use is regarded as a virtue in Japan,
and the Japanese language puts more emphasis on ambiguity than most, for to express oneself ambiguously and
indirectly is expected in Japanese society.
people had to live close together in communities in which everyone was well acquainted with one another. The
concept of harmony, or wa, became an important factor in Japanese life, helping to maintain relationships
between members of close-knit communities.
In order to live without creating any serious problems for the group’s harmony, people avoided expressing their
ideas clearly, even to the point of avoiding giving a simple yes or no answer.
If a person really wanted to say no, he or she said nothing at first, then used vague expressions that conveyed the
nuance of disagreement.
When people meet, they first try to determine the group to which the other belongs, such as their school or
company, and their status within that group, rather than their personal traits.
Although this group consciousness has contributed greatly to the economic development of Japan, the need for
strong emotional unity has also resulted in an inability to criticize others openly.
The Japanese think that it is impolite to speak openly on the assumption that their partner knows nothing. They
like and value aimai because they think that it is unnecessary to speak clearly as long as their partner is
knowledgeable. To express oneself distinctly carries the assumption that one’s partner knows nothing, so clear
expression can be considered impolite.
At the bottom of the expression ichiō is the fact that the Japanese hesitate to assert themselves and like to
express themselves ambiguously. This expression is also used to conceal their confusion. This confusion is
caused by their fear that to express oneself clearly could be regarded as a display of superiority towards
others.
Japanese people, too, have their own opinions, but they tend to wait their turn to speak out. If they completely
disagree with a speaker, they will usually listen with an air of acceptance at first, then disagree in a rather vague
and roundabout way.
In Japan, however, if you go against someone and create a bad atmosphere, your relations may break off
completely. People tend to react emotionally, and most are afraid of being excluded from the group.
Whereas the Japanese consider silence as rather good and people generally feel sympathetic toward it, non-
Japanese sometimes feel that it is an indication of indifference or apathy.
The Japanese tend to think that people who express themselves openly and clearly are “childish.” How does this
compare with ways of communicating in other cultures?
Amae, which can be roughly translated as “depending on the benevolence of others,” is “a key concept for
understanding Japanese personality structure”
According to Doi, amaeru, which is the verb form of the noun amae, means to “depend
“dependency on another’s affection” (Daigenkai ; cited in Doi, 1973, p. 167), or “presuming on familiarity in
order to ‘make up to’ the other, or to behave in a self-indulgent manner” (ibid.).
enryo (restraint), giri (social obligation), tsumi (sin), haji (shame)
In other words, in the inner circle, amae is at work and there is no enryo, in the middle zone enryo is present,
Normal infants at the breast have the desire to be close to their mothers, and at the same time “the desire to be
passively loved, the unwillingness to be separated from the warm mother-child circle and cast into a world of
objective ‘reality’” arises in the infant’s mind.
stressed group unity since ancient times.
Do you think that amae is responsible for (or related to) the increasingly serious problems in Japan of
hikikomori (withdrawal from the world) and futōkō (truancy in schools)?
Discuss how the concept of amae is related to the prevalence of “parasite singles” in Japan
Amakudari, which literally means “descent from heaven,” is a typical example. As a political term, it refers to
senior bureaucrats who are allowed to take important positions with private or semiprivate companies after
retirement
The benefits to a firm with amakudari executives can be substantial. The Japanese Highway Service Association,
for example, is a public corporation in which a large number of amakudari officials hold high-ranking positions
(“The System to Sustain Monopoly,” 1996, p. 34). The association is in complete control of its subsidiary
operations and, in fact, has sole responsibility for all highway service facilities in Japan, such as restaurants and
gas stations. Companies that have relations with this public corporation run all such facilities in a monopolistic
fashion, leading to a complete lack of competition. Amakudari officials help to maintain this monopoly.
As far as public investment is concerned, Ikuta (1992, p. 194) points out that the big-three ministries, the
Ministry of Construction, the Ministry of Transportation, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and
