Bioethanol Production From Corn Stover PDF
Bioethanol Production From Corn Stover PDF
Bioethanol Production From Corn Stover PDF
May 2017
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
May 2017
We are submitting herewith our process and equipment design report entitled “Bioethanol
Production from Corn Stover” as a chemical engineering process and equipment design course
requirement.
The objective of this design report is to show a detailed presentation of the equipment, feed,
operating conditions and feasibility of the processes involved in the manufacture of corn stover as
a potential feedstock for bioethanol.
The design report includes an introduction on the product and process overviews, process
descriptions and flow diagrams, material and energy balances, process control system design,
equipment design specifications, costing and project evaluation and safety, health and environment
analysis.
Sincerely yours,
i
CERTIFICATION
This Project Design hereto entitled “Bioethanol Production from Corn Stover”, prepared and
submitted by Martin G. Baccay Jr., Princess Janine B. Catral, Karl Ian O. Martinez, and Viejay Z.
Ordillo in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course Plant Design, has been examined
____________________________
Instructor
APPROVAL
This Project Design is hereby approved and accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for
_____________________________
Department Chairman
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to the people who helped and guided us
To Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan for his continuous guidance and understanding, instructive
suggestions and constructive motivations for the accomplishment of this design report.
To our friends and classmates for their support and encouragement in softening the
To our families for their constant support emotionally and financially, love, prayers and
And above all, to the Almighty God, our supreme maker and provider of knowledge and
iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Bioethanol production is one of the most potential and realistic methods for lessening our
reliance on the currently depleting fossil fuels for energy source. The use of agricultural and
industrial waste as raw material guarantees that such method has no intention for environmental
degradation. Also, it is an economic responsibility for the country to impose the use and
production of renewable fuels for future security and investment. Thus, this plant design report
In Chapter 1, the product information, process selection, site considerations and plant
layout are discussed. Based on the site considerations, the plant will be located at Brgy. San Jose,
Echague, Isabela.
For Chapter 2, the current demand and supply for bioethanol production in the Philippines
is discussed together with the existing laws and regulations regarding its manufacture.
Chapter 3 details the chemical processes and unit operations involved in the production.
Included here are the process control and equipment design for each equipment used.
Furthermore, Chapter 4 elaborates the estimated cost for each equipment, the payback
period, the return of investment and other economic aspect for putting up the plant
Finally, Chapter 5 lays out the environmental hazards and safety rules and regulations
particular to the plant production especially the material and safety data sheet for each chemical
The material and energy balance, equipment design calculations, equations, tables and rules
iv
Table of Contents
Title Page
Letter of Transmittal i
Acknowledgment ii
Executive Summary iv
Table of Contents v
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
Chapter 1 – Introduction 1
I. Product Information 1
B. Comparative Factors 8
C. Site Layout 10
D. Plant Layout 11
A. Cost of Imports 17
v
B. Cost of Locally-Produced Ethanol 18
C. Cost of Transportation 18
D. Tariff Assumed/Expected 19
A. Terms of Use 21
B. Distribution 21
C. Promotion 22
D. Packaging 23
I. Process Description 24
1. Milling 24
2. Steam Explosion 24
B. Reactor 24
D. Separator 25
1. Beer Distillation 25
2. Gas Absorption 25
3. Ethanol Distillation 25
4. Adsorption 26
E. Recycle 26
B. Process Topology 28
vi
A. Summary of Material Balance 29
A. List of Equipment 32
1. Roller Mill 33
4. Hydrolyzer 39
5. Fermenter 41
6. Beer Column 43
8. Absorber Column 47
9. Ethanol Column 49
2. Valve Selection 56
b.Hydrolyzer 62
c. Fermenter 64
d. Beer Column 65
e. Absorber 66
vii
f. Ethanol Column 67
g. Adsorber Column 68
C. Working Capital 77
A. Manufacturing Cost 78
1. Direct Cost 78
2. Fixed Charges 80
3. Overhead Cost 80
B. General Expenses 81
1. Administrative Cost 81
A. Profitability 83
B. Payback Period 84
C. Return of Investment 86
A. Hazard Identification 88
viii
3. Hazards from Design, Construction and Commissioning 90
B. Risk Management 92
Bibliography 109
ix
List of Figures
x
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Table of Equipment Cost Using CAPCOST 2008 (CEPCI = 553.1) 70
xi
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
I. Product Information
obtained in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. This can be classified
into first generation bioethanol derived from food crops such as corn and sugar cane and second
generation bioethanol derived from lignocellulosic biomass. This type of biomass can be in the
form of forest residues, agricultural wastes such as rice, corn and wheat straw and industrial wastes
Ethanol is a very widely used compound in beverages and many food applications. Aside
from this, it has also good liquid fuel properties. It can be utilized as a fuel for vehicles in its pure
form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions.
Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline
to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol
with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means it
takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol
is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations,
which allows an increase of an engine’s compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency.
