Empresa Tete Lda
Empresa Tete Lda
Empresa Tete Lda
Contents
Introduction
Esanda Training Course List
Glossary
Petroleum Chemistry
A Brief Oil and Gas History
LNG History
Some Useful Conversions
SPE Petroleum Reserves Categorisation
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Upstream Oil and Gas Development Lifecycle Costing Thermal Modelling Concepts and Guidlines
Cost Engineering
IHS QUE$TOR Oil and Gas Cost Analysis – IHS Specialist
Geophysics
Course Introduction to Petroleum Geophysics
Drilling Fluids
Reservoir Engineering
Advanced Drilling Technology Basic Reservoir Engineering for Production operations Staff
Primary Cementing Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering
Fishing Operations Reservoir Management
Drilling Methods and Equipment Reservoir Simulation
Well Equipment (Casing, Tubing, Wellhead) Reservoir Model Design
Pumps (Rig/mud pumps, cementing units) Enhanced Oil Recovery
Drilling Calculations Applied Reservoir Engineering
Stuck Pipe Prevention PVT – Properties of Petroleum Fluids
Casing Cementing - Current Leading Practice and New Reservoir Appraisal & Development
Techniques
Unconventional Integrated Asset modelling
Directional Drilling
Advanced Integrated Asset Modelling
Drilling Fluids and Solids control
Practical Reservoir Simulation, history matching best practices
Fundamentals of Well Control
PVT and EOS modelling workshop
Advanced Well Cementing
Effective Use of Relative Permeability Data
Coil Tubing (CTU) Operations
Reserves Estimation
Nitrogen Engineering for O&G Operations
Well Test Design & Analysis
Damage Control - The Neglected Part of Drilling and Operating
Safely Practical Well Test Interpretation
HPHT Drilling Operations Advanced Well Test Interpretation
Offshore and Deepwater Drilling Operations Digital Core Analysis and its Application to Reservoir
Engineering
Pore Pressure and Fracture Gradient Prediction
Well Control and Associated Surface Equipment
Field Development Planning
Field Development Planning
Production Engineering Facilities Field Development Planning
Artificial Lift Methods
Marginal Fields’ Development Strategies
Artificial Lift – Well Optimization and Diagnostics
Gas Lift Design, Operation and Optimisation
Oil and Gas Processing and Facilities
Introduction to Integrated Production Modelling
Integrated Production Modelling
Engineering
Oil and Gas Facilities Fundamentals: Onshore, Offshore, FPSO
Well Performance using NODAL Analysis Techniques and Subsea
Advanced Wellbore modelling Offshore Facilities Fundamentals, Offshore, FPSO and Subsea
Digital Field Setup & Management FPSO Fundamentals
Well Testing Operations Subsea Facilities Fundamentals
Well Production Control and Management Gas Production, Transmission and Storage Overview
Advanced Hydraulic Fracturing Oil Processing
Advanced Stimulation Gas Processing
Stimulation & Sand Management Production Facilities - Design Engineering
Hydraulic Fracturing for Shale Oil & Gas Production Facilities - Process Engineering
Hydraulic Fracture Design and Analysis with 3D Simulators Process and Project Drawings - PDFs, P&IDs and Mechanical
Completions Design for FDP Drawings
Well Stimulation: Matrix and Fracture Acidising Oil and Gas Process Troubleshooting
Xmas Tree Inspection, Maintenance and Pressure Testing
Water Treatment and Disposal
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Glossary
AAV Ambient Air Vaporizer Artificial lift Sucker rod-
ABS American Bureau of Shipping. US-based pumps (nodding donkeys),
classification and standards setting society for shipping gas lift, hydraulic pumps,
including LNG ships, FSRU’s and FLNG and submersible electric
pumps, used to aid
Abandonment End of production, plug and abandon
the production of oil as
wells, dismantle and remove all material and equipment
reservoir pressure declines
Acidising Treatment of reservoir with hydrochloric or
Asphalt Solid petroleum
hydrofluoric acid to improve performance
residue, similar to bitumen,
ACQ Annual Contract Quantity. The annual gas delivery tar and pitch
quantity contracted for during each contract year as
Associated gas Natural
specified in an LNG contract
gas which is dissolved in
AFC Approved For Construction crude oil in the reservoir
and is released as a by- Bbl-Blue Barrel
AFD Approved For Design 42 US gallons
product of oil production.
AFE Approved For Expenditure
In these fields gas
Aggregator collects gas from a group of producers. Do production fluctuates with oil production
not take title to the gas but find markets and negotiate
BAHX Brazed Aluminium Heat Exchanger, also known
prices for a pool of upstream producers
as Plate Fin Heat Exchanger
AGR Acid Gas Removal (Unit) Generic name for
Bar Unit of pressure
process units designed to remove H2S, CO2 and other
sulphur compounds that ‘sour’ the gas Bara bar, absolute pressure
AHV Anchor Handling Vessel Barg bar, gauge pressure
Alkane Any of various saturated open-chain Barrel A volumetric unit equivalent to 42 US Gallons or
hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n+2, the 158.99 litres
most abundant of which is methane (CH4) Bbl Blue barrel, 42 US Gallons
Alkene Any unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon with the bbl/d barrel of oil per day (see also Mbbl/d and
general formula C2H2n such as ethylene, also known as MMbbl/d)
olefins
bbl/MMscf barrels per million standard cubic feet
Alluvial fan Pattern of sedimentary deposit frequently
bcf billion cubic feet
laid down by streams or rivers which spread out into
plains BCFD Billions of Cubic Feet of Gas per Day
Annulus Space between two concentric objects such Beam The width of a ship. Also called ‘breadth’
as between the wellbore and casing BH Bottom Hole
Anoxic Lack or absence of oxygen BHA Bottom Hole Assembly
ANSI American National Standards Institute BHP Bottom Hole Pressure
Anticline An arched shape fold in which rock layers are Bit The cutting/boring element used in drilling wells,
upwardly convex consisting of a cutting and a circulating element
APCI Air Products and Chemicals Inc. The licensor of Bitumen Form of heavy, solid
the C3MR and APX technology Drill Bit
petroleum. See Asphalt
API American Petroleum Institute
Block Subdivided areas for
API gravity Density measurement for oil. API gravity = the purpose of licensing to a
141.5/(specific gravity) – 131.5 company for exploration or
production rights
Aquifer Water-bearing rock strata
Blowdown Process
Arbitrage Trading the same commodity in two or more
of releasing pressure.