Fisheries, account for 90 percent of all public works spending in Japan. In particular, the Ministry of
Construction has a nearly 70 percent share of these projects, based on highways, housing, and sewerage.
For instance, a major company that has 24.3 percent of its high-ranking positions filled by amakudari executives
received exactly the same percent of orders from the government. This is not a coincidence;
These eventually became known as the zenekon scandals, and led to the arrests of the governors of Sendai,
Miyagi, and Ibaragi (Kuji & Yokota, 1996, p. 16). This corruption was due to structural defects in the Japanese
construction industry.
the least four measures in general terms: dismantling the alliance between government and industry, making
governmental information transparent, raising each bureaucrat’s sense of responsibility, and placing legal
restrictions on amakudari.
Finally, strict legal controls on amakudari should be established. Currently, the Government Officials Act
prohibits bureaucrats from jumping directly into the private sector after retiring from their government posts.
Legally, they must wait two years. However, this policy is only an “official” position.
In Japan, it has become popular today for people to wear blue jeans, to listen to rock music, to eat fast food, to
sleep in a bed, and to eat with a knife and fork.
As a result, many people are beginning to ask where one can find original Japanese culture with its deep sense of
beauty, which was so apparent in the past but which is now rapidly disappearing.
In fact, far from rejecting such apparel, the Japanese openly accepted this new way of dressing since they wished
to become Westernized, and the wearing of yōfuku is now completely natural for all but the very elderly.
Another reason is that those who wear kimonos are now regarded as relatively high-class, or sometimes as
putting on airs, so kimonos have become a kind of formal dress for special occasions such as parties,
symposiums, and ceremonies.
Hōgaku, or traditional Japanese music, is also heard much more rarely in Japan these days.
traditional instruments such as the koto, shamisen, or shakuhachi.
One important difference between these two approaches can be found in “the spirit of the art.” Hirayama and
Takashina (1994, pp. 22–23) state, for example, that the Japanese sense of beauty is based on a concept known
as mono no aware, a kind of aesthetic value that comes from feelings, while in Western art, people try to
construct something of beauty with a logic of what is beautiful.
Aware is said to be representative of the Japanese sense of beauty, and it is a term of great subtlety, which is
quite difficult to understand because it relates specifically to the Japanese feeling of appreciating something that
is regarded as worthless.
Aware is thus connected to feelings of regret for things losing their beauty, and paradoxically finding beauty in
their opposite.
The Japanese language is traditionally one that treasures ma, or empty spaces. In these blanks, people find
unmentioned, hidden meanings and try to determine the meaning of the speaker or writer through feeling the
atmosphere created by the words. For many Japanese, there is great joy in this sense of “reading between the
lines.” For instance, Japanese haiku (poems with a pattern of 5-7-5 syllables) must be composed in very few
words,
In Japanese history, the class that had political power and a position of leadership from the end of the twelfth
century to the end of the nineteenth century was the warrior class, called bushi, or samurai, in Japanese. They
appeared as self-defense groups to protect private manors and to maintain public order in the Heian period.
As a result, they had a great influence on Japanese society, and the spirit of the samurai, or bushidō, was an
important factor in molding the Japanese mind.
Although the term was not used until the Edo period, the concept itself was formed in the Kamakura period,
evolving through the adoption of neo-Confucian ideals in the Edo period,
mainly the religious aspects of Japanese life, Zen contributed enormously to building the Japanese character.
Activities that were strongly influenced by Zen included tea ceremony (sadō), flower arrangement (kadō),
haiku, and calligraphy (shodō). In addition, Zen had a great impact on bushidō
“Enlightenment is seen as a liberation from man’s intellectual nature, from the burden of fixed ideas and feelings
about reality.”
It is said that “to experience satori is to become conscious of the Unconscious (mushin or no-mind)” (Suzuki,
1988, p. 220), and mushin is the secret of the martial arts as well as the aesthetic arts in creating a strong
mentality.
When the opponent tries to strike you, your eyes at once catch the movement of his sword and you may strive to
follow it. But as soon as this takes place, you cease to be master of yourself and you are sure to be beaten. . . .
Therefore, do not even think of yourself. (Ibid., pp. 95–96)
proper human relationships as the basis of society.

