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The Philosophy of Depression

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Outlook on Communication

THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEPRESSION

Bogdan POPOVENIUC1

1. Assoc. Prof., PhD, University “Ştefan cel Mare” of Suceava, Romania

Corresponding author: bpopoveniuc@yahoo.com

Abstract about themselves, their situation, and the future.

Depression, together with anxiety, is one of the most Trapped in their pessimism, they brood/obsess
fundamental emotional states of conscious being. The fall over their problems and blow them out of
from the paradise of innocence was the fall into knowledge proportion. Feeling hopeless and helpless, they
which brings about the freedom of choice and uncertainty
of understanding altogether. The level of self-consciousness may even start to see suicide as their only way
state I come with self-understanding an auto-poietic out.”1 The grief, sadness and despair provoked
process of self-referentiality that involves both the anxiety by stressful or tragic events are part of our lives,
of responsibility and depression of choosing. Consciousness
trials that almost all people share. Usually,
begun with anxiety and depression, and was assisted by
them throughout its entire evolution. The present high rate following disruptive events - dramatic changes,
of clinical depressed people is a sign of an unbalanced undesirable loss of loved ones - many try to deny
functioning and of an inappropriate understanding these reality, some become angry, some try to negotiate,
two fundamental axes of human psychic within modern
culture, which should be reconsidered and employed for
a few fall into depression, others refashion
the progress of the consciousness and not foolishly themselves in the resulting condition and accept
pharmacological concealed. it, or all of these, while others display, on the
Keywords: Depression, Anxiety, Biopsychosocial Model, outside at least, a strong resilience. This is the
Self-reflexivity, Depressive realism, Diathesis, Mental-Material
Dialectic. everyday image of the ordinary individual who
lives his life being led into thinking and acting
To be, or not to be: that is the question:// Whether by the values and
​​ cultural (pre)judgments within
’tis nobler in the mind to suffer// The slings and a given historical society. Education, the structure
arrows of outrageous fortune,// Or to take arms of social relations, the values ​​and beliefs have
against a sea of troubles,// And by opposing end them? always had a mood stabilizing role in any culture
To die: to sleep;// No more; and by a sleep to say we preventing the transformation of transitory
end// The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks// anxiety or depression into lasting syndromes.
That flesh is heir to, ’tis a consummation// Devoutly From beyond the cold curtain of the outside
to be wish’d. To die, to sleep;// To sleep: perchance to psychosocial perspective, there lies the inside
dream: ay, there’s the rub;// For in that sleep of death deeper reality of the states of consciousness.
Contemporary science has few clues about this
what dreams may come// When we have shuffled off
reality and no meaningful tools for analyzing
this mortal coil,// Must give us pause: there’s the
and understanding it. The development of
respect// That makes calamity of so long life;// For who
human consciousness - of consciousness about
would bear the whips and scorns of time,// The
itself (self-consciousness), for itself and in itself
oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely,// The
- above psychogenic and biological
pangs of despised love, the law’s delay,// The insolence
determinations, brought the avatars of
of office and the spurns// That patient merit of the
uncertainty born from the “Why?” but mostly
unworthy takes,// When he himself might his quietus
from the “For What?” of the existence. The
make With a bare bodkin? (Hamlet, Act 3 Scene 1)
contradiction of the consciousness with the non-
consciousness, of the human existence with its
“People suffering from depression often show
non-existence, settles a universal nihilistic
distorted thinking. Everything looks bleak to
metaphysical substrate of cognition. The
them, and they hold extremely negative views
reclusion in religion or in living for the moment

