MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Abstract

The Module in Enhancing the Reading Comprehension of Senior High School

Students was developed based on research, reading theories, and with reference to the

SHS textbooks and reading materials. This module consisting of a diverse collection of

texts, stories, poems from different online sources and textbooks aimed to enhance the

reading comprehension level of the students by providing specific, achievable, and well-

described module objectives; appropriate, meaningful, and challenging learning

activities; and a well-organized learning content with useful exercises. Subsequently, it

helped the students practice their reading skills for each unit of the module (Literal,

Inferential, and Evaluative Units). Each unit of the module is divided into three chapters

beginning with Easy chapter, then Average chapter, and lastly, the Difficult chapter.

Twenty-four Senior High School students were chosen to be the respondents of this

study based from their scores in the diagnostic test. This study employed a descriptive

research. The researchers identified the level of comprehension of the students. Then,

they proceeded with the intervention program. The developed module was used as a tool

in this research. Results of the post-test in each unit indicated an increase in students’

overall scores. According to the results of the post-tests, all of the students have

improved their scores and skills in the three levels of comprehension.

Keywords: Reading Comprehension, Instructional Module, Senior High School, Pre-

test, Post-test
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Introduction

Reading in the second language, English, to many Filipino students is problematic.

Based on the article "A nation of non-readers by Juan Luz" (2007), Filipino culture was

mainly passed on through word of mouth and not through written works.

A survey conducted in 2003 by the Philippine government has found out that Filipinos in

rural and urban areas showed low literacy rate and thus comes with poor reading skill.

Another, the latest figures from the 2008 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass

Media Survey (FLEMMS) stated that a number of Filipinos, aged 10-64 years old, who

do not understand what they read, has grown to 20.1 million. According to Mariam

(1991) she proposed that a major avenue of learning is through reading. Yet, if we do not

understand what we are reading, we cannot learn or remember it. Poor reading skills

results to poor learning. Readers should remember and make sense of the text they read.

They need to connect their new ideas and understanding to the old ones. Otherwise, they

will just see letters, symbols, and signs.

Reading comprehension is the act of combining information in a passage with prior

knowledge in order to construct meaning. In addition, reading comprehension can be

defined as a thinking process through which readers become aware of an idea,

understand it in terms of their experiential background, and interpret it in relation to their

own needs and purposes (Khoiriyah, 2010). To comprehend, a reader must have a wide

range of capacities and abilities. These include cognitive capacities (e.g., attention,

memory, critical analytic ability, inferencing, visualization ability), motivation (a

purpose for reading, an interest in the content being read, self-efficacy as a reader), and

various types of knowledge (vocabulary, domain and topic knowledge, linguistic and
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

discourse knowledge, knowledge of specific comprehension strategies) (Pardo, 2004).

Koh (1986) stated that understanding the reader’s prior knowledge is invaluably

important. Both the combination of linguistic proficiency and prior knowledge are

important for comprehension.

However, these are hard to develop for a student if he/she does not have sufficient

background and knowledge of the second language.

The reading skill, being the most dominant skill, needs more attention (Gu, 2003).

Though much has been done to enhance students’ reading comprehension as the most

important skill, yet they are not still fully proficient in understanding the text

comprehensibly (Pressley, & Afflerbach, 1995).

Filipino readers encounter words and phrases in the English that they do not understand

or do not know how to read properly. There are several factors contributing to the

diffident of this particular skill. These can be categorized as reader and text factors

(National Reading Panel, 2000). Reader factors include the background knowledge that

readers bring to the reading process as well as the strategies they use while reading. Text

factors include the author’s ideas, the words the author uses to express those ideas, and

how the ideas are organized and presented. Both reader factors and text factors affect

comprehension (Tompkins, 2014).

The ESL teachers are facing difficulty locating and generating suitable reading materials

for ESL students. Using a teaching module to teach the English language as compared to

the traditional method of using a textbook is meant to increase active learning and

improve critical thinking. Another, it is required to an alignment of learning content,

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

objectives, activities and assessments within a module to be considered rigorous, high

quality, and valid (Impara, J. C., 2001), so the reliability of it is also high. Thus, it gives

the lecturer the opportunity for conducting formative assessment in the classroom.

Standardized textbooks have their own styles, and their contents, depth of coverage of

materials, and organization, may affect the teaching and learning environment. The use

of a module presents a more flexible learning environment for both instructors and

learners.

The findings of Pearson and Gallagher (1983) found out that specific module for reading

comprehension help ESL teachers to teach reading skills effectively and allow ESL

students to increase their reading understanding. Also, the findings of the study from the

University of Kansas about Reading Strategies in Social Studies for Connecting and

Relating Thematic Concepts that stated that reading comprehension instruction must be

responsive and intensive which means that sufficient time, used wisely and with high

student engagement, is provided direct instruction for students to master the reading

skills and strategies they need.

This research aimed to develop a module in enhancing the reading comprehension in L2

of the Senior High Grade-12 Agricultural Fisheries students of Pampanga State

Agricultural University. What made the researchers interested in this study was the need

of more effective reading modules and materials of the students. They were the focus of

this study, for their teachers perceived that they were the most in need of these because

they have low reading comprehension level.

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

This study assessed their knowledge in L2 and developed a module that was based from

research, reading theories, and instruction that could help them enhance their reading

skills and comprehension.