“Samurai education was developed, in order to provide the ethos and the skills appropriate to an official
career. . . . [T]hey were deemed to need ‘correct’ moral attitudes if they were to play a part in government.”
In summary, Confucianism flourished with the support of the samurai in the Edo period, and Confucian
concepts, such as loyalty and humanism, permeated samurai society and gradually spread to the general public,
resulting in the continuing existence of strong Confucian beliefs in modern Japan.
“Die rather than disgrace yourself”
As this case suggests, seppuku, or suicide by self-disembowelment, was the most honorable death for a samurai.
fidelity, justice, integrity, and honor, still remained strong in the Meiji era
BUSHIDŌ IN MODERN TIMES As mentioned above, it is claimed that the spirit of bushidō as a
Japanese trait hardly exists today; however, some characteristics of bushidō can be still found in the
martial and aesthetic arts, which follow certain forms (kata) that are practiced repeatedly until
practitioners master the form and enter the state of “no-mind.”
Unfortunately, bushidō loyalty has also led to the Japanese overworking, which sometimes ends in death
(karōshi) as people try to show how they are doing their best for their company and bosses through working
hard.
it is becoming difficult to find this spirit among the young, many of whom have no respect for their teachers and
no manners in public.
Silence, or chinmoku, in particular, can be viewed as a communicative skill, not just a form of emptiness
between spoken words.
“Silence can be a matter of saying nothing and meaning something.”
The words haragei and ishin denshin symbolize Japanese attitudes toward human interactions in this regard.
people can communicate with each other through telepathy.
Truthfulness, sincerity, straightforwardness, or reliability are allied to reticence. Thus a man of few words is
trusted more than a man of many words.
Zen training is designed to teach that truth cannot be described verbally, but can exist only in silence. Traditional
Japanese arts and the spirit of dō (the “way” or “path”) reflect this characteristic silence. Japanese
music, for example, is said to contain ma, meaning “intervals between sounds,”
Similarly, in kabuki dramas and Noh plays, it is the silence between the lines that expresses tension, excitement,
and the climax. Dō practices such as shodō (calligraphy) and kadō (flower arrangement) also emphasize
quietude and a grave atmosphere in which a controlled attitude contained within silence leads learners to
the development of skill and success.
“The nail that sticks out will be hammered down”
Silence occurs when people have nothing to say, of course, but it does not always mean that they have no ideas.
Silence is commonly thought to indicate thoughtfulness or hesitation in trying to find a good way to
communicate smoothly;
“warm family members” in promoting a medicine rather than to clearly explain its efficacy because this tends to
be felt as “wordy” or “pushy”
the couple] are in love but too embarrassed to express their feelings in speech”
protect one’s position or to conceal facts when someone has done something wrong or feels guilty.
kusai mono niwa futa (“to sweep the dirt under the carpet”),
In Japan, a man of few words is considered a thoughtful person and is trusted more than a man of many words.
In the distant past, Japan was a matrilineal society
and there were many female leaders.
The most important characteristic of medieval times, known in Japan as the Kamakura and Muromachi periods,
was the development of the ie system, in which social and political priority was given to men.
They were expected not only to obey their husbands but also to be strong, as wives of warriors, in supporting
their husbands and in running the family during wars.
It was only after World War II that all people had equal rights guaranteed by the new constitution, regardless of
sex.
Compared with most Western countries, the position of Japanese women in society is still low, a fact that is
often pointed out in this increasingly international world.
Confucian adage says, for example, that a woman should in youth obey her father, in maturity her husband, and
in old age her son.
term husband in Japanese, most wives use the word shujin, which consists of two kanji meaning “main person.”