22 Volume 4 • Issue 1 January / March 2014 •

 THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEPRESSION

or immediate action has represented only a well-established natural science rules the modern
temporary palliative to the problems of hidden science. In 1992, 86% out of a total of 627 papers
consequences brought about by the reflexivity of presented in the New Research sessions at the
consciousness. The destruction of traditional annual meeting of the American Psychiatric
values, scientific ambiguities, social insecurity all Association were biomedically oriented and
lead to the formation of a nihilistic philosophy more than 88% from 227 papers presented by
of life. Plain and cynical, the negative nihilistic “young investigators” were biomedically
answer to the fundamental question of any focused.5 Twenty years later there is no sign of
sentient being whether there is a meaning of life change. In the list of Top Ten Research Advances
outlines the cognitive infrastructure of any of 2012 proposed by the Director of National
depression. “That’s the thing about depression: institute for Mental Health, eight were biomedical
A human being can survive almost anything, as topics. However, these breakthroughs are “not
long as she sees the end in sight. But depression directly focused on mental disorders, but they
is so insidious, and it compounds daily, that it’s suggested new vistas for biology that will almost
impossible to ever see the end.”2 And this certainly change the way we understand serious
constitutes the exceptionality of the depressive mental illness and neurodevelopmental
phenomenon. More than the dreadful but disorders.”6 These “advances” include topics as
vitalizing anxiety in the face of the salience of “epigenomics”, “neurodevelopmental
death, depression brings about hopelessness and genomics”, “optogenetics and oscillations in the
depletes every innate living thrill. brain,” “mapping the human brain at the
The contradiction between the rational molecular level” and “mapping the human
cognition of “It is futile” and the biological connectome”, “unexpected genome variation”,
volition of “I want to live” falls in the passive “the human microbiome” and “the ENCyclopedia
state of (organic) depression. Living “into of DNA Elements (ENCODE) project”. Among
immediacy and for preservation” does not lead these top priority advances there is no concern
to depression3, as the being for the moment lacks for any concrete improvement in the assessment,
a proper sense and thereof the need to feel it. prevention or treatment of mental disorder. No
Self-consciousness instead is free in its essence intent for studying the context, the nonclinical
and is found itself in thought and action. Because elements, the alternative therapies or mental
the thought cannot be fulfilled in its completeness health enhancement. The solely humanist
in the act, it will always be left with some advance of modern science of psychiatry seems
uncertainty. And “uncertainty leaves alternatives to be the individualization of the disease for the
to any conclusion open and thus engenders patient, but even this is not a fair progress, quite
freedom of choice - responsibility in not knowing. the opposite.
It is here where confusion, awareness of guilt, Hippocrates has considered “there are three
anxiety and depression are ontologically factors in the practice of medicine: the disease,
grounded.” 4 This metaphysical constituent the patient, and the physician. The physician is
conjugated with the tri-unitary ontological the servant of the science, and the patient must
structure of the human being explains the do what he can to fight the disease with the
difficulties of understanding the depressive assistance of the physician. The physician is the
syndrome mechanisms only through current servant of his art, and the patient must cooperate
scientific paradigm. These profound roots and with the doctor in combating the disease.”7
mixed bio-psycho-social facets makes the Hippocrates established the Art of Medicine “on
depression question less solvable in any linear a solid and unshakeable basis” namely the
logical enquiry. principle “that our natures are the physicians of
The human sciences seem inevitably diseases” and the method of “the exact description
contaminated with this mono-epistemic of nature”.8 More than five hundred years later,
perspective from the more mature natural Galen considered there was only one disease as
sciences. Psychology, the medicine of the soul, is abnormal countless variations of the four
no exception. The paradigm of more humours. He posits the methodological difference