Ethanol is also used to fuel bioethanol fireplaces. As they do not require a chimney and
are “flueless", bioethanol fires are extremely useful for newly built homes and apartments without
a flux. The downsides to these fireplaces is that their heat output is slightly less than electric heat
or gas fires, and precautions must be taken to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
In general, bioethanol production undergoes (1) pretreatment, (2) hydrolysis, (3) fermentation
using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and (4) purification by distillation. The goal of any bioethanol
1
process is (1) to break down the feedstocks’ hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin, (2) maximize the
yield of sugars to be converted into ethanol and (3) reduce inhibition of yeast cells during the
fermentation process. Other aims are to shorten fermentation time, decrease the energy input
during the purification processes and to minimize carbon dioxide emission during fermentation.
Researchers have modified this mode of production and numerous trends have been achieved.
Corn straw, consisting of the stalks and leaves, is composed of about 70 percent cellulose
and hemicellulose, and 15 to 20 percent lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose can be converted to
ethanol, and lignin burned as a boiler fuel for steam/electricity generation. Developing ways to
quickly collect, handle and store biomass economically is required for biomass-to-ethanol
scientists, around 130 gallons of ethanol could be produced per ton of corn stover (Koundinya,
2016).
The two important routes to converting corn straw into biofuels are: biological conversion
gasification and pyrolysis. Pyrolysis oil (bio-oil) is produced when corn straw is rapidly heated in
the absence of air to temperatures ranging from 400 to 600oC. In gasification, the straw is gasified
and carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the synthesis gas are fermented into
For the fermentation process, two methods can be employed. These are simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation (SSF) and separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF). SSF has
higher ethanol yields due to removal of end product inhibition of saccharification step. It also
poses low production costs and a decrease in the number of reactors required. On the other hand,
the difference in optimum temperature conditions of enzyme for hydrolysis and fermentation may
pose some problems. For SHF, each step can be processed at its optimal operating conditions.
2
However, inhibition may take place which minimizes the yield of ethanol. Contamination can also
The last major step in bioethanol production is product purification to maximize ethanol
yield. Typical ethanol concentrations are in the range of 3–6 v/v % only, very low in comparison
with 12 to 15 v/v % obtained from 1st generation feedstock. Due to the higher water content of
the fermentation broth, additional distillation efforts are required. Different process improvements
are also used such as energy pinch, very high gravity fermentation, and other hybrid processes
3
A. General Production of Ethanol from Lignocellulosic Biomass
Figure 1.1 shows an industrial process of converting biomass into ethanol using steam
addition and hydrolysis as pretreatment method. The fermentation process used is SHF (Kang
et al. 2014).
Lignocellulosic
Biomass
Harvesting
Pretreatment ST
Hydrolysis ST
1st stage
Hydrolysis
2nd stage
CO2
Wastewater
Treatment
ST Distillation
ST
Drying to
ST anhydrous
ethanol
Figure 1.1 General production of ethanol
4
B. Industrial Production of Ethanol from Corn
Figure 1.2 shows an industrial process of converting corn into bioethanol. The
pretreatment method that is used is liquefaction while the fermentation process applied is SSF.
Enzyme Enzyme
Urea Sulfuric Yeas
Lime acid t
Condensate
Broth
Vent
Backs Steam Vent
et
Recycle
water Distillation/
Evaporation Centrifugation Dehydration/
Absorber
COC
Wet
EtOH
Product
COC
Drying Storage
5
C. Ethanol Production from Corn Straw Using Alkaline Pretreatment
Other processes for bioethanol production from corn straw used steam explosion and
alkaline pretreatment which was followed by enzymatic hydrolysis using cellulose as the
enzyme. This yielded fermentable sugars xylose (23.6 g/L), glucose (56.7 g/L) and arabinose
(5.7 g/L). Alkaline pretreatment and steam explosion was used to separate the hemicellulose,
cellulose and lignin fibers and to make it easier for the enzyme, cellulose, to degrade them
Process Steam
Enzyme Yeast
Broth
Process Water
Beer
Ethanol Gas
Adsorption Distillation
Distillation Absorption
Stillage
6
Corn stover will be used as the primary raw material since it has a huge potential as
biomass because it is an agricultural waste. First, raw corn stover will undergo mechanical
pretreatment through milling to increase its particle size. Increasing the particle size means a
larger surface area for reaction. Milled corn stover will then go through physicochemical
through steam explosion a. Steam explosion is used to free the hemicellulose and cellulose
sugars for enzymatic hydrolysis. Fermentation will be used to convert pretreated corn stover
into ethanol. The use of the SHF method ensures higher ethanol yields due to removal of end
product inhibition of saccharification step and reduction in the number of reactors required.
After fermentation, the fermented broth will undergo a series of purification steps starting with
beer distillation. This separates the stillage (liquid and solid waste) from the broth. Next is the
gas absorption step where carbon dioxide will be removed. Concentration of ethanol will be
accomplished in the ethanol distillation until the ethanol-water mixture reaches its equilibrium
state. Wet ethanol from the distillation column will then be further purified to produce fuel-
grade ethanol. The ethanol will be the overhead product and be cooled using the water
Isabela contributed the most to the 1.6 million MT aggregate corn production of Cagayan
Valley producing 1,049,954 MT, Nueva Vizcaya with 218,446 MT, and Quirino with 73,
423 MT.
presence of the Magat Dam which irrigates most of the agricultural lands in Isabela
(PIAnews).