However, despite this literal meaning of “a woman who exceeds men,” it often sounds negative in Japanese
because it carries a connotation of lacking femininity, and such women are usually disliked.
Hako-iri-musume is an expression that may be translated as “daughters-in-a-box,” which refers to daughters who
are brought up very carefully by their parents as if they were some kind of treasure.
called urenokori, which usually indicates a situation where goods or vegetables are left unsold.
In terms of sexual mores, originally sex between men and women in Japan was freer, more natural, and healthier
In the Meiji era, a new idea that unmarried females should be virgins began to spread among the people, and
young women were brought up more strictly with regard to sexual matters
Today, the nature of arranged marriages is changing, however, and they remain one of the few chances men and
women have to get to know each other in the extremely busy lives of the modern Japanese.
In short, contact between the sexes is quite limited in Japan.
In Japan, when women take even short breaks from work, such as maternity leave, it is very difficult for them to
return to their former positions.
Traditional Japanese ways of thinking and living, which date back to Confucian morality in the Edo period, are
still easily seen in the family system.
willing to play their own roles in maintaining the household as good wives and mothers (Reischauer, 1977, p.
232), and these days, many wives are beginning to take an active interest in networking and volunteer activities,
higher average age for first marriages, a decrease in the birthrate, and an increase in the number of single people.
However, conventional ideas such as “men outside and women inside” still exist in society and are supported
unconsciously by many people.
A husband and wife sometimes call each other otōsan (father) and okāsan (mother), and talk to each other
with very few words
a policy that is known as tanshinfunin (i.e., a job transfer made without one’s family).
The concept of dō is thus deeply rooted in the Japanese way of thinking, both traditional and modern,
illustrating many of the most significant cultural values of Japan and providing important insights into the
Japanese way of learning.
Taoism is thought to have originated with the ideas of Lao-tzu in the fifth century BC, and the Tao (or dō in
Japanese) is a key notion in all Chinese thought—literally, it means “way,” but also the Way to be
followed, and by extension, a code of behavior and doctrine,
Kamakura period. In fact, the ultimate synthesis of Taoism and Buddhism was realized in the Ch’an tradition,
and in Japan, Zen soon became associated with the most important aspects of medieval Japanese culture.
Zen monks engaged not only in religious activities but also in diplomacy and the creative arts,
Zen was introduced into Japan c. AD 1200 by the Buddhist monk Eisai, who founded the Rinzai sect, known for
its strict meditational system and use of kōans, or enigmatic, paradoxical, nonlogical questions. Another
school of Zen, the Sōtō sect, was founded by Dogen, a disciple of Eisai.
Based on mondōs, or brief dialogues between master and disciple, Zen’s particular method of instruction
entails simply pointing to the truth, the “eternal now,” without
(Claiborne, 1993, p. 76). In all forms of activity, Zen emphasizes the importance of acting naturally, gracefully,
and spontaneously in whatever task one is performing, an attitude that has greatly influenced all forms of
cultural expression in Japan.
equanimity,
The characteristics most often associated with the traditional Japanese arts are keishikika (formalization), kanzen
shugi (the beauty of complete perfection), seishin shūyō (mental discipline), and tōitsu (integration and
rapport with the skill).
Common expressions in Japanese reflect these steps: kata ni hairu (follow the form), kata ni jukutatsu suru
(perfect the form), and kata kara nukeru (go beyond the form). All practice takes place in an atmosphere of
quietude, obedience, and respect, mirroring the absolute obedience and respect of the master-student relationship.
The purpose of such discipline is “not only to learn new skills but also to build good character and a sense of
harmony in the disciple”
wabi, or the contrast of refinement, simplicity, and rusticity.