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Bogdan POPOVENIUC

between considering the patient in all of his/her metaphysical truth “that anxiety and depression
particularity and understanding the patient as are ontologically necessary factors of human
an individual instance of a general rule of consciousness. They are ways of experiencing
biomedical science.9 By the particular way he oneself in reality which are indispensable for the
managed this difference, he seems to have development of individual human consciousness
individualized and hence apparently humanized in truth to reality.”13
medicine. „Psychiatry today is Galenic, not Unfortunately, the compulsory need for
Hippocratic. The four humours have become a certitude, which fostered and carried the scientific
half dozen neurotransmitters, whose rise and fall endeavor from its dawn, has a cost. The insurance
we speculatively manipulate with drugs. Careful against uncertainty has as unavoidable
clinical observation and nosology of disease, the complement: the limited mode of enquiry, e.g.
hallmark of Hippocratic thinking, have been the Real could be seen from a single perspective.
replaced by penny-in-the-slot drug-for-symptom For this reason, throughout the entire history of
practice. This pseudoscience is justified on psychology, we witness to a continual alternating
humanistic grounds as being individualized to dominance of two perspectives on the human
the patient. We forget that such extremist being: the behavioral view from outside and the
individualization, which is the opposite of cognitive view from inside. The prolonged
science, produced 2000 years of dehumanizing, hegemony of any of them has ended in the
harmful bleeding and purging,” 10 alongside with accretion and highlighting of its shortcomings,
vomiting and sweating. which led to an increasing rate of research and
A dialectical logic of mental-material development of the other alternative.14 Unlike in
relationship is required because it is the solely Natural Sciences, in Psychology the object of
able to support an integrative psychobiological research is also a reflexive subject. Therefore the
model for understanding depression. It would subjects reflect on their own objectivity and thus
start from the existence of different genetic change themselves due to new discoveries and
variants which sensitize people to the disturbing information. In addition, given the heterogeneity
life experiences that make them vulnerable to of the human being, each of the two paradigms
depression. It should rely on studies to identify are doomed to reach, sooner or later, an
biological mechanisms that contribute to unsatisfactory point.
depression by favoring the tendency to interpret The human (self-)reflexivity, as individuals
events in an extremely negative way and socio- and social groups, is the one that best explains
cultural factors which supply the content, the this perpetual metaphysical two-step oscillation
context and the triggering mechanisms.11 These between the two major paradigms of
mechanisms become completely meaningful understanding mental reality: Person Constructs
only within broader the evolutionist perspective. Reality (mentalism) versus Reality Constructs
Within such a model, the biological or genetic Person (materialism). There could be three
vulnerability (diathesis) is understood as possible hypotheses underlying this cyclic alternation.
predisposition for social influences and control “First, there might be some emotional or
by virtue of group selection ecology, the one conceptual threshold which is reached each time
which „has sculpted the perverse makeup which a community of psychologists look at human
manifests itself in our depressive lethargy, in our (and, therefore, their own) behavior through the
paralyzing anxiety, in the irritability which lens of either metaphysic for too long. Reaching
drives others away when we need them most, in the threshold would then result in these
our depressive resignation when success psychologists or the next generation of
repeatedly eludes us, and in the failure of our psychologists wearing the opposite lens. The
health when we lose the status, goals, or people second hypothesis is that there is no logical
who give us our sense of meaning and even our vocabulary, no metaphysic, available which
very sense of being.”12 Only such a complex and adequately captures the truth contained in both
culturally elevated view, which most of all could Person Constructs Reality and Reality Constructs
be empirically endorsed, supports the validity of Person models. Perhaps this is due to our

24 Volume 4 • Issue 1 January / March 2014 •

 THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEPRESSION

cognitive incapacity to construct such a biogenetic (genetic predisposition20), somatic21,

vocabulary, or to the weight of traditional physical ailments (cerebellar cognitive affective
scientific models, or perhaps it is simply due to syndrome22 or cancerous tumors), psychological
the historical accident that none had yet been (particular negative aspects of personality and
constructed.”15 The third hypothesis is that emotional development, an cognitive erroneous
psychology is just a form of social history, a type compound (cognitive negative biases and
of social commentary, and this swinging is distortions23)), to the social (prejudice, lack of
simply the expression of our alternating historical support, adverse conditions, poverty and social
sense that we have of ourselves. “Psychological isolation), and should be combined with species
talk of humans as subjects who make reality is evolutionary adaptive resources (e.g. the theories
due to the fact that that is what we are doing or of analytical rumination24, depressive realism25
recommending doing at the historical time. social risk26 or ranks, honest signaling theory and
When our psychological theories talk of humans bargaining theory27, and so on28). However, none
as objects made by reality they are depicting or of these factors alone could explain or actuate
recommending a way of being.”16 depressive state. For example, studies show that
Irrespective of which explanation is true, the „genetic vulnerability for depression does not
researchers, experts and clinicians should be enhance an individual’s vulnerability for stressful
aware that the scientific understanding of a events,”29 and the positive of various psychological
psychic disorder is not a simple issue of precise therapies confirm this complex relations. Such an
assessment and diagnosis. The scientific integrated and systemic conceptual framework
representation which makes possible the criteria might explain how precipitating factors in the
for assessment is relative, to a certain degree, to life of the individual could increase the mental
the more flexible social representation existent in and neuronal activity above the vulnerability
the epoch. “An epidemiologist who is asked: are threshold. In this case, the functional equilibrium
people more depressed in 2000 than we were in between cognitions and emotions (and between
1900? He or she is painfully aware that the groups of neurons) and the normal dynamism
definition of depression has changed, and that and flexibility of mental activation will fail. The
any ‘change in the rate of depression’ might only proper interaction with the environment will be
reflect the change of definition. It is like scoring compromised and a “binding dysfunction” will
a game where the rules frequently change.”17 occur. According to this “binding dysfunction”,
The biological truth of explaining in terms of the “vulnerability or predisposition to Depression
quantities and qualities of monoamine would be associated with the imbalance between
neurotransmitters is as deceptively truncated as activating and inhibiting interactions (between
the social or psychological scientific truth. A some cognitions and emotions at a mental level,
model that is gaining ground, but still cannot and between certain neuronal groups at a cerebral
evolve toward consistency and substance18, is the level).30
biopsychosocial one. It is based on the concept But as long as this model will not incorporate
of psychobiological vulnerability - a compound the mandatory cultural feature, the understanding
of genetic, somatic, psychological, and societal of depression would fail to appear in its true
risk factors. When the load of disturbing profound reality. It will miss the metaphysical
circumstances attains the superior threshold of ground that “any major sufferings of the psyche,
psychobiological vulnerability, it triggers a as anxiety and depression, have their origin in
negative somato-cognitive downward loop in fundamental human disorientation and must be
which the interactions among symptoms, recognized as indispensable resources of human
vulnerability, and stressors overwhelm the cognition and morality. Thus it is essential for
protective factors and drive the individual the livelihood of human consciousness to
toward a depressive state.19 Numerous studies acknowledge and recognize a variety of
have already revealed the implication of diverse experiences as suffering, - not just those which
elements composing the biopsychosocial are intensely and undeniably felt, but also (and
vulnerability. These factors range from the especially) those which one may not recognize