7
B. Comparative factors
(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2014). Among the cities and municipalities of Isabela, the
Of the three, the most viable location in putting up a plant is Echague, Isabela.
The first two cities, Ilagan and Cauayan, have a higher residential population due to its
status as a city.
bounded on the north by the towns of San Isidro, Alicia, Angadanan, and San Guillermo,
on the east by Dinapigue, on the south by Quirino Province, San Agustin, and Jones, and
on the west by Santiago City. It has a total land area of 680 square kilometers and is
politically subdivided into 64 barangays. Echague is one of the main corn producers of
Isabela.
8
The following table provides information on the other comparative factors (e.g.
transport, availability of labor, utilities, telecommunications, land and political and strategic
considerations):
Basic Profile
LGU Type Municipality
Income class 1st
Population 73,709
Total Land area in hectares 68,080.0
No. of Barangays 64
No. of Households 13,869
Financial Profile
IRA share P 129,198,640.00
Local-Sourced Revenues P 10,697,480.46
Other Revenues P 19,191,118.24
Total LGU Income P 159,087,238.70
Ecosystems Agricultural Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
Economic Activity Agricultural
Industrial
Commercial and Service Center
Mining
Government Officials
Mayor Hon. Melinda G. Kiat
Vice Mayor Hon. Liza Katrina G. Kiat
Source: PENRO-Isabela
9
C. Site Layout
10
D. Plant Layout
11
Chapter 2
MARKET STUDY
In Philippine Energy Plan (2007), one of the country’s Five-Point Reform Package is the
competitive energy sector. In 2011, the transport sector had the highest energy consumption
representing 34.7% of the country’s final energy consumption, followed by residential (26.1%),
AFF
1%
Commercial
12%
Transport
35%
Industry
26%
Residential
26%
Within the transportation sector in 2010, road transport accounted for 79% of the overall
sectors’ energy consumption followed by international civil aviation (11%), water transport (8%),
domestic air and rail transport (3%). Petroleum products supplied 97.9% of the sector’s total
energy demand in 2010, with diesel taking the biggest share (48%), followed by gasoline (32%).
12
In addition, final energy consumption by fuel included 48.6% oil products, 21.1% biomass,
Electricity
21% Oil Products
49%
Biomass
21%
The lead agency responsible for the country’s Biofuels Program is the Philippine
Department of Energy (DOE). The country’s biofuels strategy is expressed in the National
Biofuels Plan (NBP) which is based on the Philippine Energy Plan (PEP). The PEP reflects the
mission to ensure the delivery of secure, sustainable, sufficient, affordable and environmentally-
friendly energy to all economic sectors, while the NBP is a preliminary assessment of the previous
year’s NBP, and outlines the short-, medium- and long-term plans of the National Biofuels Board
(NBB).
According to DOE, among biofuels, ethanol is an ideal motor fuel for spark ignition
engines, mainly as additive for gasoline. This is because ethanol has a high natural octane rating
that prevents premature detonation under load; burns more clearly and slightly cooler, extending
engine life; and has a higher volumetric efficiency contributing to increased power.
13
In recent years, however, Philippines is among the largest importers of ethanol in the world
due to lack of local ethanol supply and insufficient investments in ethanol infrastructures.
Additionally, ethanol producers in the country lack the scale and efficiencies necessary to be
legislation, R.A. 9367 a.k.a. Biofuels Act of 2006, in southeast Asia, and enacted R.A. 9513 or
Renewable Energy Act of 2008. The former mandates the blending of biodiesel and bioethanol in all
locally distributed diesel and gasoline, while the latter aims to accelerate the exploration and
development of renewable energy resources, thereby increasing the utilization renewable energy.
According to R.A. 9367, within two years from its effectivity, at least five percent (5%)
bioethanol shall comprise all the annual total volume of gasoline fuel actually sold and distributed
by each and every oil company in the country. And in succeeding years, ethanol blend shall be
gradually increased upon the recommendation of National Biofuel Board created under this law.
Ethanol
- 5% blend 2/06/2009 - By volume
- 10% 8/06/2011 - Implementation of 10%
blend blend
Target
Blend 2012 - - All oil companies
- 10% (full) onwards - Projected
- 20% 2020 - Projected
- 85% 2025
Source: Department of Energy
14
In table 2.1, the aspirational goals to raise ethanol mandate are based on the National
Renewable Energy Program of the Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030 to meet the government’s
Currently, there are 10 operating distilleries in the Philippines, five are located in Luzon
and the remaining five in Visayas. The local ethanol producers have an estimate combined capacity
of 282 million liters per year. According to DOE, the demand and production of ethanol in the
Philippines has increased from 208 – 522 and 23.28 – 168 million liters per year, respectively, from
2009 – 2015.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Demand Production
(Source: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service GAIN Report: Philippine Biofuels Situation and
However, as observed from figure 2.1, there is a huge gap between the ethanol demand
and production despite the Philippine mandate of ethanol blend. In order to meet the annual
ethanol consumption of the Philippines, the NBB allowed ethanol importation for oil companies.