Instructional Module

Fisher and Frey (2003) stated in their ‘Gradual Release Model’ that the reading modules

or specific instructions assist the ESL teachers and students as well to a great extent in

reading comprehension. The modules developed by other researchers such as Reading

Comprehension Instructional Modules Project developed by Brunk-Chavez (2008) for

The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), Middle School Reading modules developed

by Virginia Department of Education, United States of America (2008), English

Language Learning Modules developed by Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2007)

and Read Write Inc. Comprehension Modules: Oxford University Press developed by

Miskin, Brittain, Munton, and Archbold (2007) are remarkable and useful. These

modules are effective and can be utilised for teaching the English language reading

skills. Brunk-Chavez (2008) developed a set of 14 instructional modules for the teachers

and students at college level. The major goal of these modules was to provide effective

strategies to improve reading comprehension. All the modules provide comprehensive

ideas on teaching reading comprehension. Virginia Department of Education, United

States of America (2008) developed Middle School Reading Modules for reading

comprehension. Multidimensional goals such as to make inferences, predictions, and

generalizations, locate pieces of information from the text, identify the main ideas and

supporting details, summarise and draw conclusions from the text, identify different

types of test questions, character traits and figurative language and imagery, trace out
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

the purposes of the text by using graphic organisers, and find the meaning of unfamiliar

words from the text are set in these modules. English Language Learning Modules:

Ministry of Education, Te Kete Ipurangi Wellington, New Zealand. Ministry of

Education, New Zealand developed 5 different modules. These modules provide

developing materials regarding the English language learning (Ministry of Education

New Zealand, 2007). These modules are developed to cover the English language skills

such as oral and writing skills, particularly focusing reading comprehension as well.

Therefore, module 3, 4, and 5 are directly related to the present study because they

discuss mainly about reading comprehension.

Reading Comprehension Modules were developed based on research, reading theories,

and with reference to the mandated English Language Curriculum and Syllabus. A set of

6 modules consisting of a diverse collection of texts from different sources of varying

text length were developed based on READS (Reading Evaluation and Decoding

System) Assessment Kit previously developed by Abdul Rashid et al. (2010).

Reading Comprehension

The number of Filipinos, aged 10-64 years old, who do not understand what they read,

has grown to 20.1 million. This is based on the latest figures from the 2008 Functional

Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS). Dr. Ricardo Ma. Nolasco,

head of 170+ Talaytayan MLE Inc., a coalition of education reform advocates

throughout the country, said that counting and comprehension skills among Filipinos

remain dismally and alarmingly low. Reading Comprehension according to Basaraba

(2013) is a complex process that requires different building-block skills. Aikat also

states that reading plays a very important role in enhancing the minds of young
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

individuals, developing their “capacity for focused attention” as well as their

“imaginative growth” (p.699). Reading Comprehension is defined as the level of

understanding of a text or message. This understanding comes from the interaction

between the words that are written and how they trigger knowledge outside the text or

message (Rayner, Foorman, Perfitti, Pesetsky & Seidenberg, 2001). The reading skill,

being the most dominant skill, needs more attention (Gu, 2003). According to Al-

Khateeb (2010:5) "reading comprehension is considered the real core for the reading

process; and a big process around which all other processes are centered. Comprehension

is the peak of the reading skills and the basis for all reading processes. It is viewed by

some researchers as the ultimate objective of the reading process, since he who does not

comprehend what he reads is considered as if he has not "read". Imam (2010) reported

that DepEd regarded reading comprehension as the single factor which caused

frustrations of students to perform better in academic subjects especially when the used

medium is English Language. The present study shed light on some gray area from

previous research by the DepEd and DOST-SEI (2004) which generally pointed reading

comprehension as a culprit without identifying any particular reading comprehension

skills like in understanding Mathematical/Science problems and in English. Previous

studies provide a solid ground for the present investigation that such reading

comprehension skills play a vital role to educational success (Callahan & Clark, 1988;

Bender, Boon, Fore III, Spencer, & Stone, 2008; Corcoran & Mamalakis, 2009). Reading

ability has always been viewed as critical to academic success (Grabe & Stoller, 2002)

and studies have recognised the importance of reading in academics.

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

According to Ivar Braten and Helge Stromso, reading is often described as an interactive

process, where comprehension is a result of joint efforts from the author and the reader

(2007:196). Reading strategies and learning strategies are tightly intertwined, and what is

considered vital in learning processes is further applicable to reading comprehension

(Roe 2014:84). Many teachers seem to have taken for granted that the students’ reading

comprehension will increase automatically as they get more practice (Roe 2014:12).

The literature has revealed that awareness and monitoring of one’s comprehension

processes are important aspects of skilled readers (Alexander & Jetton 2000; Makhtari

&Reichard 2002). The same authors further point out that such awareness and

monitoring processes are often referred to in the literature as metacognition, which can

be thought of as the knowledge of the reader’s cognition about reading and the self-

control mechanisms they exercise when monitoring and regulating text comprehension.

In addition, studies conducted on reading instruction and reading strategies indicate that

strategy instruction with a focus on comprehension monitoring can help less skilled

readers overcome their difficulties in reading (Franco-Fuenmayor, Kandel-Cisco &

Padron 2008; Salataci & Akyel 2002; et al.) Comprehension is not always effortless and

fast, of cpurse. When beginning readers struggle over individual word reading is slowed

to deepr levels of comprehension are seriously compromised (Graesser, 2003). Lao he

added that deep comprehension requires inferences, linking ideas coherently, scrutinizing

the validity of claims with a critical stance, and sometimes understanding the motives of

authors (Graesser, 2003). Comprehending text is clearly challenging. First, it involves a

series of subprocesses, such as word decoding, lexical access, syntactic processing, and

higher level inference based on the discourse context (Vellutino, 2003). Many readers
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

experience difficulty in constructing a text base understanding, particularly when they

encounter unfamiliar words and/or complex syntactic structures (Rowe, Ozuru, and

McNamara, 2006).

Senior High School

Senior High School (SHS) covers the last two years of the K to 12 program and includes

Grades 11 and 12. Students undergo immersion, which may include earn-while-you-

learn opportunities; to provide them relevant exposure and actual experience in their

chosen track (Official Gazette, 2012). The K-12 program offers a decongested 12-year

program that gives students sufficient time to master skills and absorb basic

competencies. The issue of poverty has played an important determining role in the

opportunities available to all (McQuerrey, 2006). Most of the students lack adequate

information regarding various careers hence the choices that they make are embedded in

their perception of the ideal job and the subjects they study in secondary school (Taylor

et al, 2004). Some of the factors that may affect the performance of the student is about

the pressure. Still other parents apply pressure on their offspring to strive for particular

high-profile careers, feeling they are encouraging their children to reach high

(McQuerrey, 2006). Parental support and encouragement are important factors that have

been found to influence career choice. Children may choose what their parents desire

simply to please those (Taylor et al, 2004). Pummel, Harwood and Lavallee (2008)

report that the external influences that help to shape an individual’s career choice are

also influenced by significant others through social support from peers. Classmates also

play an important role in the formation of student’s achievement, related beliefs and

values, even if these classmates do not always correspond with the peer group of leisure-
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

time friends (Frenzel, Goets, Pekrun & Watt, 2010). “According to Aquino, the K-12

programme will pave the way for an ever brighter future for young Filipinos by

equipping them with basic education up to international standards.”