International Journal of Communication Research 25

Bogdan POPOVENIUC

as suffering; a conscious or unconscious denial is.”39

of uncertainty may be tantamount to devastating This psychological mechanism is supported
self-deception”31 by the metaphysical understanding of the
This philosophical perspective places in a new process. The approach to the truth, the ability to
light on what the medical world only half- accurately assess lie under the menace of
heartedly32 recognized: the phenomenon of becoming aware and feeling the fundamental
depressive realism.33 The increased accuracy of truth of Nothingness, hence the risk of
self-assessment, due to cognitive mechanisms34 pathological breakdown. But self-reflexivity and
as self-focused attention and self-schemas meta-cognition have therapeutic effects also, as
particular structure, supports the idea of self- the studies on cognitive-behavioral therapies
reflexivity involvement favored by these demonstrate the positive effects on mood and
particularities of dysphoric phenomena. Self- self-esteem produced by the reflection upon and
centered attention “defined as an awareness of challenging these depressive patterns of thinking.
self-referential, internally generated information Hence, not the process per se is pathologic, rather
that stands in contrast to an awareness of its context-relation.
externally generated information derived These particular positive effects of depression
through sensory receptors,”35 might be a good were unnoticed because of another limiting
explanation for this performance. The morbidity aspect of psychological research practice.
mechanisms of the depressive self-assessment “Psychology has almost entirely dwelt on the
could be based on a high a level of self-focus that problematic, the abnormal and the ordinary in
initiates, in the case of these persons, a downward its focus. Very rarely have psychologist – shifted
self-regulating process of negative self- their scientific lens to focus on people who were
evaluation, from which the individual cannot in some sense (other then intellectual) far above
escape in the absence of self-enhancing biases normal.”40 The exceptional cultural outcomes in
specific to non-depressed individuals.36 The fall which the depressive syndrome was heavily
in the pathology of depression is due not so involved (one could be say almost up to the level
much to the degree and duration of focusing of determinism) were omitted. Paul Feyerabend,
attention to itself alone and practicing self- Michel Foucaul, Herbert Hart, William James,
reflexivity, but rather to a deficiency of attentional John Stuart Mill, Friedrich Nietzsche are just
flexibility, an inability to easily shift attention some of the outstanding figures that have
away from the self to the others or outside suffered from clinical depression. For many
world.37 Significant deviations in the degree, others, whose works prove high quality
duration, and flexibility of self-focused attention introspective skills, could have been easily
turn into the morbidity of “self-absorption”.38 assigned dysthymic or dysphoric symptoms by
Self-absorption, as characteristic of contemporary diagnostic criteria, in the context
psychopathological states of functioning, is of a culture that overtly promotes the extrovert
defined as a dysfunctional shift in the combination individualism.41
of degree, duration and flexibility parameters of Psychological research focuses exclusively on
attention, particularly shifts to excessive internal what disturbances and what goes wrong rather
focus, sustained for protracted periods of time, than on what goes right with us. It emphasizes
and inflexibility (cognitive intransigence) of the negative side of the human being that gave
attention. While these processes are regular a dark shade to the social representation of
mechanisms of normal functioning, they could psychological practice and knowledge, rather
turn into an abnormal functioning. For example, than positive side of human experience and
the internal attention could vary from normal, to goodness. The scientific psychology is employed
maladaptative functioning, psychopathologic rather for refitting, not improving and developing.
and up to a disorder level according to its degree As consequence, “mental health per se had not
and while “a chronic self-focused attention per been studied in psychiatry. Instead the focus of
se is not dysfunctional; an inability to shift out research had been on mental disorders, and
of this state in response to situational demands mental health was defined, largely by default, as