15
In a report by USDA Foreign Agricultural Services, the continued growth of Philippine
economy and its expanding population are expected to drive fuel demand through 2026. Starting
from 2016, fuel demand projections are based on Post’s estimates with the assumption of five
(Source: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service GAIN Report: Philippine Biofuels Situation and
Outlook 2016)
16
II. Bioethanol Pricing
A. Cost of Imports
estimates ethanol production in the country will start to ramp up and in turn demand for
imports from the US will fall to 281 million liters in 2016 and 278 million liters in 2017
from the 311 million liters imported in 2015 at a value of $170 million (8.5 billion Php).
The Philippines was the US’s third-largest ethanol export destination in 2015 (Biofuels
Digest, 2016).
Figure 2.5 shows the Philippine price assessment for imported ethanol conducted
by Platts Biofuelscan. Platts Biofuelscan is a daily report, covering the latest worldwide
biofuel news and prices. It provides a daily summary of market events and developments,
along with closing market price assessments from the Americas, Europe, and Asia. In the
figure, imported fuel-grade ethanol prices in the Philippines were assessed $13.67/cubic
meter (683.5 php/cu m) higher from March 14 at $699.67/cu m (34,983.5 php/cu m) CIF
on March 17.
17
B. Cost of ethanol produced locally
in keeping a bi-monthly ethanol reference price (Php/liter) as a guide for production firms
using sugarcane molasses as the reference feedstock. The bioethanol price index as of
the 10 distilleries operating, five are located in Luzon island and the remaining five found
in the Visayas region. Four of the five distilleries in the Visayas are found in the island of
Negros, which accounts for roughly 60 percent of domestic Philippine sugar production.
According to contacts, the distillers from Negros supply the ethanol requirements of the
entire Visayas and the southern island of Mindanao which represent around 30 percent of
overall ethanol demand. The SRA estimates the cost of transporting ethanol out from
Bacolod at P450 ($10) per ton. According to the same source, this is why new ethanol
18
plants are being set up in Luzon, where an estimated 70 percent of demand is located.
However, since Luzon has less than 40 percent of national sugar production, feedstock
In general terms, ethanol tariffs under various free trade agreements of the
Association of Southeast Asia Nations, including the Philippines, fell to zero in 2016, down
from five percent in 2015. Most Favored Nation tariffs for WTO-member countries,
including the United States, are also at zero percent in 2016, down from 10 percent the
previous year. An additional one percent duty is imposed if the ethanol is to be used for
fuel-blending purposes under the Philippine Fuel Ethanol Program (Biofuels Annual,
2016). According to RA 1937 or the Tariff and Customs Code of the Philippines, a 0.75
19
III. Marketing Program
developing promotion and marketing tools there is a need to have thorough assessment that
could lead to having effective tools both in terms of output as well as cost. We have to look
at the most cost effective promotional tools that consider the target market. In this aspect
one need to optimize a certain tool for both urban and rural coverage as well as effectiveness
The marketing strategy of bioethanol is defined based on the pillars that enhance the
product demands, strengthen the supply and encourage the enabling environment. Each
20
A. Terms of Sale
The terms of sale for the bioethanol products are the following:
1. The prices payable by Buyer for goods and services to be supplied by Supplier under
this Agreement will be specified in the applicable Order. Unless otherwise expressly
2. Payment terms are net thirty (30) calendar days from the date of the invoice. If Buyer
does not pay an invoiced amount within terms, Buyer will in addition pay finance charges
3. Upon reasonable request by the Supplier, Buyer shall provide copies of its most recent
audited financial statements or other reasonable evidence of its financial capacity and
credits limits.
4. Buyer shall provide notice within five (5) business days of the occurrence of any event
which materially affects Buyer’s ability to perform its obligations under this Agreement
including but not limited to: (i) the material default of any supplier or sub-contractor; (ii)
labor strike or dispute; or (iii) material uncured default with respect to any debt
obligations of Buyer.
change upon a change in the price of applicable raw materials (as reflected on a
recognized trade or commodity pricing tracker) in excess of five percent (5%) from the
manufacturing facility and will be shipped to Buyer via carriers selected by Supplier.
B. Distribution
Ethanol will be distributed in bulk basis from the plant to the sales outlets
21
directly to the consumers that demand the product. In this sense, the consumers
Alcohol and Liquor Factories. Sales outlet shall be located near the manufacturing
Trucks will be used to transport bulk of containers of ethanol from the main plant
to the sales outlets. A typical transport truck can carry about 8,000 gal/load. Trucking
of ethanol is the most efficient and cost-effective transportation mode for distances up
C. Promotions
2. Participation on trade fairs and exhibitions. This tool can address not only
buyers/users but also people who are engaged in different developmental activities
as well as higher officials, which is very important for further integration with
interested stakeholders.
advertisement clips and also to address the coherent effect of modern energy
development and energy efficiency on other related sectors like environment, gender
4. Billboards and signboards are also used as information board to transmit basic
issues by putting eye catching colorful pictures of the product and some important
5. Newspaper is used for posting addresses of all producers in all regions where the
22
project is intervening as well as to post some important issues that are related with
energy in general.