The present study aimed to develop a module that can help the Grade 12 students

enhance their reading comprehension skills.

Today, there is an ever-expanding body of research studies examining both the nature of

the reading process and various instructional methods in reading. Many learners in the

high schools demonstrate a low level of strategy knowledge and lack of metacognitive

control (Dreyer 1998; Strydom 1997). This review was a description of representative

studies deemed to be of interest to classroom teachers of reading. The results in the

related studies showed that there is a need in proposing module to improve the level of

reading comprehension of the students, decrease their difficulties in understanding L2

and increase their higher order thinking skills. Although many researchers developed

reading modules, it is still not proven to be effective to some students who have

difficulties when it comes in reading, for students who have different level of reading

comprehension skills and intelligences as Howard Gardner proposed in his theory which

is about multiple intelligences.

Based from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 2007, since reading is an

interactive process, it is important to understand those interacting factors that contribute

to learners' development of effective reading strategies and desire to read. In other

words, it is important to understand the context in which reading occurs. While we

recognize the difficulty of considering in isolation factors that exist as part of a broad

context, we examine the development of reading comprehension processes in terms of

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

three primary influences: learner characteristics, text characteristics, and the social

context in which learning to read occurs.

The decision to treat each separately reflects the desire to give each a complete hearing

rather than any claim that they are operationally separate entities. Students can hardly

comprehend the text if they do not have any background knowledge beforehand or

activating their prior knowledge about a certain topic. While the degree to which such

texts are written and structured in ways that are sensitive to readers' background

knowledge, expectations and instructional interventions for enhancing learning from text

can motivate the students to read a certain text. The results of a similar study conducted

by Ilustre (2011) in the Philippines showed that amongst the three subscales of

metacognitive reading strategies, only problem solving strategies correlated positively

with text comprehension. And lastly, there should be a focus or sense of understanding

on the students’ cultural background, of what they have learned in their previous levels,

what tools and methods utilized in the process and the language used or taught in the

teaching and learning process. It is because these factors have major impact on reading

instruction as stated from the new study in language magazine.

How readers extract meaning from a text has long been a focus of attention because the

process of extracting meaning gives learners invaluable information about readers’

cognitive processes during reading (Salataci & Akyel 2002). In addition, Oxford (1990)

points out that it appears that successful language students have the ability to orchestrate

and combine particular types of strategies in effective ways according to their own

learning needs.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Some of the causes of the failure in educating the students with regard to the

enhancement of the reading comprehension level of their level seem to be similar in

studies conducted in different countries. Some of the causes include lack of

contextualization of the lessons, lack of connection between school and community, lack

of integration of one’s cultural values in the classroom, lack of understanding of the way

each student learns, lack of understanding of students’ needs, lack of vision for their

empowerment, lack of understanding of the support system of learners among others and

many more. (Fiagoy, 2010)

Developing tailored and linguistically appropriate educational programmes, activities, or

even curriculum for 21st century learners should be a priority. The most effective way to

do so is to work in a community-based, bottom-up manner to ensure that infrastructure,

pedagogical materials, curricula and even the language used in implementation meet the

sometimes unique needs of the teachers and the senior high students.

Teachers should at least know how to facilitate learning from basic to complicated

levels. Helping them to understand and use the second language is not an easy thing

especially there are prior dialects or languages taught before. But if there are materials

which they could interconnect their particular language such as technologies, could

lessen the burden. As individual enhance his/her reading comprehension skills, he/she

can better understand others. One way to help these students when it comes to dealing

with other people is to improve their reading comprehension using strategy instruction

and this proposed module which is exactly about the reading comprehension for grade

eleven students.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

The completed studies disclosed that the level of reading comprehension of students

especially in L2 is utmost importance. Children who were engaged with only one

language have more difficulties in understanding their second language (L2), especially

when their L2 is not properly used and practiced. Considering factors like the amount of

time, strategies used both by the teacher and students and the appropriateness of the

techniques used could be significant factors influencing Grade 12 students reading

comprehension.

The findings of the current studies and the research administered both aimed to improve

and increase the level of reading comprehension of students with the use of reading

materials.

Both explained that one way to help students learn their L2 was to design a module that

would provide effective strategies which will improve their reading comprehension and

decrease their difficulties in understanding L2.

This study proposed a module that promoted success of the Grade 12 students, and it

might provide school administrators vital information about the need, concerning both

students and teachers in order to improve the teaching-learning language classroom.

This study identified the level of reading comprehension of the Senior High school

students, Grade 12 Agricultural Fisheries A and B, of Laboratory School under the

College of Education who were enrolled at Pampanga State Agricultural University. This

study could also be beneficial to the future researchers. It could serve as a basis and

reference to make their research more informative and reliable.

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Theoretical Framework

Koh (1986) also related understanding to the reader’s prior knowledge and found that a

combination of linguistic proficiency and prior knowledge is important for

comprehension. The lack of either one, according to Koh, is sometimes compensated for

by the presence of the other. Bartlett (1932), that explicit information in a text is

insufficient for the specification of the meaning of that text. Rather, the complete

meaning is constructed by combining information from the various sources that comprise

the context of the text, e.g., prior knowledge, linguistic, situational, and task contexts. Commented [K1]: Tanggalin daw to sabi ni Ma’am Evy

Schema Theory was first proposed in 1932 by the Cambridge memory researcher, Sir

Frederic Barlett, and has been considerably expanded since. A schema is a set of

interrelated features which we associate with an entity or concept (Barlett, 1932). Barlett

saw schema as a critical determinant of first remembering and later recalling meaningful

material. However, these ideas were dismissed as nebulous and his research methods as

anecdotal by his critics. It was left to a new generation of psychologists and cognitive

scientists to rediscover the importance of Barlett’s concept of schema. Theories which

postulate the existence of ‘frames’ (Minsky, 1975) and scripts (Schank and Abelson,