markets in order to benefit from the difference in prices
Producing a gas cap after oil
Aromatics Relating to an organic compound containing production has concluded
at least one benzene ring (C6 ring) or similar ring-
shaped component. Naphthalene and TNT are aromatic Blowout Uncontrolled
compounds. Notable for their distinctive, usually fragrant release of fluids from the
smell well bore
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Blowout preventer See BOP Bunkering The use of LNG as fuel on ships
BOD Basis Of Design Bwpd Barrels of water per day
BOE Barrels of Oil Equivalent (5,800 scf of lean gas is C3MR Propane pre-cooled Multicomponent Refrigerant
equivalent to 1 bbl of oil in calorific terms) Cycle
BOG Boil-off gas. The amount of LNG which evaporates Calliper Tool for checking casing in a well for
from the tank during transportation or storage deformation
Bow Thruster propeller at the bow of a ship that CALM Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
provides transverse thrust as a manoeuvring aid
Calorific value Quantity of heat produced by complete
BP Boiling Point combustion of a unit weight of a fuel. This can be
BOP Blowout preventer, arrangement of valves and measured net or gross (gross means that the water
rams installed at wellhead to prevent sudden escape of produced during combustion has been condensed
fluids from reservoir releasing its latent heat, net means the water remains as
a vapour)
Cantilevered jackup Jackup drilling unit where the drill
rig is mounted on two cantilevers – see also Jackup
CAPEX Capital expenditure
Cap rock Impermeable layer of rock providing a seal to
contain the reservoir fluids
Cargo Handling the act of loading and discharging a
cargo ship
Casing Steel pipe placed in the well and cemented in
place
Catenary The natural curve assumed by a chain or
cable suspended between two points (e.g. an anchor
chain)
BOP
CBM Coal Bed Methane. Methane extracted from coal
Bopd Barrels of oil per day seams. In the US alone, 100 TCF of CBM appears to be
Borehole Refers to the face of the rock outside or below economically recoverable
the casing cc Cubic centimetre (cm3)
Bottom-hole Deepest part of a well CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine. High efficiency
power generation (typ 50%+) using gas turbines with
Bottom-Hole Assembly (BHA) Includes drill bit, drill
heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) and a steam
collars, stabilizers and other drilling components
turbine in a power generation plant
Bottom-Hole Pressure (BHP) Formation pressure at
CCR Central Control Room
reservoir depth
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
Bottom-hole pump Pump installed in the wellbore, to
increase productivity, (Also downhole pump) Cellar deck Deck beneath the working floor of a drilling
rig or below the main deck of an offshore platform
Bpd Barrels per day
Centipoise (cP) A unit of measurement for viscosity
Break Bulk to commence discharge of a cargo
Charter Party contractual arrangement between a ship
Bridge plug Down hole packer assembly used in a well
owner and a cargo owner, usually arranged by a broker,
to seal off or isolate a particular formation for testing,
whereby a ship is chartered (hired) either for one voyage
acidizing, cementing
or for a period of time
BS&W Basic Sediment and Water
Check valve A non-return valve, allowing flow in only
BTEX Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Benzene, Toluene, one direction
Ethylbenzene and Xylene
Choke Device incorporating an orifice that is used to
Btu British thermal unit. A measure of heat content. control fluid flowrate or downstream system pressure
1 Btu=252 calories, 1,055 Joules
CHP Combined Heat and Power. The generation of
Bubble point The pressure and temperature at which electricity and steam (or process heat) simultaneously
the first bubbles of gas come out of solution
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Dehydration Removal of water from oil or gas to meet through overlying formations, e.g. a salt dome
an end user specification Directional drilling Intentional deviation of a wellbore
Delineation well An appraisal well, drilled to determine from the vertical
the boundary of a discovered reservoir Discovery well A successful wildcat or exploration well
Demurrage fee levied by the shipping company on the Distillates The products of distillation
port or supplier for not loading the vessel by a specified
date agreed upon by contract assessed on a daily basis Distillation The process of heating and “flashing” or
boiling off successive fractions, component hydrocarbon,
Density Mass divided by volume, kg/m3, lb/ft3 etc.
from a crude oil feedstock, or a product of earlier
Density log Measurement of density, a guide to porosity distillation
Depletion Progressive reduction in reserves as a result DMR Dual Mixed Refrigerant Liquefaction Cycle
of production DoE US Department of Energy. DOE sets federal energy
Depth map Relief map of sub-surface structure, policy
contours relating to depths from surface datum level, (i.e. Down Hole Down a well
sea level)
Downstream Generally refers to crude oil refining,
Derating reduction of a generating unit’s (GT) net petrochemicals, marketing and distribution
dependable capacity to a point below manufacturer’s
nameplate capacity. Often as a result of fouling Downtime A period when equipment is unserviceable or
out of operation for maintenance etc.