Thus, the ideas of simplicity, perfection, discipline, and harmony with nature,
There are also changes taking place in this way of thinking, however, and people are starting to put more stock
in the free creation of ideas rather than in conforming to established patterns, although, generally speaking,
standards that have become established are still considered more important than originality in Japan.
They value in their literature not clear analysis, but artistic suggestiveness and emotional feeling. The French
ideal of simplicity and absolute clarity in writing leaves them unsatisfied. They prefer complexity and
indirection as coming closer to the truth.
“[R]ather than questioning and challenging their teacher, they listen silently and politely, taking notes . . .
[which] they do their best to memorize . . . and to repeat . . . in their exams”
Even today, the Japanese are often said to be diligent, sometimes to the point of being workaholic,
the concept of gambari is now changing, and the term is losing much of its traditional strength, especially among
the young.
Gambaru is a frequently used word in Japan, with the meaning of doing one’s best and hanging on. For example,
students gambaru (study hard) in order to pass entrance examinations. Athletes also gambaru (practice hard) to
win games or medals.
“Please keep up your hard work until your goals are achieved.”
insist on oneself.
to work hard and patiently, (2) to insist on having one’s way, and (3) to occupy one place and never leave.
a guante in Spanish;
not to work gives the Japanese an unpleasant feeling.
They tend to think that having free time is wasteful, even shameful, and feel uneasy.
(1993, pp. 159–160) points out, many Japanese men do not know what to do with themselves after they retire,
since their purpose in living had always been to work.
the person who can relax and even make a joke in a serious situation is well considered.
François Mitterand, the former president of France, lowered the retirement age from sixty-five to sixty, and this
reform was considered one of the most important during his ten years of political power.
and equal opportunities in raising one’s social class.
encouragement of studying”), which was promulgated in 1872, about 80 percent of children had the opportunity
to go to school.
which has been increasing year by year. Businessmen are often forced to work late at night without breaks or
holidays, and as a result, some of them die of heart attacks or strokes.
people in Japan are easily influenced by others because of the importance of groupism,
If pressed to define it, giri involves caring for others from whom one has received a debt of gratitude and a
determination to realize their happiness, sometimes even by self-sacrificing. (Gillespie & Sugiura, 1996, p. 150)
This custom of returning something for goodwill is called giri
“if you receive a present from someone, you should return something which is of equal value”
Chinese religious ritual was thus transformed into a custom of gift exchange in Japan, and this habit “remains
strongly entrenched to preserve the harmony of human relationships”
Haragei is a well-known concept in Japanese culture, but it is generally unfamiliar to non-Japanese and is often
misunderstood by them. Hara literally means “stomach” or “belly,” and gei is “art.”
In other words, haragei is a way of exchanging feelings and thoughts in an implicit way among the Japanese.
For example, if someone wants to go out to eat sushi and asks a friend to go along, and this friend actually does
not want to go but thinks it rude to refuse the invitation, he or she may say yes hesitatingly, expecting that this
reticence will be noticed. Thus, people depend on the sensitivity of others to understand the real messages in
social interactions.
“intuitive understanding, without the use of words or signs, a peculiarly Japanese form of telepathic
communication, as a result of some intimate relationship or bond”
heart, whereas in Japan, it is the stomach, or hara.
“Words are the root of all evil.”
Personal space in Japanese human relationships can be symbolized by two words that describe both physical and
psychological distance between individuals: hedataru and najimu.
illustrating in a symbolic way, this infringement of personal space.
whereby women were supposed to show their obedience to their husbands by walking a certain distance behind
them.
For example, “the Japanese family builds mutual trust by simply staying together rather than having
conversations.
One such set of concepts, which is fundamental to Japanese life, is honne and tatemae.
Honne is one’s deep motive or intention, while tatemae refers to motives or intentions that are socially-tuned,
those that are shaped, encouraged, or suppressed by majority norms.
one’s superficial words are called tatemae, while one’s actual intentions are called honne.
taking honne and tatemae for granted in daily life because it is considered a virtue not to directly express one’s
real feelings and intentions.
such as a dislike of direct expression and the importance of harmony and ceremony in Japanese life.
For example, when a person is visiting someone’s house in Japan and it becomes time for supper, people will
often say, “Won’t you dine with us?” But this is not really an invitation; rather it is a subtle hint that it is time to
go home.
“Thank you very much, but I am not hungry.” This type of behavior is formulaic in Japanese life.
In Japan, there has also been, since ancient times, a great respect for harmony, called the spirit of wa.
When you are invited to go out drinking in the West, you can generally decline the invitation by explaining the
real reason why you cannot attend (i.e., honne). But in Japan you usually have to tell a white lie as a form of
politeness (i.e., tatemae).
Japanese word ie has a variety of meanings: (1) a building that is used as a residence, (2) a family or household,
(3) a group that consists of a family
define ie as “a patrilineage, a network of households related through their respective heads, comprising main
houses, branch houses, and the branches of branch houses traced down through generations.” Though there are