1977) captured in a language and terminology unavailable to Barlett the central

importance of knowledge and understanding to effective cognition. His key assumption

of previous knowledge affecting the processing of new stimuli was illustrated in the

famous “portrait d’homme” series and who spent most of his career at the University of

Cambridge. To Barlett, a schema referred to an organized structure that captures our

knowledge and expectations of some aspect of the world. It is, in other words, a model

of some part of our environment and experience. The schema theory has a big impact in
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

learner’s reading comprehension and it’s all about the prior knowledge of learners. How

will he/she comprehend or understand the context if they don’t have the prior knowledge

about the topic? The researchers chose this theory to help them identify the factors about

the problems of the Senior High school students. Prior knowledge is vital to

comprehension and the developed module of the researchers helped the students with

their problems in their reading comprehension. The schema or the prior knowledge of

the student is very important for them to engage themselves in learning activities. As

Koh (1986) prior knowledge and linguistic proficiency is important for comprehension.

This would all seem to point to the fact that our understanding of a text depends on how

much related schema as readers possess while reading.

Conceptual Framework

In conducting this problem, the researchers were guided by the paradigm shown in

Figure 1.

The purpose of enhancing the reading comprehension level of students was to promote

effective teaching and learning strategies by engaging them in an environment of what

was already familiar to them through application of that knowledge into current

knowledge schemes.

As Schema theory deals with the use of the readers’ prior knowledge to comprehend and

learn from text. The fundamental principle of the schema theory assumes that written

text does not carry meaning by itself. Rather, a text only provides directions for readers

as to how they should retrieve or construct meaning from their previously acquired

knowledge (An, 2013).

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

This study claimed that students in the aged bracket of 10-64 show poor reading

comprehension skills. Thus, they do not understand what they read. A module was

created by the researchers to respond to this claim. It was put to use to help the students

in enhancing their reading comprehension skills. It was also used as a treatment to the

growing number of Filipinos who lack such skill.

Paradigm of the Study

Developed Students’ Profiles

Module

Reading
Comprehension
Level

Figure 1.1 Paradigm of the Study showing the relationship of the variables in the study
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to identify the effectiveness of the module in enhancing the reading

comprehension of the Grade 12 students. Specifically, it aimed to answer the following

questions: (1) How may the profile of the respondents be described in terms of age? (2)

How will the module in reading comprehension be validated by the three faculty experts

in terms of learning objectives, learning content, organization, and learning exercises?

(3) How may the pre-test and post-test scores of the respondents be described? (4) Is

there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the

respondents?

Hypothesis

There is no significant relationship between the age of the students and their level of

reading comprehension.

There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the

students.

Methods

The researchers used the Descriptive method in determining the level of reading

comprehension of the Senior High School, Grade 12 Agricultural Fisheries A and B, of

Laboratory School under the College of Education who were enrolled in Pampanga State

Agricultural University for the effectiveness of the developed module.

Costales (2001) defined Descriptive research as a process of gathering, analyzing,

classifying, and tabulating data about conditions, practices, processes, trends and cause-
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

effect relationships and the adequate interpretation about such data with statistical

treatment.

Respondents

The respondents of the study were the Senior High school students, Grade 12

Agricultural Fisheries A and B, of Laboratory School under the College of Education

who were enrolled in Pampanga State Agricultural University. The researchers chose

these respondents based on the pre-interviews conducted with their professors. The

researchers administered a diagnostic test with all the Grade 12 Agri-Fisheries A and B.

Then, they have arranged the scores from lowest to highest to get the bottom 25. The

chosen students became the respondents of the researchers in evaluating the effectiveness

of the module.

Instruments

Researcher-made questionnaires were used to assess the reading comprehension level of

the students for the pre-tests and post-tests. The questionnaires for the pre-tests and post-

tests had the same difficulty but contained different items. The developed module was

also used for the exercises and activities during intervention. All of the instruments were

validated by three English professors from the College of Education, Pampanga State Commented [K2]: Palitan siguro to ng instructors

Agricultural University.

Procedure

This research started with interviews about the perceptions of the teachers toward the

reading comprehension of the students. Upon knowing their perceptions, the researchers

administered a diagnostic test to identify the students who would score below average.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Then, a module was designed based from the results of the diagnostic test. The bottom

25 became the respondents of the study, and they received a two-hour intervention per

week for a month. Before every unit, a pre-test was conducted to assess their prior

knowledge in a certain level—Literal, Inferential, and Evaluative. Then, at the end of the

activities per unit, a post-test was administered to identify the effectiveness of the

module in each level. All in all, three pre-tests, three post-tests, and nine activities from

the developed module were utilized in this research.

Results and Discussions

Table 1. Age of the respondents

Age F %

14 1 4.17

16 1 4.17

17 14 58.33

18 4 16.67

19 2 8.33

No Response 2 8.33

N=24

Table 1 showed that the age 14 is only composed of 4.17% or 1 respondent same

as the aged 16. 58.33% of the respondents are aged 17. There are 8.33% or 2 of

the respondents that are aged 19, and there are 2 or 8.33% of the respondents that

did not stated their age.

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

This implied that more than half of the respondents were aged 17. There was 1

respondent which was the youngest, age 14, and the oldest were 2 respondents,

age 19.

Based on Table 1, the ages of the respondents were within the age bracket of 10-

64 years old. It was being supported by the latest figures from the 2008

Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS) stating that a

number of Filipinos, aged 10-64 years old, who do not understand what they

read, has grown to 20.1 million.

Table 2.1. Validation of module (Evaluation of Learning Objectives)

Statement Mean Std. Deviation DR

I clearly understand the objectives of each unit in

4.33 0.58 Agree Commented [K3]: Look at the LEGENDS!!!
the module.
The objectives of each unit were specific,
4.33 0.58 Agree Commented [K4]: Look at the LEGENDS!!!
achievable, and relevant.
The expected results of each unit were well-
4.33 0.58 Agree Commented [K5]: Look at the LEGENDS!!!
described.