Derrick A large load-bearing structure, used for drilling
DP Dynamic Positioning
DES Delivered Ex Ship describes a transaction where
shipping of LNG is arranged by the seller Draft The vertical distance between the bottom of a
vessel floating in water and the waterline, expressed in
Development well A well drilled to allow production
feet or metres
Deviated well Well diverted from the vertical
Drawdown The difference between the static and the
Dew point Temperature and pressure condition at which flowing bottom hole pressures
liquids first condense from a gas
Drawworks The hoisting mechanism in a drilling rig
Dewpointing Removal of heavier hydrocarbons from a
Drilling fluid Circulating fluid, removes cuttings from
gas stream to meet end user specifications
wellbore to surface, cools the bit and counteracts
DFDE Dual Fuel Diesel Electric propulsion system for downhole formation pressure. See mud
LNG Carriers
Drilling mud Specially compounded liquid circulated
DGA DiGlycolAmine. An acid gas removal solvent through the wellbore during rotary drilling operations.
Diaper Up-thrust intrusion of lower-density rocks See mud
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1. Crown Block
2. Catline Boom and Hoist Line
3. Drilling Line
4. Monkey board
5. Travelling Block
6. Top Drive
7. Derrick or Mast
8. Drill Pipe
9. Doghouse or drillers shack
10. Blowout Preventer
11. Water Tank
12. Electric Cable Tray
13. Engine Generator Sets
14. Fuel Tanks
15. Electrical Control Room
16. Mud Pump
17. Bulk Mud Components Storage
18. Mud Pits
19. Reserve Pits
20. Mud Gas Separator
21. Shale Shakers
22. Choke Manifold
23. Pipe Ramp
24. Pipe Racks
25. Accumulator
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DWPA Deep Water Ports Act EPIC Engineering, Procurement, Installation and
Construction
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage. The number of tonnes of
cargo, stores and bunkers that a ship can transport EPU Electric Power Unit
Dynamic positioning A satellite monitoring system ERD Extended Reach Drilling
used to control the action of thrusters/propellers to
ESD Emergency Shutdown
maintain a vessel on location without deploying anchors
ESP Electric Submersible Pump
ECA Export Credit Agencies. A government agency
whose role is to facilitate the export of goods and ESS Expandable Sand Screen
services by providing credits and providing credit and EWT Extended Well Test
political risk security
Fault A break in subsurface strata
EDU Electrical Distribution Unit
FBHP Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure
EFL Electrical Flying Lead
FC Full Containment LNG tank
EH Electro-Hydraulic
FEED Front End Engineering Design, early phase of field
EHDM Electro-Hydraulic Distribution Manifold development engineering
E/H MUX Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, the
9k,k,mplEnvironmental Impact Assessment chief energy regulatory body of the US Government,
responsible for regulating LNG facilities
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment. An assessment
of the impact of an industrial installation on the FFD Full Field Development
surrounding environment, before any construction work Fiscal metering Measurement of oil, gas or condensate
is undertaken for taxation purposes
EIS Environmental Impact Statement FID Final Investment Decision
EM Electric Motor Fixed installation A fixed offshore structure involved in
Emulsion Suspension of one liquid in another, e.g. oil in the production of oil and gas
water Flare Vent for burning off unwanted gas or
Enhanced oil recovery Assisted extraction of oil either hydrocarbons which due to process upsets cannot be
by installing equipment into the production tubing or by safely retained in process vessels
injecting water, gas or steam into the reservoir Flare stack Elevated tower containing piping for the
EMP Environmental Management Plan discharge and burning of waste gas
EMS Environmental Management Study Flash drum Pressure vessel used to reduce pressure
of oils and other liquids to encourage vaporisation of
dissolved gases
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FPSO
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Geology The study of the history of the earth and its rocks Hawser Heavy rope for mooring or towing
Geologist Geologists in the oil and gas industry HAZAN Hazard analysis
specialise in Sedimentology, Palaeontology
HAZID Hazards in design analysis
Geophones Sound wave receivers for onshore seismic
HAZOP Hazard and operability analysis
surveys. See also Hydrophone
Header Pipe in which several pipes feed fluid into or from
Geophysics Application of physics to the measurement
of the earth and the study of its composition. HC Hydrocarbon
Geophysicist A Geophysicist in the oil and gas industry HDPE High density polyethylene
usually specialises in the interpretation of seismic survey Heat Exchanger Process vessel equipment which
data passes fluid through pipes or plates to heat or cool
Geothermal Gradient Increase of temperature with another fluid (without mixing)
depth in the earth’s crust, (Approximately 1 F°. per 70 Heat Rate a measure of power plant efficiency in
feet). converting input fuel to electricity. Usually measured in
GHG Greenhouse Gases. Defined by Kyoto Protocol Btu of fuel required per kWhr of electricity produced (Btu/
as gases increasing global warming. Includes CO2 and kWh)
methane Helipad Helicopter landing deck or landing area
GHV see HHV Henry Hub Reference hub in Louisiana used for gas
GI Gas Injection futures pricing in the United States
GIS Geographic Information System HFO Heavy Fuel Oil
GTL Gas To Liquid technology for gas monetisation HSE Health, Safety, Environment
GTT Gaz Transport and Technigaz. Designer of HUC Hook-Up and Commissioning
membrane type LNG storage tanks Hydrates Ice like crystals formed of water and methane
GWC Gas Water Contact in well bores or pipelines under certain pressure and