D. Packaging
Since ethanol is a volatile and flammable liquid, the packaging for transportation must
have the three basic components. (1) Primary packaging, such as a vial, tube, jar and
drums. Closures of primary packaging must be held securely in place with tape, wire,
metal crimps or other positive means. (2) Secondary packaging, such as a zip lock or other
plastic bag. Intermediate packaging must contain enough absorbent material to absorb
all contents. (3) Outer packaging, such as a cardboard (fiberboard) box. The
dimensions of the outer box must be at least 100 mm on two of three sides. The
containers should be properly labelled also. Labels shall contain the information from the
23
Chapter 3
TECHNICAL STUDY
I. Process Description
1. Milling
The raw material, corn stover, composed of the leaves, stalks, husks and cobs, is
milled using a roller mill. The parameters to be used for the milling process are ball
speed of 350 r/min, a solid/liquid ratio of 1:10, raw material particle size with 0.5 mm,
and number of balls of 20 (steel ball, Φ=10 mm) and grinding for 30 min. The milled
corn stover must attain a particle size of 0.16-0.23 in, a density of 9-11 lb/ft3 and
2. Steam Explosion
The milled corn stover undergoes steam explosion for a few minutes in a reactor
equipped with a heating jacket and an automatic control for steam pressure,
temperature and retention time. Saturated steam of 20-50 bar and 160-290oC is
incorporated into the reactor to release the hemicellulose and cellulose sugars.
The enzyme cocktail and yeast inoculum will be stored in tanks. The enzyme and
B. Reactor
To convert the biomass into fermentable hexose and pentose sugars and then into
ethanol, separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) will be used. Conversion will take
24
The theoretical maximum yield of both hexoses and pentoses is 0.511 kg ethanol
and 0.489 kg CO2/ kg sugar. The overall theoretical ethanol yield (at 20oC) hence becomes
0.719 and 0.736 liters per kg of glucan (and/or other 6C structures) and xylan (and/or
other 5C structures), respectively (Kang et.al, 2014). The optimum time for saccharification
will be 36 hours while 156 hours will be the fermentation time (Liu et.al, 2014).
Before beer distillation, the fermented broth from the SSF reactor will first be
stored in beer holding tanks before introducing it into the beer columns.
D. Separator
1. Beer Distillation
Fermented broth from the reactor (5.4 wt % ethanol) is fed to the beer column.
The beer column removes the CO2 to the overhead while removing 90 wt % of the
water to the bottoms. The stillage consisting of 90 wt % water and 10 wt % solids will
2. Gas Absorption
The overhead from the beer column is fed to the Absorber with an approximate
composition is 99.7 wt % CO2 and 0.3 wt % ethanol while the bottoms overhead
3. Ethanol Distillation
The bottoms product from the Absorber will be fed to the ethanol distillation
produced. The bottoms product will be composed of 99.95 wt % water and 0.05 wt
column is not advisable since the mixture is already an azeotrope mixture (it has
reached equilibrium).
25
4. Adsorption
Wet ethanol (95.6 wt% ethanol) from the ethanol distillation column will be
further purified using two adsorption columns to produce dehydrated ethanol with a
percent composition of 99.5 wt% ethanol and 0.5 wt% water. The adsorbent to be
E. Recycle
Process water coming from the bottoms of the ethanol distillation column will be
recycled back to the wet oxidation reactor. Stillage from the beer column will be fed to
26
II. Process Flow Sheets
Process Steam
Enzyme Yeast
Corn
Stove Roller Reactor Reactor Reactor
r Miller (Steam (Hydrolysis) (Fermentation
Explosion) )
Broth
Process Water
Ethanol
Adsorber Absorber Beer Column
Column
Stillage
27
B. Process Topology
28
III. Material and Energy Balance Tables
In a unit process or operation, it is important to note the mass flow rates of all
entering and leaving process streams. To do this, one must have a basic knowledge of an
equipment’s input and output materials, the components in each material and the necessary
assumptions needed.
A systematic way of determining the mass flow rates of each stream must be
utilized given the components and assumptions taken up from literature and design
handbooks. This usually starts with an overall material balance followed by a series of
taking place and the number of moles of the reactants and products so that a stoichiometric
ratio can be determined. A degree of freedom analysis must also be computed at the end
of each material balance calculation so that the data used to form equations is sufficient to
Furthermore, a summary of flow rates table must be established to show the overall
process streams and to check whether the sum of all input flow rates equals the sum of the
output streams.