Over-All Mean 4.33 0.58 Agree Commented [K6]: Look at the LEGENDS!!!

Legend:
Numerical Rating Descriptive Rating
4.21 - 5.00 Strongly Agree
3.41 - 4.20 Agree
2.61 - 4.40 Neutral
1.81 - 2.60 Disagree
1.00 - 1.80 Strongly Disagree

Table 2.1 showed the perceived factors on the validation of the developed

module. Three of the perceived factors under the evaluation of learning

objectives that ranked 4.33 were explaining the characteristics of good learning

objectives – flexible, realistic and specific which focuses on the integration and

application of knowledge that makes learning expectations clear. The evaluation

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

of the learning objectives in the developed module gathered a general weighted

mean of 4.33 which has a descriptive rating of “agree”.

It indicated that the evaluators highly recommend the developed module and

there was no revision, correction, and improvement in terms of learning

objectives and other findings.

These favorable mean results agreed to the findings of Pearson and Gallagher

(1983) who found out that specific module for reading comprehension help ESL

teachers to teach reading skills effectively and allow ESL students to increase

their reading understanding. It is also related to the study of Glaser & Brunstein,

2007; Mooney, Ryan, Uhing, Reid, & Epstein, 2005) emphasizing the importance

of setting learning objectives to support the students in monitoring and assessing

their own progress and development.

Table 2.2. Validation of module (learning content)

Std.
Statement Mean DR Commented [K7]: Look at the LEGENDS!!!
Deviation
The Learning Content of the learning activities is aligned with the
4.33 0.58 Agree
objectives.
The Learning Content of the learning activities is suited to the needs
4.33 0.58 Agree
of the learners
The Learning Content of the learning activities is suited to the level
4.33 0.58 Agree
of understanding of the learners.
The Learning Content of the learning activities is suited to the level
4.67 0.58 Agree
of appreciation of the learners.
The exercises given are useful and complement the objectives of
4.33 0.58 Agree
each unit.

Over-All Mean 4.40 0.53 Agree

Legend:
Numerical Rating Descriptive Rating
4.21 - 5.00 Strongly Agree
3.41 - 4.20 Agree
2.61 - 4.40 Neutral
1.81 - 2.60 Disagree
1.00 - 1.80 Strongly Disagree
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Table 2.2 showed the learning content factor on the validation of the proposed

module. These five learning content factors that ranked 4.33 were illustrating the

alignment of the objectives/expected outcomes of students’ performance and the

activities/learning experiences of each unit of the developed module. The

validation of learning content in the developed module gathered a general

weighted mean of 4.40 which had a descriptive rating of “agree”.

This indicated that the alignment helps ensure that the module content has

accurate learning expectations. It also means that the evaluators highly

recommend the developed module determining its content, learning activities and

resources that had allowed the students to meet the specified learning outcomes.

There was no revision or adjustments needed throughout the learning content of

the module.

This was connected to the study of Impara, J. C. (2001) which explained that it is

required to an alignment of learning content, objectives, activities and

assessments to be considered rigorous, high quality, and valid.

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Table 2.3 Validation of module (organization)

Statement Mean Std. Deviation DR

The learning activities are well-organized in terms of content and Strongly

4.33 0.58
flow. Agree
Strongly
The learning activities are sequenced in a logical manner. 4.33 0.58
Agree

The time given in conducting the learning activities is appropriate. 4.00 0.00 Agree

Strongly
Over-All Mean 4.22 0.38
Agree
Legend:
Numerical Rating Descriptive Rating
4.21-5.00 Strongly Agree
3.41-4.20 Agree
2.61-4.40 Neutral
1.81-2.60 Disagree
1.00-1.80 Strongly Disagree

Table 2.3 showed the ratings of the three English teachers on the validation of the

developed module. Two of the ratings ranked 4.33 for the first and second

statement. A standard deviation of 0.58 had a descriptive rating of “strongly

agree”, and the third statement had a mean of 4.0 and a standard deviation of 0.00

which had a descriptive rating of “agree”. The evaluation of the learning

activities and organization of the developed module gathered a general weighted

mean of 4.22 and a standard deviation of 0.38 which had a descriptive rating of

“strongly agree”.

This implies that the evaluators highly recommend the developed module. The

learning activities were agreed upon as organizationally arranged in terms of

content and flow. These were suited to the needs and level of understanding of

the learners, fitted to the level of appreciation of the learners as these learning

activities were logically sequenced, and that the exercises given were useful and

appropriate to the time given for each unit of the developed module.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

The module for enhancing the reading comprehension of the students was

effective which was being supported by the favorable mean and standard

deviation results agreed to the findings of the study from the University of

Kansas about Reading Strategies in Social Studies for Connecting and Relating

Thematic Concepts which stated that reading comprehension instruction must be

responsive. This module could be an example of instructional accommodation

while the pre-test and post-test from this module were the individualized and

elaborated feedback.

Table 2.4. Validation of module (learning experiences)

Std.
Statement Mean DRCommented [K8]: Look at the LEGENDS!!!
Deviation

I believe learners will enjoy the learning activities. 4.33 0.58 Agree

I find the learning activities challenging and stimulating. 4.00 0.00 Agree

I believe the learning activities are completely aligned to the objectives of

4.33 0.58 Agree
each unit.

I find the activities essential to the needs of the learners. 4.33 0.58 Agree

I find the learning activities easy to conduct but very meaningful. 4.33 0.58 Agree

The materials needed in the learning activities are easy to get. 4.33 0.58 Agree

Over-All Mean 4.28 0.25 Agree

Legend:
Numerical Rating Descriptive Rating
4.21 - 5.00 Strongly Agree
3.41 - 4.20 Agree
2.61 - 4.40 Neutral
1.81 - 2.60 Disagree
1.00 - 1.80 Strongly Disagree

Table 2.4 shows the presumably observable effects on the validation of the

developed module based from the three English teachers. Five of the presumably

observable effects under the evaluation of learning experiences that had a mean
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

of 4.33 and a standard deviation of 0.58 had a descriptive rating of “agree”, and

the other one of the presumably observable effects ranked 4.00 and a standard

deviation of 0.00 had a descriptive rating of “agree”. The evaluation of the

learning experiences in the developed module gathered a general weighted mean

of 4.28 and a standard deviation of 0.25 which had a descriptive rating of agree.