temperature conditions. Problematic in that they can
H2S Hydrogen sulphide, toxic sour gas. cause blockages that prevent continual production
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Kelly A long square or hexagonal steel bar with a hole indication of how close they are operating to nameplate
drilled through the middle for a fluid path capacity (as a % of nameplate)
Kerogen Organic material (originating from Log Systematic recording of well data
phytoplankton and zooplankton) from which oil or gas LOI Letter of Intent
matures with time through burial, temperature and LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas, essentially propane and
pressure butane
Kerosense Liquid mixture consisting mainly of alkane LSTK Lump Sum Turn Key. An EPC Contracting
hydrocarbons with boiling points in the range 150° to approach
300°C, used as aircraft fuel, in domestic heaters, and as
LTA Long-term tolling agreement
a solvent
LTS Low Temperature Separator
Kitchen Term for rock rich in organic sediments and in
which under the right conditions become a source of LTSA Liquefaction Tolling Services Agreement
hydrocarbons LWD Logging While Drilling
Knock-Out Drum Tank or vessel used to separate M Thousand (oilfield), Roman M=1,000, M in metric and
water from oil or liquids from gas some other fields relates to million. Care must be taken
Knot Nautical miles per hour. LNG ships typically to ensure that the value is understood
operate at speeds of 16-19 knots Magnetic survey Exploration method measuring the
KO Kick Off (deviated well) changing magnetic intensity in the earth to indicate the
existence of hydrocarbon reservoirs
kPa kilopascals, measure of pressure
Magnetometer Instrument used to measure magnetic fields
kW Kilowatt, measure of electrical power
MAOP Maximum Allowable operating pressure. The
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide design pressure of a pipeline
Lay barge Barge used in the construction and MARAD US Maritime Administration
placement of underwater pipelines
Mat/Mattress A structure placed on poorly
Licence A right to explore for and/or produce consolidated, soft or unstable seabed as a footing for
hydrocarbons issued by a Government agency jackup rigs, flowlines and subsea equipment
KPI Key Performance Indicator Maturity Function of burial pressures/temperatures, and
LDC Local (Gas) Distribution Company. A company that time determining whether source of hydrocarbons will
takes gas from a local delivery point (usually called the provide oil or gas
city gate) and distributes it to local customers Maximum exposure Maximum negative cash flow of a
LFL Lower Flammability Limit. The lowest concentration project
of a substance that will burn in air, usually expressed in MBbls Thousand barrels. See M
vol %. 5% for Natural Gas
Mcf Thousand cubic feet. See M
LHV Lower Heating Value
MCHE Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger, where natural
Lifting Collection of a shipment of crude oil etc. at the
gas is chilled, condensed and subcooled to form LNG.
point of sale
Can either be of SWHE or PFHE type
Lithification The process by which unconsolidated MCM Manifold Control Module
materials are converted into coherent solid rock, by
compaction or cementation Mcm/d Million cubic metres per day. See M
Live Oil Crude oil containing volatile gases MD Measured Depth (well)
LLI Long Lead Item. An item with a long manufacturing MDEA Methyl Diethanolamine. An acid gas removal
and delivery time. Examples of this on an LNG plant solvent
include main exchangers, GTG’s and compressor/driver Measurement While Drilling (MWD) The evaluation of
sets physical properties, pressure, temperature and wellbore
LMRP Lower Marine Riser Package trajectory in 3D while drilling
LOA Overall length of ship (bow to stern) MEGi M-type, Electronically controlled, Gas Injection
engines. New fuel-efficient engines for LNG shipping
Load Factor Usually applies to power plants and is an
MEOH Methanol
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Production Separator Main process vessel used for Raw Gas Natural gas prior to processing
the separation of oil, gas and water, see also oil and gas
RC Reinforced Concrete
separator
Real (Real Terms, RT) Constant value of money
Production Sharing Contract (PSC) Contract in which
(imaginary money), this was introduced to overcome
part of the return to the host government is delivered
the varying purchasing power of money of the day,
as produced hydrocarbons, which is calculated after
which keeps the purchasing power the same at different
deduction of production and other agreed costs
moments in time
Production Testing Production test looks at the
Recovery Factor The ratio between the volumes of oil
capability to produce (productivity) of a well and
and/or gas produced and producible from a reservoir
its effects on the reservoir produced, this may be
and the oil and/or gas originally in place
undertaken prior to final commitment of development
expenditures etc. Reef Reservoir, usually limestone which was deposited
in marine conditions, usually elongated
Production Tubing String Pipe installed inside the
production casing of a well Regasification is the process of warming LNG until
liquid gas returns to a gaseous state. Carried out in
Productive Horizon A pay zone. See also Horizon
marine or waterfront facilities in which LNG carriers
Productivity Index (PI) A mathematical means of deliver the LNG. LNG is then stored before undergoing
expressing the ability of a reservoir to deliver fluids to the regasification, which converts the LNG back into its
wellbore gaseous form
Proppants Sand, gravel or other particles or “beads” Reservoir Subsurface porous & permeable rock body in
used in hydraulic fracturing of a formation, the proppant which oil and or gas is stored
allows fluid to flow by wedging into the fractures/cracks Reservoir Pressure The pressure at reservoir depth in