26 Volume 4 • Issue 1 January / March 2014 •

 THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEPRESSION

the absence of psychiatric illness.” 42 The instead of being pathologized could be very well
metaphysical ground of modern culture is based controlled and operated for the benefit of cultural
on tragic settings. Life on earth is doomed to development. “I understand depression to be
suffering and sorrow, with no sight for the beginning of an unfolding process of self-
exceptional and enlightening (emotional) states awareness, not the grim end of a disease process
of mind. It is obvious why, in medical world, (…) depression’s signs and symptoms can be
depression is seen as “a real disease, just as a used as opportunities rather than viewed as
heart attack is real. Depression produces physical, catastrophe and (…) clinically depressed and
emotional and thinking symptoms. Without ordinarily unhappy and confused people can
treatment, depression can last for years and can achieve greater understanding, wholeness, and
even end in suicide. With treatment, as many as fulfillment.” 46 This self-learning and self-
nine out of 10 people recover.”43 They recover developing process could be initiated and
from the clinical depression into “normal become real only if we become aware of the
neurosis” – as Sigmund Freud set the goal of underlying philosophical overview. The
therapy to “transforming neurotic misery into existential condition of a conscious being in the
common unhappiness”. world is a very disturbing and challenging
“Depression is not one thing; it is many situation. The entire history of philosophy, if not
things. Sometimes it is a disease, as in manic- exclusively, but importantly, could be seen “as a
depression; in this case, it comes and goes in diverse multitude of endeavors to find therapies
severe episodes which are impossible to stop or for such primordial suffering. As this is
control without the right medications. Sometimes constitutive of human existence and cognition,
it’s a reflection of personality traits, a tendency thus ontologically necessary, it cannot be cured.
to be anxious and moderately sad all the time, It can be integrated, considered as a cognitive
with brief periods of mood worsening. Sometimes, source, to be lived with rather than under. Thus
it’s just a reflection of life, and death, the we are, as Nietzsche says, always convalescents.”47
existential despair that we all experience, whether There is no way for psychology, the science of
we want to admit it or not.”44 The scientific and mental states, of thoughts and feelings, to
political community should understand that, circumvent the underlying philosophical truth
regardless of their illusory bias of certitude, to a of any of his theories on mental processes, of the
very high degree part mental disorder is not mind-body relationship, or of normal-abnormal
something that could be defined and evaluated significance. “There is no escape from philosophy.
with 100% percent accuracy. Being a cultural The question is only whether [a philosophy] is
phenomenon, it is relative at overall age level of good or bad, muddled or clear.”48
understanding and is shaped by this. “Mental But the appropriate cognitive therapy able to
disorder is what clinicians treat and researchers properly address the issue of depressive state
research and educators teach and insurance should contain at least a strong compound of
companies pay for.”45 It is not a reality in itself philosophical analysis, which if it is not existential
and for this reason the application of natural is at least strongly related to it. However, it
science methodology is limited. It is mandatory should, first and foremost, make use of the strong
for the present researcher community and for component of reflexivity, the one that provides
public perception to go beyond the positivist the metaphysical substratum of collective living
conception of statistically probing the studied identity. An individualist existentialism like
object and toward a more comprehensive rigorous self-referentiality is from the beginning
understanding of (non-clinical) depressive state a dead-end, if is not backed up by a self-reflexive
of consciousness. This perspective will expose perspective to include others as conditions of
the profound truth that depression is the possibility of one’s self-consciousness.
expression of a need for a comprehensive insight The entrenched image supported by the
into the state of a conscious being that lives in a hegemonic paradigm of technical natural science
colossal unknown universe. This psychological in psychology claims that only the cognitive and
disposition could prove a useful provision which behavioral approaches have empirical evidence