This implied that the evaluators highly recommend the developed module.

Improvement in terms of guided instruction for the teacher will be considered. It

was agreed upon that the developed and used module in the intervention program

clearly explained the understanding of achieving the expected learning

experiences of the students, characteristics to be shown as the learning activities

were being performed, how fairly the activities depend on the learning objectives

for each unit, and the well-described expected results of each unit in the module.

The module for enhancing the reading comprehension of the students was

effective which was being supported by the favorable mean and standard

deviation results agreed to the findings of the study from the University of

Kansas about Reading Strategies in Social Studies for Connecting and Relating

Thematic Concepts that stated that reading comprehension instruction must be

intensive which means that sufficient time, used wisely and with high student

engagement, is provided direct instruction for students to master the reading

skills and strategies they need. Reading comprehension instruction should

involve authentic reading at all stages. Authentic reading involves incorporating a

variety of "real" reading materials, such as books, modules, magazines,

newspapers and journals into the instructional process. Reading comprehension

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

instruction also involves providing opportunities to read for pleasure. Struggling

readers don't read as often or as much as their peers. Reading for enjoyment

should be modeled and encouraged at all grade levels. This requires providing

ample materials to read at their independent reading level and the intervention

program which was administered supported this idea.

Table 3. Pre-test and post-test scores of the respondents

Variables lowest score highest score Mean Std. Deviation DR
Literal 6.00 15.00 9.833 2.681 Below Average
pre-test Inferential 5.00 16.00 9.750 3.566 Below Average
Evaluate 3.00 18.00 12.125 4.057 Below Average
Literal 9.00 18.00 12.792 2.934 Below Average
post-test Inferential 9.00 17.00 13.625 2.143 Below Average Commented [K9]: Aliya pa ba average ini?
Evaluate 4.00 20.00 14.542 3.811 Average
Legend:
Numerical Rating Descriptive Rating
19 – 20 Excellent
17 – 18 Above Average
14 – 16 Average
10 – 13 Below Average
Below 10 Poor

This table showed that the pre-test in the literal level had a mean of 9.833 and

standard deviation of 2. 681. In inferential level, it had the mean of 9.750 and

standard deviation of 3.566. The evaluative level in pre-test showed that it had

the mean of 12.125 and 4.057 for the standard deviation. In post-test, the literal

level showed that the mean was 12.792 and the standard deviation was 2.934.

Inferential level had its mean of 13. 625 and standard deviation of 2.143. Lastly,

the evaluative level of post-test had its mean of 14.543 and standard deviation of

3.811. All the means obtained a descriptive rating of “below average” except the

evaluative level for the post test which got a descriptive rating of average.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

This implied that the scores of the respondents in the post-test were higher than

the scores in the pre-test, and it means their level of reading comprehension has

increased. Hence, the module was effective in enhancing the reading

comprehension of the respondents, although the descriptive ratings were mostly

“below average”. The respondents advanced from their initial level which was

“poor” to “below average”.

The module for enhancing the reading comprehension of the students was

effective which is being supported by the findings of Pearson and Gallagher

(1983) where specific module for reading comprehension help ESL teachers to

teach reading skills effectively and allow ESL students to increase their reading

understanding.

Table 4. Difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the Commented [K10]: Ask for legend
respondents
Paired Differences p-value
Variables Std. Deviation interpretation
Mean Sig. (2-tailed)
pre-test literal -2.958 3.458 0.000 significant at 1%
vs.
inferential -3.875 2.997 0.000 significant at 1%
post-
test evaluative -2.417 3.120 0.001 significant at 1%

Table 4 shows that the paired difference mean of pre-test and post-test in literal

level was -2.958, standard deviation (3.458), p-value (0.000) and its

interpretation is significant at 1%. In inferential level, the paired difference mean

is -3.875, standard deviation (3.458), p-value (0.000) and its interpretation is

significant at 1%. In evaluative level, the paired difference of mean is -2.417;

standard deviation (3.120), p-value (0.001) and its interpretation is significant at

1/%.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

This implies that the results between pre-test and post-test have differences

because there was improvement with the scores of respondents. The paired

difference means in literal, inferential, and evaluative level were negative, and it

implied that the scores of respondents in post-test were higher than the pre-test.

The interpretation (significant at 1%) clearly showed that there was a significant

difference between the pre-test and post-test. Based with the data in the table, it

evidently showed that the proposed module and the intervention had a positive

impact on the respondents in terms of their reading comprehension.

This finding agrees with Koh (1986) who stated that understanding the reader’s

prior knowledge is very important and the combination of linguistic proficiency

and prior knowledge is important for comprehension. The lack of either one is

sometimes compensated for by the presence of the other. The respondents

haven’t had their prior knowledge tapped in the pre-test of every level which

resulted with low scores. Unlike in post-test, the researchers used the stories,

tests, and exercises from the module to enhance the reading comprehension of the

students with the use of schema theory before taking the post-test. That was the

reason why there was improvement with the results in post-tests. Also, without

considering the prior knowledge of the students, it may affect the performance,

scores and how the students comprehend every story given to them. This agrees

with (Rowe, Ozuru, and McNamara, 2006). They stated that many readers

experience difficulty in constructing a text base understanding, particularly when

they encounter unfamiliar words and/or complex syntactic structures.

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Conclusion

Based on the findings gathered in the study, the researchers have drawn these following

conclusions: (1) most of the respondents were aged 17; (2) the evaluators highly

recommend the developed module determining with its content, learning activities and

resources that had allowed the students to meet the specified learning outcomes and these

were suited to the needs and level of understanding of the learners, fitted to the level of

appreciation of the learners as these learning activities were logically sequenced, and that

the exercises given were useful and appropriate to the time given for each unit of the

developed module; (3) the scores of the respondents in the post-tests were higher than

the scores in the pre-tests, and it means their level of reading comprehension has

increased; and (4) the results clearly showed that there was a significant difference

between the pre-tests scores and post-tests scores.