created by fraccing a shut-in well
PSA Production Sharing Agreement Resistivity log A log of the resistivity of the formation
PSC Production Sharing Contract made by an electrode device such as a laterolog, in this
sense the term is used to distinguish the log from an
psi pounds per square inch - pressure
induction measurement, which responds more directly to
psia pounds per square inch, absolute - pressure conductivity
psig pounds per square inch gauge - pressure Rig Term describing the equipment needed for drilling a
PU Polyurethane foam insulation used in some types of well, see also drilling rig
LNG tanks ROI Return On Investment
PUQ Production Utilities Quarters, see also production Rollover mixing LNG of different densities can
platform/Facility result in rapid vapour generation at the interface in a
QC/DC Quick Connect/Disconnect coupling phenomenon known as rollover
QFlex A large LNG carrier commissioned by Qatargas ROP Rate Of Penetration (drilling)
capable of carrying approximately 210,000m3 of LNG, Rotary table Principal component of rotating, or rotary
designed for long distance transport. In service since 2007 machine, which turns the drill stem and supports the
Qmax The largest LNG carrier type currently in use. drilling assembly, see also drilling rig
Commissioned by Qatargas capable of carrying ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
approximately 260,000m3 of LNG, designed for long
distance transport. In service since 2008 RPT Rapid Phase Transition. This is a phenomenon
which happens when LNG is released on water and is
QRA Quantitative Risk Assessment – includes
quickly warmed up to form natural gas leading to a large
calculations to assist with the identification of risks and to
white vapour plume
determine the frequency, magnitude and consequence
of hazardous events RV Relief Valve for Pressure Protection of Equipment,
Tanks and Pressure Vessels
Qualitative risk assessment Assessment based on
RVP Reid Vapour Pressure
operational experience, engineering standards and
judgement SALM Single Anchor Leg Mooring; a compliant
monopod version of the SBM tanker-loading buoy, used
RAM Reliability, Availability and Maintainability. A
in deeper water
measure of the annual uptime of the plant, important for
production guarantees
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Seal Impermeable fault/stratum of rock beneath or Sidewall coring Coring samples taken from the side
behind which hydrocarbons can accumulate. See also walls of a well bore using a special tool
reservoir SIGTTO Society of International Gas Tanker and
Secondary recovery Production of fluids from a Terminal Operators
reservoir by water/gas injection used for pressure Single point mooring system Offshore system to
maintenance which stabilised oil can be routed and an export tanker
can moor for the oil to be offloaded for export
Sedimentary rock Rock composed of weathered
materials transported by wind or water that have Skid Steel framework used to contain equipment or
undergone lithification, e.g. sandstone, shale and mount equipment on for transport
limestone Skimmer Equipment for removing the surface layer of oil
Seep Fault or pathway where hydrocarbon migrates to from an oil spill, or from an effluent water separator tank.
the surface/atmosphere Slop tank Tank for the temporary storage of water that
is contaminated with oil
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Slug A large quantity of gas or liquid in a 2-phase Spot market A public financial market in which financial
pipeline. Terrain slugging, is caused by elevation instruments or commodities are traded for immediate
changes in the terrain or seabed. Liquid can accumulate delivery. Spot markets can operate wherever the
at low points until sufficient pressure builds up infrastructure exists to conduct a transaction
and pushes it out of the low point forming a slug. Spread Any complete set of equipment and ancillary
Hydrodynamic slugging is caused by gas flowing at vessels or vehicles for a designated task e.g. diving
a faster rate over the liquid phase, leading to the gas spread
forming waves on the liquid surface, which may bridge
the cross section of the pipeline, creating a blockage on Spud To begin drilling
the gas flow, which travels as a slug through the pipeline. SRU Sulphur Recovery Unit
Riser-base slugging, associated with subsea pipeline SRV Shuttle Regas Vessel
risers. Liquid accumulates at the bottom of the riser until
SSIV Subsea (safety) isolation valve
sufficient pressure builds behind it to overcome the static
head. The slug of liquid is followed by a slug of gas, until SSV Surface safety valve
sufficient liquids have accumulated at the riser base to SSSV Surface controlled subsurface safety valve OR
form the next liquid slug. Pigging slug, is caused by Subsea safety valve
pigging operations in the pipeline. The pig pushes all or
most of the liquid content to the pipeline outlet, which Stab To make a connection by inserting (stabbing) one
creates a liquid slug. device into another
Slug Catcher A vessel which provides buffer volume Stabilised crude oil Crude oil which has had the
to accommodate the largest slug expected from the volatile gas (at normal surface conditions) removed from
system upstream. Usually located between the outlet of it to meet commercial sale specifications. Also known as
a pipeline and processing equipment stock tank oil
SMR Single Mixed Refrigerant Liquefaction Cycle Start up Production from a commissioned and tested
installation
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea
Static head Sometimes refered to as the pressure head.
Sonic log A type of acoustic log that displays travel
It denotes the static pressure in a pipe due to the height
time of P-waves versus depth. Sonic logs are typically
of liquid
recorded by pulling a tool on a wireline up the wellbore.