29
Beer Column 168335.2124 Fermented Broth 127849.5284 Beer
40485.684 Stillage
161023.45 CO2
304838.3816 MCS
30
B. Summary of Energy Balance
changes. This can be either a gain wherein the stream increases in temperature and
becomes a vapor or a loss wherein the stream decreases in temperature and becomes a
liquid. Thus, it is necessary to calculate the energy balance in each equipment so that
Energy can be in the form of mechanical energy done on the system, a heat gain
or loss due to a change in temperature or work done. Data and assumptions regarding
the streams leaving and entering the equipment such as heat of vaporization, heat
The energy balances of each equipment and the data used for calculations will
31
IV. Equipment Summary
The full realization of a manufacturing process entails a basic understanding of the unit
operations involved and the piece of equipment needed to do it. For instance, a reactor needed to
convert reactant A into product B may well be utilized in different industries. Its function, remains
the same, that is conversion but the type of reactor needed according to the production’s purposes
concentration and volume. The materials needed to build a reactor may also depend upon the type
of chemicals being handled. Thus, appropriate guidelines and rules of thumb have been established
A. List of Equipment
Pre-cooler Cooling
(SE Reactor/Hydrolyzer)
Hydrolyzer Hydrolysis
Fermenter Fermentation
Pre-cooler Cooling
(Beer/Absorber Column)
Absorber Gas Absorption
Adsorber Adsorption
Condenser Condensation
32
B. Individual Equipment Design Specification
1. Roller Mill
assumptions on dimensions.
Assumptions:
3. The feed entering the roller mill has a particle size of 12 mm with a product
particle size of 4 mm
33
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
Operation: Continuous
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No. of Unit: 1
OPERATING CONDITION
Temperature: 25 °C
Pressure: 1 atm
34
2. Steam Explosion Reactor
Design of the equipment:
1. Mass flow rates and characteristics of the reactant should be clearly defined.
Assumptions:
35
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
Function: Prepares the raw corn stover for hydrolysis by releasing the cellulose and
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
Dimensions:
Diameter: 3.5250 m
Length: 10.5749 m
Volume: 118.9092 m3
19.74 atm
36
3. Pre-cooler (SE Reactor to Hydrolyzer)
Assumptions:
3. The overall heat transfer coefficient for water-medium organics is 250-600 W/m2-
4. The heat exchanger is shell-and-tube (one-shell and two-tube pass) floating head
type.
37
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
Area: 122.6387 m2
1-2.5 atm
38
4. Hydrolyzer
Assumptions:
39
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
Type/description: CSTR
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
Dimensions of impeller:
1atm
40
5. Fermenter
Assumptions:
2. Density of sugar (ρsugar) = (ρglucose + ρxylose)/2 = (1, 540 + 1, 520)/2 = 1, 530 kg/m3
41
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
Type/description: CSTR
Function: Converts the fermentable sugars, glucose and xylose, into ethanol
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
Thickness: 0.00566 m
Height: 3.2210 m
Diameter: 2.1474 m
Volume: 11.899 m3
Dimensions of impeller:
1 atm
42
6. Beer Column
Design of the equipment:
equations.
guidelines.
Assumptions:
43
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
Function: Separates the liquid content of the fermented broth from its solid parts
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
No of stages: 12
Dimensions of column:
1-2.5 atm
44
7. Pre-cooler (Beer Column to Absorber Column)
Assumptions:
3. The overall heat transfer coefficient for water-light organics is 375-750 W/m2-K
4. The heat exchanger is shell-and-tube (one-shell and two-tube pass) floating head
type.
45
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
Area: 13.84 m2
1-2.5 atm
46
8. Absorber Column
Assumptions:
47
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
Function: Absorbs carbon dioxide gas from ethanol-water mixture using water as absorbent
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
No of stages: 20
Dimensions of column:
Column height: 10 m
1992 atm
48
9. Ethanol Column
equations.
guidelines.
Assumptions:
49
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
No of stages: 45
Dimensions of column:
1-2.5 atm
50
10. Adsorber Column
1. Identification of the adsorbent to be used which depends upon the feed containing
2. Properties of the adsorbent such as pore diameter, particle density, particle porosity,
3. Finally, selection of an appropriate adsorption cycle is done based upon the process
condition of the feed. Adsorption cycles vary depending on the phase of the feed and
Assumptions:
1. Properties of the adsorbent, 3A molecular zeolite (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West,
2004):
51
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 2
Properties of Adsorbent
Amount: 23171.3735 kg
Dimensions of column:
1-2.5 atm
52
11. Pre-cooler (Around Adsorber Column)
Assumptions:
1. The specific heats of adsorbed fluid and cooling fluid are 2.046 and 2.484 kJ/kg-°C,
respectively.
3. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the same for water-light organics is 375-750
4. The heat exchanger is shell-and-tube (one-shell and two-tube pass) floating head
type.