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Recommendations
The researchers recommend that the students should get immersed more in reading and

practice their writing ability in the second language, English, and that the teachers should

use other reading materials such as self-learning kits, authentic texts, etc. that are

motivating and challenging to the students. In that way, it will help them more in

enhancing and practicing their reading comprehension skills. Another, the

Administration should support and produce more reading materials and fund reading

enhancement programs for the students. Lastly, the researchers recommend utilizing this

kind of study to a larger and more diverse group of respondents to get a more reliable

results about the effectivity of a proposed module.

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APPENDICES Commented [K11]: Yung mga papers na may sagot dapat sama
sama sa appendices
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

A. Diagnostic Test (Researcher-made)

The Tale of the Three Brothers

By Beedle the Bard (J.K Rowling)
There were once three brothers who were travelling along a lonely, winding road
at twilight. In time, the brothers reached a river too deep to wade through and too
dangerous to swim across. However, these brothers were learned in the magical arts, and
so they simply waved their wands and made a bridge appear across the treacherous
water. They were halfway across it when they found their path blocked by a hooded
figure. And Death spoke to them. He was angry that he had been cheated out of three
new victims, for travelers usually drowned in the river. But death was cunning. He
pretended to congratulate the three brothers upon their magic, and said each had earned a
prize for having been clever enough to evade him. So the oldest brother, who was a
combative man, asked for a wand more powerful than any in existence: a wand that must
always win duels for its owner, a wand worthy of a wizard who had conquered Death! So
Death crossed to an elder tree on the banks of the river, fashioned a wand from a branch
that hung there, and gave it to the oldest brother. Then the second brother, who was an
arrogant man, decided that he wanted to humiliate Death still further, and asked for the
power to recall others from Death. So Death picked up a stone from the riverbank and
gave it to the second brother, and told that stone would have the power to bring back the
dead. And then Death asked the third and the youngest brother what he would like. The
youngest brother was the humblest and also the wisest of the brothers, and he did not
trust Death.
So he asked for something that would enable him to go forth from the place without
being followed by Death. And Death, most unwillingly, handed over his Cloak of
Invisibility. Then Death stood aside and allowed the three brothers to continue on their
way and they did so, talking with wonder of adventure they had had, and admiring
Death’s gift. In due course the brothers separated, each of his own destination. The first
brother travelled on for a week or more, and reaching a distant village, he sought out a
fellow wizard with whom he had a quarrel. Naturally, with the Elder wand as his
weapon, he could not fail to win the duel that followed. Leaving his enemy dead upon
the floor, the oldest brother proceeded to an inn, where he boasted loudly of the power
wand he had snatched from Death himself, and of how it made him invincible. That very
night, another wizard crept upon the oldest brother as he lay, wine sodden, upon his bed.
The thief took the wand and for good measure, slit the oldest brother’s throat. And so
Death took the first brother for his own. Meanwhile, the second brother journeyed to his
own home, where he lived alone. Here he took out the stone that had the power to recall
the dead, and turned it thrice in his hand. To his amazement and delight, the figure of the
girl he had once hoped to marry before her untimely death appeared at once before him.
Yet she was silent and cold, separated from him as though by veil. Though she had
returned to the mortal world, she did not truly belong there and suffered. Finally, the
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

second brother, driven mad with hopeless longing, killed himself so as truly to join her.
And so Death took the second brother for his own. But though Death searched for the
third brother for many years, he was never able to find him. It was only when he had
attained a great age that the youngest brother finally took off the Cloak of Invisibility and
gave it to his son. And then he greeted Death as an old friend, and went with him gladly,
and equals, they departed this life.
Questions for “The tale of three brothers”
Name:
Age: Section:
I. Encircle the correct answer.

1. The three brothers were learned in _______.

a. Potion b. Magical Arts c. Herbology d. Augury Mystery

2. Who among the brothers successfully hid from death?

a. Older brother b. Second brother c. Youngest brother d. a and c

3. Who among the brothers had a distressful death?

a. Older brother b. Second brother c. Youngest brother d. a and b

4. What do you think would possibly happen if Death hasn’t found the youngest brother?
a. Death will be defeated for eternity.
b. The youngest brother will be immortal.
c. Death will be more cunning and careful.
d. The youngest brother will warn other people.

5. Why did the older brother wish for the most powerful wand in existence?
a. He is the oldest among the three. c. He wants ladies to fall for him.
b. He wants to show how aggressive he is. d. He desires his brothers to be proud of
him.

6. Why would the second brother ask for the power to recall the deceased from the
grave?
a. He has foreseen his own death. c. He believes that power comes
from graves.
b. He has to resurrect his dead parents. d. He wants to further humiliate
Death.

7. What is the difference between the two older brothers and their youngest?
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

a. The elder brothers were more ambitious than the youngest.

b. The elder brothers were humbler than the youngest.
c. The youngest was the humblest among the brothers.
d. The youngest was the most ambitious among the brothers.

8. Why does Death represent “power” in the story?

a. He is what they sought for. c. He has control over everything.
b. He grants the desires of people. d. He lives in the elder tree.

9. What is the moral of the story?

a. There are consequences to face in wrong decisions.
b. Do not be easily driven by your inner desires.
c. Humans can be fooled by the situation.
d. Death will always be the end of everything.

10. How did the author characterize the three brothers?

a. He describes their choice of gift. c. He tells where they went.
b. He shows their death fates. d. He says how old they are.

II. Short essay. (5 points each)

1. If you were given three powers to choose from—the power to defeat anyone, the
power to bring back the dead, and the power to be invisible—which one would you take?
Explain your reasons.