The tool emits a sound wave that travels from the source Steam injection/flooding Used to lower the viscosity
to the formation and back to a receiver of residual/heavy oil in the reservoir and aid it in flowing
to the well
Sour oil/gas Oil or gas with a relatively high content of
sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide STL Submerged Turret (un)Loading
Source rock Sedimentary rock with organic deposits STOIIP Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place
that form into hydrocarbons STP Standard Temperature and Pressure
SOX Oxides of Sulphur STS Ship to Ship transfer/offloading
SPA Sales and Purchase Agreement. Lays out the terms
and conditions of LNG trading
SPAR A cylindrical/partially submerged offshore drilling/
production platform, well adapted to deepwater
SPB IHI prismatic type B independent tank
Splash zone The part of an offshore structure that is
regularly exposed alternately to atmosphere and water or
spray and therefore highly prone to corrosion
SPMT Self-propelled multiwheel trailer
Spontaneous potential A log of the natural difference
in electrical potential, in millivolts, between an electrode
in the borehole and a fixed reference electrode on the
surface. The most useful component of this difference
is the electrochemical potential since it can cause a
significant deflection opposite permeable beds
SPAR Facility
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Subsea blowout preventer Blowout preventer placed Tcf Trillion cubic feet
on the seabed for use by a floating offshore drilling rig,
TD Total Depth i.e. the drilled depth in a well at any one
see also BOP
time
Subsea template Template placed on seabed to facilitate
Tectonics The process of formation and evolution of the
drilling of wells, the wells are drilled through the template
earth’s solid surface crust. (See also Plate tectonics.)
and completed by mounting the subsea Xmas trees
TEG TriEthylene Glycol
SUDU Subsea Umbilical Distribution Unit
Template Structural framework where subsea wellheads
SUTA Subsea Umbilical Termination Assembly
are grouped
SUTU Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit
Tension-leg platform A compliant offshore drilling or
SV Support Vessel production platform which resembles a semisubmersible
and is attached to the seabed with tensioned steel
Swab Valve Subsea tree mounted valve used during
hawsers or tubes. The buoyancy of the platform applies
workover
tension to the hawsers or tubes
Sweet Pertaining to crude oil or natural gas lacking
Tertiary Period or rock system divided into Palaeocene,
appreciable amounts of sulphur or sulphur compounds
Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs or
SWHE Spiral Wound Heat Exchanger. A Cryogenic series
Exchanger manufactured by winding tubes onto a
THFP Tubing Head Flowing Pressure
mandrel
Syncline A downward, trough-shaped configuration of THP Tubing Head Pressure
folded, stratified rocks. Compare with anticline Tie-in Connecting one pipeline to another or to
Tanker Any mobile storage unit for the bulk transport of equipment, also known as tie-back
crude oil, gas or products TJ Tera Joule
Tar See Asphalt TLP Tension Leg Platform
Tariff Volume-based or tonnage-based rental charge, Topsides Installation on substructure consisting of the
e.g. pipeline tariff, processing tariff decks, accommodation and process equipment required
for production, see also production Platform/Facility
Tar sands Sands impregnated with oil in the form of
asphalt or bitumen which are mined Train An LNG Production Unit consisting of pre-
treatment and liquefaction. Most baseload LNG
plants consist of 2 or more trains that can operate
independently of the others
Trap Rock strata that are arranged so that petroleum
accumulates in them
Trunk lines Long distance pipelines, as distinct from
field, gathering or branch lines
TSA Tolling Services Agreement
TUA Terminal Use Agreement
Tubing Small-diameter pipe that is run into a well to
serve as a conduit for the flow of oil and gas to the
surface
Tubing head The tubing head is installed at the
wellhead on the production tubing, sealing off the
annulus between the casing and the tubing, and carries
the connections for production flowlines
Tubing hanger Incorporated in a tubing head (similar to
a casing hanger)
Turnkey contract Fixed price contract for construction,
TLP Facility drilling a well, etc., contractor takes on risk for non-
completion
22 esandaegineering.com
Turret moored A production turret (a cylindrical buoy) Volatility Readiness with which a liquid converts to its
is built into a cavity similar to a moon-pool in a floating gas state
ship-shaped production facility, this is connected to the
VP Vapour Pressure
wells by flexible pipelines and then moored in place, the
ship/facility is free to rotate or “weathervane” around the VSD Variable Speed Drive
turret maintaining an optimum profile to wind and sea. WACC Weighted Average Cost of Capital – is
The turret can also be externally attached the average rate of return a company expects to
TUT Topside Umbilical Termination compensate all its different investors. The weights are
the fraction of each financing source in the company’s
TUTU Topside Umbilical Termination Unit
target capital structure
TVD True Vertical Depth; the vertical distance below
WAP Wax Appearance Point
surface datum reached by a deviated well
WAT Wax Appearance Temperature
TVDSS True Vertical Depth Subsea
Water drive Hydrocarbon reservoir in contact with
UFL Upper Flammability Limit. The highest concentration
underlying water table, the formation pressure will drive
of a substance that will burn in air, usually expressed in
the water into the rock pores vacated by produced
vol %. 15% for Natural Gas
oil, thus maintaining reservoir pressure and aiding
Ullage Unused/available storage in a tanker, pipeline or production
plant
Watering out When the proportion of water in
Unconventional Currently refers to oil and gas production from a well is so high that it must be shut in
resources whose porosity, permeability, fluid trapping (up to 95%)
mechanism, or other characteristics differ from
Water injection The injection of water in order to
conventional sandstone and carbonate reservoirs.