differences in the ie
In addition, one’s ancestors were believed to become hotoke (or Buddhas) after death, because in Buddhism,
hotoke represents the supreme existence of a being that has reached the stage of spiritual enlightenment.
Even today, Japanese houses have butsudan (family altars) for this kind of worship,
However, as Kawashima (2000, p. 156) points out, these elements of patriarchism in the ie system were much
stronger in the families of samurai than in those of farmers or artisans.
The position of women was low in the ie system, since it was believed that they were inferior to men. Even if
they married well, women were in a weak position because they could be sent away for any reason.
According to Kawashima (ibid., p. 37), the Japanese adoption system had two main goals: (1) to obtain an heir
to succeed to the ownership of the land and property, and (2) to ensure the performance of proper rites for the
sake of the family’s ancestors.
too many offspring could also endanger the ie, as they would consume the resources of the household without
contributing to its present and future existence.
Adoption . . . has long been recognized in Japan as an alternative way to obtain a successor, and thus a family
could limit the number of children without endangering the line.
Because the ie of samurai were strongly affected by Confucian thought, they had a fixed formal order that was
influenced by a long history and tradition.
a samurai thus had to maintain the fame and dignity of his ie,
As Hanley (p. 138) states “the ie or family system that developed during the Tokugawa period was essentially a
corporate unit for farmers;
First, according to this law, the head of the household was given legal power over other family members.
The present civil code prescribes that a husband and wife have equal rights, and both marriage and divorce need
only the consent of both partners, with inheritances also divided equally. The family register was also revised to
reflect these changes in individual rights.
On the other hand, women still tend to avoid eldest sons when they marry, because the eldest son has to take
care of his parents in the ie system.
It is hard to imagine from the present state of industrialized Japan that Japanese society was controlled by
samurai until about 150 years ago.
Meiji Restoration marked the start of modern Japan,
In response, it has been claimed that Japan had a good foundation for accepting Western technology because in
the Tokugawa period both cottage industries and financial systems were quite well developed.
Japan has a long-established tradition of adopting elements of “foreign culture” and adapting them
harmony two of Japan’s earliest religions: Shinto and Buddhism.
In Shinto, the concept of deity is found in aspects of nature, such as mountains, waterfalls, stones, and natural
phenomena like thunder and typhoons, as well as in the worship of ancestors.
Shinto contains no absolute sense of values, such as “the words and rules of God” in the Judeo-Christian
tradition, and
With time, however, people noticed that if they believed in Buddhism, the emperor system was denied, for it
was through original Shinto myths that the emperor’s family maintained its position of the highest status in
Japan.
In the seventh century, Prince Shotoku, who was a nephew of Emperor Suiko, occupied the regency and
discovered a way of permitting Buddhism and the emperor system to coexist, along with another belief system
adopted from China, Confucianism. He stated that “Shinto is the trunk, Buddhism is the branches, and
Confucianism is the leaves” (Sakaiya,
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but they also developed the habit of adopting only the most useful borrowings from other nations. This is the
process of iitoko-dori.
Tropicalismo canibalismo brasil
Iitoko-dori can be seen most easily in the way technology has been adopted into Japan,
As a result of a long history of iitoko-dori, the Japanese are able to change their sense of values in a short time
and with little difficulty, and in this way, it is possible for society to be productively efficient.
in Japan, even if people know that something is wrong, it is sometimes difficult for them to defend their
principles, because rather than being absolute, these principles are relative and are easily modified,
In Japan, wedding ceremonies generally follow a Shinto style, while funerals are Buddhist.
In Japan, Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism have existed together in harmony for many centuries, whereas in
many other countries, religious beliefs are the source of much bloodshed.
“when we look at traditional Japanese arts—the No or Kabuki, kendo, waka, haiku, ikebana [sic]— all of them
seem highly formal.
Moreover, in many modern sports and hobbies in Japan, such as cycling and oil painting, “we find exactly the
same attitude.”
widespread criticism of the Japanese as simply copying others, as well as to much stereotyping of the Japanese
as being “intellectually not very creative” (ibid., p. 200):

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How do the Japanese view ambiguity and indirect communication?

How do the Japanese view ambiguity and indirect communication?

What is the concept of 'amae' and how does it relate to Japanese culture?

What is the concept of 'amae' and how does it relate to Japanese culture?

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enryo (restraint), giri (social obligation), tsumi (sin), haji (shame)

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stressed group unity since ancient times.

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traditional instruments such as the koto, shamisen, or shakuhachi.

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Destaque (Amarelo) | Página 42

Destaque (Amarelo) | Página 42

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Destaque (Amarelo) | Página 43

proper human relationships as the basis of society.

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Destaque (Amarelo) | Página 46

“Die rather than disgrace yourself”

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