2. Who do you think is evil in the story, the three bothers or Death? Explain your answer.
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Short Essay Rubric for the Diagnostic Test (Researcher-made)

Score Completion Accuracy Comprehension Organization Conventions

5 The answer All Content Content is well- No major

is complete. informatio demonstrates a organized and grammatical or
n provided deep easy to read. spelling errors. No
are understanding Points follow a more than two
accurate. of the text. logical minor errors.
progression.
4 The answer All Content Content is well- No major
is missing informatio demonstrates organized and grammatical or
slight n provided understanding easy to read. spelling errors. No
details. are of the text. Points follow a more than five
accurate. logical minor errors.
progression.
3 The answer Most Content Content is Some major and
is missing informatio demonstrates organized and minor errors that
multiple n provided basic easy to read. do not necessarily
details. are understanding Points follow a impair
accurate. of the text. mostly logical communication.
progression.
2 Content Some Content Content may be Major and minor
suggests informatio demonstrates not organized errors significantly
lack of n provided less than basic and difficult to weaken quality of
preparation are understanding read. Points do communication but
or accurate. of the text. not follow a still
comprehens solidly logical comprehensible.
ion progression.
1 Content A small Content Content is Communication
only amount of demonstrates a unorganized, seriously impaired
marginally the lack of illogical, and by multitude of
related to informatio understanding difficult to spelling and
the n is of the text. read. grammatical errors.
question. accurate.
0 Content None of Content Content is Multitude of major
fails to meet the demonstrates a poorly and minor errors
the basic informatio complete lack unorganized, make answer
requirement n provided of illogical, and incomprehensible
s of the is understanding difficult to
task. accurate. of the text. read.
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B. Letters
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C. Evaluation Form of the Module (Adopted)

Pampanga State Agricultural University
PAC, Magalang, Pampanga
College of Education

Evaluation Form for the Proposed Module

Name: ___________________________________________________
Designation: _______________________________________________
Highest Educational Attainment: _______________________________
Institution affiliated with: _____________________________________
Instructions: Use the following scale and interpretation in rating the following characteristics of
the module.
5- Strongly Agree
4- Agree
3- Neutral
2- Disagree
1- Strongly Disagree
Kindly put a check mark inside the box corresponding to your answer.
I. Learning Objectives
Items 5 4 3 2 1
1. I clearly understand the objectives of each unit in the
module.
2. The objectives of each unit were specific, achievable,
and relevant.
3. The expected results of each unit were well-described.

II. Learning Content

Items 5 4 3 2 1
1. The Learning Content of the learning activities is
aligned with the objectives.
2. The Learning Content of the learning activities is suited
to the needs of the learners.
3. The Learning Content of the learning activities is suited
to the level of understanding of the learners.
4. The Learning Content of the learning activities is suited
to the level of appreciation of the learners.
5. The exercises given are useful and complement the
objectives of each unit.
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

III. Organization
Items 5 4 3 2 1
1. The learning activities are well-organized in terms of
content and flow.
2. The learning activities are sequenced in a logical
manner.
3. The time given in conducting the learning activities is
appropriate.

IV. Learning Experiences

Items 5 4 3 2 1
1. I believe learners will enjoy the learning activities.
2. I find the learning activities challenging and stimulating.
3. I believe the learning activities are completely aligned
to the objectives of each unit.
4. I find the activities essential to the needs of the learners.
5. I find the learning activities easy to conduct but very
meaningful.
6. The materials needed in the learning activities are easy
to get.
Source: Career Guidance Program Monitoring and Evaluation Form, Department of Education

Recommendations:
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D. Documentation

The respondents taking the diagnostic test

The respondents reading a text before answering the questions in the diagnostic test
MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

One of the researchers discuss the intervention process

Discussion during the intervention of the module

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

References Commented [K12]: After references, pre-test and post-test and

then yung mga may answers and then yung module

Abdul Rashid Mohamed, Lin, S. E. &Shaik Abdul Malik Mohamed Ismail (2010).

Making sense of reading scores with reading evaluation and decoding system

(READS). English Language Teaching, 3(3), 35-46.

Al-Issa, Ahmad (2006). Schema Theory And L2 Reading Comprehension: Implications

For Teaching. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3(7), p41-48.

Bernhardt, E.B. (1991). Reading development in a second language: Theoretical,

empirical and classroom perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing

Corporation.

Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language

pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Carrell, P.L. &Eisterhold, J.C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy.

TESOL Quarterly, 17, 553-569.

Carrell, P. L. (1981).Culture-specific schemata in L2 comprehension. In R. Orem & J.

Case Study from the University of Kansas: Emergence of Early Civilizations: Reading

Strategies in Social Studies for Connecting and Relating Thematic Concepts

Cekiso, M. (2012) Effects of strategy instruction on the reading comprehension and

strategy awareness of Grade 11 English Second Language learners in the Eastern

Cape’ Reading & Writing 3(1), Art. #23, 8 pages.

MODULE IN ENHANCING READING COMPREHENSION

Fiagoy (2010) Quality Education for Native Filipinos: A Phenomenological Case Study

of Indigenous Learners SAFARY WA-MBALEKA ORCID No. 0000-0003-

4485-3550

Gu, P. Y. (2003). Fine Brush and Freehand1: The Vocabulary Learning Art of Two

Successful Chinese EFL Learners. TESOL Quarterly,37(1), 73-104.

Haskell (Eds.), Selected papers from the Ninth Illinois TESOL/BE Annual Convention,

First Midwest TESOLConference (pp. 123-132). Chicago: Illinois

Impara, J. C. (2001). Alignment: One element of an assessment’s instructional unity.

Paper presented at the 2001 annual meeting of the National Council on

Measurement in Education, Seattle, WA. Retrieved from

http://www.unl.edu/BIACO/NCME/Alignment%20revised.pdf on September 21,

2004.

Koh, M.Y. (1986). The role of prior knowledge in reading comprehension. Reading in a

Foreign Language,3, 375-380.

Pressley M. & Afflerbach P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of

constructively responsive reading: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Quarterly.

Rumelhart (1980) Schema theory is an explanation of how readers use prior knowledge

to comprehend and learn from text. https://wehavekids.com/education/Reading-

Comprehension-Theory
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Rumelhart, D. E. (1982). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In J. Guthrie

(Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 3-26). Newark, DE:

International Reading Association.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based

assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for

reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and

Human Development.

Technical Report No, 297 THE INSTRUCTION OF READING COMPREHENSION P.

David Pearson Margaret C. Gallagher University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign October 1983