maintain reservoir pressure and boost production
Coalbed methane, gas hydrates, shale gas, fractured
reservoirs, and tight gas sands are considered Water re-injection Disposal of produced water into a
unconventional resources disposal well as opposed to dumping to the environment
(not for boosting the reservoir pressure)
Upstream Exploration, development and production
Water saturation Proportion of water in the pore
USG United States Gallons
spaces of a reservoir. See Porosity
USGC United States Gulf Coast Location
Water separation Removal of water from oil or gas,
UTA Umbilical Termination Assembly
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator. A worldwide grid
system of rectangular coordinates that uses metric (SI)
units
Vapour pressure The pressure exerted by the vapour of
a substance, and also the pressure required to prevent a
liquid from vaporising
Vent Pipe/fitting on a vessel that can be opened to
atmosphere
Vent stack Open pipe and framework for discharging
vapours into the atmosphere at a safe location without
combustion
VFD Variable Frequency Drive
Viscosity Property of fluids/slurries indicating their
resistance to flow, defined as the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate
VIV Vortex Induced Vibration
VLCC Very Large Crude Carrier
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
Subsea (Wet) Christmas Tree
23
techniques available are e.g. settling (gravity), heating Well permit Regulatory permission to drill a well
and electrostatic precipitation (especially for breaking
Well program The engineering design and technical/
water-oil emulsions)
operational plan for drilling, completing and testing a well
Water table The level in the earth below which rock
Well testing Testing of an exploration or appraisal well
pores are saturated with water
to aid the estimation of reserves in communication with
Wax Paraffin waxes are found in crude oil, sometimes the well and well productivity. Testing in a production well
making up a significant proportion of it and require also monitors the effects of cumulative production on the
special treatment to allow the oil to flow freely at surface formation
conditions
Wet gas Natural hydrocarbon gas containing significant
WBS Work Breakdown Structure. Used to define amounts of natural gas liquids
individual responsibilities by project phase and area
Wet tree Xmas tree installed on seabed and exposed to
WD Water Depth water, see also Christmas tree
Weathering an increase in the density and ‘richness’ of WHRU Waste Heat Recovery Unit
stored LNG over time, as heat in-leak into the tank leads
WI Wobbe Index. A measure of gas heating value per
to boil-off of more volatile components such as nitrogen
unit flow of gas through an orifice
Weather window Period of relativity good weather
WI Water injection
when operations can take place
Wildcat Well drilled in an area where no oil or gas
Well Steel-lined boreholes drilled to search for, exploit
production exists. With modern exploration methods
and produce hydrocarbon reservoirs
and equipment, about one wildcat out of every seven
Well completion Preparing a well for the production of proves productive, but not necessarily economic
oil and gas
Wireline Small-diameter metal line used in wireline
Wellhead The “Wellhead” is descriptive of a location or operations; also called slick line. A system in which
function (including the Xmas tree and hang offs) rather a flexible cable and reel is used to lower a log or
than a specific item of equipment. Permanent equipment maintenance equipment into a well, rather than a rigid
used to secure and seal the casings and production drill string, offering considerable savings of equipment,
tubing and to provide a mounting for the Xmas tree manpower and time
Wellhead platform Offshore platform designed to WO Workover
support only wellheads (including Xmas trees) and
Workover Maintenance job on a well to replace
associated piping, production fluids are then transferred
equipment and or stimulate production
to a nearby production platform or onshore for
processing Workover rig Usually a smaller portable version which
can be used on installations which do not have a
Wellhead separator The first process vessel in a
permanent rig
production operation, operating at or near wellhead
pressures WOW Waiting on weather
Well logging Recording of information of subsurface Xmas tree See Christmas tree
formations. Logging includes records kept by the driller Zone Interval between two depths in a well containing
and records of mud and cutting analyses, core analyses, reservoir or other distinctive characteristics
drill stem tests, and electric, acoustic and radioactivity
logging
24 esandaegineering.com
Petroleum Chemistry
Petroleum Chemistry
Trans
form
Oil Categories
Crude API Range
i Light Crude 31.1 – 45.1
ii Medium 22.3 – 20.2
iii Heavy 10.0 – 21.5
iv Extra Heavy* 0.1 – 6.5
*also referred to as bitumen
141.4
API gravity = - 131.5
SG
density of oil
Specific Gravity (SG) =
density of water
Sweet Crude Contains little or no sulphur http://estliving.