International Journal of Communication Research 27

Bogdan POPOVENIUC

for their effectiveness. It conceals the truth that Most of us don’t despair, though, because we
psychodynamic therapies are empirically based. don’t know what it means to say that the world
In the case of the latter, there are strong findings is postmodern and God is dead. In fact, we know
that demonstrate patients seem to continue to it so well - that the world is postmodern and God
maintain therapeutic gains and even improve is dead–that we aren’t conscious of what we
their condition after treatment. These raises the know…”52
question whether “the efficiency of The postmodern Man, the darkest caricature
nonpsychodynamic therapies may be effective in of the Enlighten Man product of Renaissance has
part because the more skilled practitioners utilize dealt Reason for Illusion, the immaterial faith to
techniques that have long been central to material comfort and the elevated altruistic
psychodynamic theory and practice,”49 especially gratification for the grotesque self-satisfied
methods such as self-awareness and self- individualism. He is proud about its self-
examination. Achieving self-knowledge through considered superiority of its skeptic relativism
self-reflexivity is the (only) therapeutic and over believers’ absolute and his mingled
personal development method able to fully knowledge over rationalists’ rigor. He has access
exploit the structural existential reality of human at much knowledge that anyone had before, but
being. From this perspective „philosophy and he prefers the superficial information and denies
psychology are deeply connected in reflecting the access to real knowledge. The World returns
the task of developing through anxiety and to its unintelligible and hostile state as it was for
depression rather than against them. Philosophical the first men in the beginning of consciousness.
methods if worth their salt are therapies to get The ancestral depression and anxiety begin to
us unstuck from the horrors of suffering in master the human mind and emotions one more
anxiety and depression - as well as from such time.
‘truths’ as are supposed to eliminate In this valley of the shadow of death there is
uncertainty.”50 As a cognitive being, released a path for goodness and loving kindness in
from the implacable determinism of the organic rightful understanding of Life and Being, what
structure, Man is condemned to freedom of the Spirituality is truly about. The autopoiesis of
intention, to self-consciousness. Man makes his the living, the self-creative character of human
reality and makes himself by thinking. „Watch knowledge and evolution is a totally pleasingly
your thoughts, for they become words. Watch ground and aim for motivating the endeavor of
your words, for they become actions. Watch your life in the Universe. Self-reflexivity, as an ability
actions, for they become habits. Watch your of understanding the creative character of
habits, for they become your character. And knowing about the world and of self-awareness,
watch your character, for it becomes your destiny. and as an understanding of inter-relation of this
What we think, we become.”51 knowledge, is that level of consciousness which
The non-introspective living, devoid of can assure the balance of bio-psycho-social-
reflexivity, makes the individual a creature of cultural forces which tensional shape the human
impulses, whose life is chosen by the course of being. The present psychiatric affections should
events. Thinking as your surrounding be reinterpreted, and the primitive biomedical
environment and media suggest - that is over- model elevated to a bio-psycho-social-cultural
enhanced, flattering and illusory - leads to a self- paradigm. We may only hope that such a
deceptive and contingent construction of paradigm of the psychic diseases will be endorsed
personality. An exaggerated introspection of by cultural selection, if a similar evolutionary
brutal realism devoid of the creativity of utopia mechanism which insures the functioning and
leads to the worsening of fundamental anxiety survival of the living world, governs the
and depression (i.e. as of their fundamental development of social knowledge, the futile and
status of a being aware of its own existence.) “In ineffective directions ending in self-destruction.
a word, we are living in a postmodern world Otherwise the rise of a Prozac Mankind seems
where nothing is true and nothing is false; the imminent.
rational response to such a world is despair.

28 Volume 4 • Issue 1 January / March 2014 •

 THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEPRESSION

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International Journal of Communication Research 31

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