53
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET
GENERAL DETAIL
TECHNICAL DETAIL
No of units: 1
Area: 17.8038 m2
1-2.5 atm
54
C. Piping and Instrumentation
1. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
55
2. VALVE SELECTION
Table 3.4 Valves for Steam Explosion
Stream Valve Type Mode and Function
High Pressure Steam (hps) Globe valve Control valve, modulating
______ Pressure relief valve (pilot- Emergency valve, self-
operated) actuating
56
Table 3.9 Valves for Ethanol Distillation
Stream Valve Type Mode and Function
Wet Ethanol Gate Valve On/Off
Ethanol (concentrated) Globe valve Control valve, modulating
Reflux Globe valve Control valve, modulating
Process Water Globe valve Control valve, modulating
Steam (reboiler) Gate Valve On/Off
Cooling Water Globe valve Control valve, modulating
57
3. PIPE SIZING AND SELECTION
a. Miller to Steam Explosion Reactor (Screw Conveyor)
loading)
Calculations:
SC CFH CF
CF capacity factor
m 28,000.912
CFH
ρ 9.9884
SC 2,803.343( 1.5)
SC 4,205.014 ft 3 /hr
For selection of proper screw conveyor diameter (D) and speed (N),
SC
N where, C1RPM 31.2
C1RPM
4,205.0145
N
31.2
N 134.776 rpm
N 135 rpm
58
b. Steam Explosion Reactor to Hydrolyzer (Screw Conveyor)
lb/h
loading)
Calculations:
SC CFH CF
CF capacity factor
m 56,004.466
CFH
ρ 69.9193
SC 800.9872 (1.5)
SC 1,201.4808 ft 3 /hr
For selection of proper screw conveyor diameter (D) and speed (N),
SC
N where, C1RPM 8.2
C1RPM
1,201.4808
N
8.2
N 146.522 rpm
N 147 rpm
59
4. CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
a. Steam Explosion Reactor
In the pre-treatment process, the milled corn stover (MCS) is contacted with high
pressure steam in a reactor to release the cellulose and hemi-cellulose. The temperature
in the reactor is regulated by manipulating the flow of the high pressure steam (HPS)
to the reactor. A cascaded control strategy is used in this section of the process. The
temperature controller (TC), the master controller, generates a control effort that
serves as the setpoint to the flow controller (FC) which is the slave or secondary
controller. This ensures that the change in the flow rate of the steam entering the
reactor is not due to uncontrollable problems such as steam pressure changes or valve
To maintain the level in the reactor, the inflow of the MCS to the reactor is also
manipulated. A feedback strategy is used in this part. The level reading in the reactor
serves as the setpoint to which the control valve changes its position, thus adjusting
the flow of the MCS to the reactor to maintain a desired reactor level. Safety alarms
LAH and LAL are located in the central control panel (CCP) to signal for high and
60
Monitoring of the pressure in the tank is also necessary in cases of failure in the
temperature reading in the reactor. PAH and PAL are also found in the CCP to alarm
operators during extreme pressure levels in the tank. Should critical conditions such as
overshooting of the pressure in the reactor occur, a pressure relief valve is available to
Input Output
Disturbance Manipulated (Controlled)
Flow of MCS, FMCS Tank Level, H
Flow of HPS, FHPS Tank Temperature, T
61
b. Hydrolyzer
produce sugars. For certain amount of PCS, a certain amount of enzyme is required.
Therefore, a ratio control strategy is used. The AIT analyses the composition of the
mixed flow entering the reactor and transmits it to the ratio computer. Since the
composition analysis is a ratio between the amount of PCS and the enzyme, it is
multiplied by the PCS flowrate (wild flow) to give the needed flow of enzyme
The reactor level is maintained within a set range by manipulating the rate of the
mixed flow to the reactor. The control valve adjusts its position based on the reading
fed to it by the LIT. Feedback strategy is used. LAL and LAH are alarms in the CCP
The temperature in the reactor is regulated by manipulating the flow of the cooling
water into the sides of the reactor. A feedback scheme is used. To account for the
pressure disturbances in the reactor, two alarms PAH and PAL are located in the CCP
to signal for extreme pressure levels in the reactor. A pressure relief valve is available
62
Table 3.12 Variables Involved for Hydrolyzer
Input Output
Disturbance Manipulated (Controlled)
Flow of PCS, FPCS Mixed Flow Composition
Flow of enzyme, FE Reactor Level, H
Flow of Coolant, FC Reactor Temperature, T
63
c. Fermenter
Similar to the hydrolyser, a ratio exists between the two inflows to the fermenter,
therefore a ratio control strategy is possible for this process. The flow of fermentable
sugars (wild flow) is multiplied by the composition analysis from the AIT to control
The rate of the mixed flow to the reactor is manipulated to maintain the level in
the reactor. The control valve receives level readings from the LIT and adjusts its
the flow of the coolant to the fermenter. Control strategy for both reactor level and
temperature is feedback.
Input Output
Disturbance Manipulated (Controlled)
Flow of FS, FFS Mixed Flow Composition
Flow of yeast, FE Reactor Level, H
Flow of Coolant, FC Reactor Temperature, T
64
d. Beer Column
The configuration above is the best control suited for the beer distillation column
since the top product is the main concern in the process. The overhead composition
is regulated by adjusting the steam rate at the base of the column (reboiler). Since the
response of the column to heat input changes is quite rapid, this strategy is acceptable.