com/style-
Sour Crude Contains free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), or other sulphur containing
hunter-juliette-
compounds in amounts greater than 1%
arent-2/?utm_so
urce=Est+Maga
zine+%7C+Sub
Gas and Gas Condensate Categories scription&utm_
Water
CO2 & H2S Impurities
Nitrogen
1861-1865 American Civil War.1 Modern barrel of oil is 1945 WWII ends Germany and Japan basically run out
equivalent to around 23,000 human energy slave hours of fuel
1865 Civil war is over and oil costs 59 cents per gallon 1951 Iranians nationalise Anglo Iranian – First post-war
oil crisis
1870 John D Rockefeller sets up Standard Oil. Kerosene
costs 26 cents per gallon 1956 Suez crisis – Second post-war oil crisis
28 esandaegineering.com
LNG History
1914 Godfrey L Cabot patents a river barge for handling 1991 First LNG deliveries from Australia’s North West
and transporting liquid gas Shelf arrive in Japan and South Korea
1917 LNG was proven viable when the first LNG plant 1993 Polar Eagle and Arctic Sun, 83.5km3, with IHI
went into operation in West Virginia prismatic containment system (SPB) begin service from
Alaska to Tokyo
1941 Storing concentrated energy in commercial “Peak
shaving plants” in the USA (Cleveland) 1995 MLNG Dua is first LNG Plant to use large Frame
7 GT drivers, leading to significant reduction in fuel
1959 First LNG cargo delivered by ship. Methane
consumptions and increase in train size
Pioneer transports a cargo of 2,000 tons of natural gas
from Louisiana across the Atlantic to Canvey Island on 1999 Atlantic LNG plant in Trinidad becomes first
the Thames estuary baseload LNG plant since Kenai to use Cascade
liquefaction process, adopting two trains in one
1960 Conch International Methane conducts pioneering
approach. Further trains in Trinidad and elsewhere follow
series of experiments involving small-scale LNG spills on
using the “Optimised Cascade” process
land at Lake Charles, LA for U.S. Bureau of Mines
2000 Joint Industry Project Azure to assess feasibility of
1964 First baseload LNG plant (Camel) in operation in
Floating LNG (FLNG)
Arzew, Algeria. 1.2 MMTPA (3X0.4MMTPA Trains) using
TEAL Cascade process. Steam turbine driven 2004 APCI SplitMR technology used for first time on
RasGas Train 3. This meant same GT driver to be used
1964 International LNG shipping (part of the “LNG
for both propane and MR compressors. It allowed a LNG
chain”) between Algeria and Europe. First purpose built
production capacity close to 5 mmtpa
LNG ships (LNG Princess and LNG Progress) built using
Conch tanks 2004 Explosions and fire destroy a portion of the LNG
liquefaction plant in Skikda, Algeria, killing 27 people
By 1969 three more trades (Algeria - France, Libya - Italy
and Spain, Alaska – Japan 2005 Excelerate Energy commission Gulf Gateway
Deepwater Port, offshore Louisiana using Excelsior SRV
1969 1.5 mmtpa export plant in Kenai, Alaska applies
the three refrigerant Phillips Cascade cycle. GT-driven. 2007 Excelerate Energy commissions Teesside Gas
First use of Aluminum Plate Fin Heat Exchangers Port using regas vessel with dockside coonection and
unloading
1970 First APCI SMR export plant built at Marsa
El Brega, Libya 2*0.75MMTPA trains, using SWHE 2007 First Q-Flex (Qatar-Flex) LNG Carrier (210km3)
technology delivered by Hyundai Heavy Industries to QatarGas in
late 2007. Includes Hamworthy BOG re-liquefaction
1971 Kvaerner develops 88km3 Moss spherical
system
containment system
2007 Statoil start up 4.4 MMTPA Snohvit LNG terminal
1971 First US Import terminal established at Everett, MD.
in Melkoya Island, Norway which uses Linde’s proprietary
Cove Point and Elba Island terminals follow in 1978
MFC refrigeration technology and Linde SWHE’s
1972 First propane-precooled mixed refrigerant cycle
2008 First Q-Max LNG Carrier (266km3) delivered by
(APCI C3MR) constructed for Shell Brunei (5x1.1 MMTPA
Samsung Heavy Industries to QatarGas in 2008
capacity)
2008 World’s first LNG ship to FSRU conversion, Golar
1975 100 km3 LNG Carrier size exceeded with delivery
Spirit, a 129km3 Moss carrier, carried out by Keppel
of French built Ben Franklin, 120km3
Singapore and in service for Petrobras, Pecem, Brazil
1977 first Middle East project got underway with the 2 x
2009 World’s second LNG ship to FSRU conversion,
1.25 MMtpa train Das Island project in Abu Dhabi. Plant
Golar Winter, a 138km3 membrane carrier, carried
size increased further later that year when Indonesia
out by Keppel Singapore and in service for Petrobras,
joined the ranks of LNG exporting countries with the
Guanabara Bay, Brazil
start-up of the 2 x 2 MMtpa trains in Bontang
2008-2010 Start-up of 6x7.8MMTPA LNG trains for
1979 Formation of Society of International Gas Tanker
Rasgas and QatarGas, using APCI AP-X technology and
and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) to promote safe and
Frame 9E drivers
reliable operation of gas tankers and terminals
2011 Shell sanctions Prelude development, first FLNG
1983 First Malaysia LNG export, MLNG Satu. This was
development, using Shell DMR process, 3.6 MMTPA,
last ever steam-turbine driven Greenfield plant, 3 x 2.1
offshore Australia
MMTPA trains. Little other Greenfield activity in 1980’S,
mainly expansion of existing terminals
30 esandaegineering.com
FLNG – Shell Prelude Construction Video SCF natural gas = ~ 1,025 Btu
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOf4yDkHl50
Natural Gas
Petroleum Chemistry
Essentially >90% Methane
Calorific Value ~ 1,000 Btu/SCF
“Energy density” by Scott Dial - Own work Data Source: Energy density, Lithium-ion battery. Licensed under Public Domain via Commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Energy_density.svg#/media/File:Energy_density.svg
2 60 4 0.5
5 Initial maturity
3 90 Katagenesis (zone of oil
Oil generation)
6
4 120 7 1.2
Wet 8
Gas 5 150 2.0 Condensate/
9 Wet gas
Dry
Metagenesis
10
High temperature
6 250 5.0
methane
Metamorphic
32 esandaegineering.com
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arisen from any such information.
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