Pressure in the column is maintained by monitoring the flow of the cooling water into
the condenser. Controls for the overhead composition and column pressure are both
feedback.
The rate of fermented broth entering the column as well as the rate of beer leaving
the reflux drum are also controlled. Both uses feedforward strategy.
65
e. Absorber
The flow rate of beer entering the Absorber is manipulated to maintain the level
in the scrubbing column. The level readings are used as set points in the LCV. Level
alarms LAL and LAH are located in the CCP to signal for low and high levels in the
column.
The flow of scrubbing fluid (water) to the tank is being manipulated to allow for
greater contact time between the two streams entering the column. The composition
of the wet ethanol leaving the column is dependent on contact time in the Absorber.
Input Output
Disturbance Manipulated (Controlled)
Flow of Beer, FB Column Level, H
Flow of Process Water, Wet Ethanol
FPW Composition
66
f. Ethanol Column
For high purity tops, the distillate flow rate is used to control the distillate
composition. It can be shown that for a high purity column i.e. one with a large reflux,
the composition of the distillate is sensitive to the distillate flow but insensitive to the
reflux rate. Therefore, the control scheme outlined above is used. It should be noted
that tight control on the level in the reflux drum is required using the reflux rate.
Input Output
Disturbance Manipulated (Controlled)
Wet Ethanol Rate, Flow of cooling water to Overhead Stream
FWE condenser, FCW Pressure, P
Reflux Rate, FR Reflux Drum Level, H
Distillate Rate, FD Distillate Composition
Process Water Flow,
FPW
67
g. Adsorber columns
Ethanol enters the two adsorption columns where it is further concentrated. The
water adsorbed by the zeolite adsorbents is used to cool the anhydrous ethanol
adsorbing the water removed from the feed. This is done through a difference in the
Input Output
Disturbance Manipulated (Controlled)
Pressure, temperature Amount of water
and flow of ethanol adsorbed inside the
Concentration of column
anhydrous ethanol Concentration of
Concentration of anhydrous ethanol
ethanol-water Concentration of
ethanol-water
68
Chapter 4
In the past, the estimation of equipment cost is quite laborious and tedious job which
requires working with general equations or chart, or obtain cost relations on equipment size,
considerations (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2003). For a more accurate equipment cost
estimation, equipment price quotation from a suitable vendor must be provided (Turton et. al
2012).
Fortunately, because of the rapid technological advancement, the routinely process of cost
estimation has become easier. Equipment cost estimation can now be done automatically, with
Here, the estimation of purchased equipment costs is based on the capacity of the
equipment calculated in the equipment design and is estimated using CAPCOST 2008 from the
book “Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes” by Turton et al. The necessary data
like the current cost index based on the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) is used.
Currently, for the first quarter of 2017, Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index is equivalent to
553.1.
69
Table 4.1 Table of Equipment Cost Using CAPCOST 2008 (CEPCI = 553.1)
Compressors Compressor Type Purchased Equipment Bare Module
Cost Cost
C-101 Rotary $33,200 $80,000
Conveyors Type Purchased Equipment Bare Module
Cost Cost
Cv-101 Screw $9,920 $19,800
Cv-102 Screw $8,030 $16,100
Exchangers Exchanger Type Purchased Equipment Bare Module
Cost Cost
E-101 Floating Head $38,700 $127,000
E-102 Floating Head $26,200 $86,300
E-103 Floating Head $25,600 $84,400
Pumps (with Pump Type Purchased Equipment Bare Module
drives) Cost Cost
P-101 Centrifugal $7,480 $29,800
P-102 Centrifugal $6,930 $27,600
P-103 Centrifugal $6,830 $27,200
P-104 Centrifugal $6,830 $27,200
P-105 Centrifugal $6,830 $27,200
P-106 Centrifugal $6,830 $27,200
Reactors Type Purchased Equipment Bare Module
Cost Cost
R-101 Autoclave $909,000 $1,360,000
R-102 Jacketed Agitated $115,000 $172,000
R-103 Fermenter $66,200 $99,300
Towers Tower Description Purchased Equipment Bare Module
Cost Cost
T-101 12 Carbon Steel Sieve $27,200 $71,800
Trays
T-102 20 Carbon Steel Sieve $28,800 $53,400
Trays
T-103 45 Carbon Steel Sieve $69,900 $123,000
Trays
T-104 Empty Vertical Vessel $18,600 $79,400
T-105 Empty Vertical Vessel $18,600 $79,400
Miller Miller Description Purchased Equipment Bare Module
Cost Cost
M-101* Roller Mill $88,423.0342 -
(Note: M-101 is manually inputted because there is no miller equipment in CAPCOST)
70
For M-101,
Using a Ball Mill with capacity of 1 to 30 ton/h as cost model based on CHEMCAD 6,
71
Table 4.2DetailedSummaryofEstimationofEquipmentCost
Equipment Code Type Pressure Power Area (m2) No.of Volume Height (m) Diameter (m) Material of EquipmentCost
(barg) (kW) Spares (m3) Construction ($)
Compressor C-101 Rotary - 18 - - - - - CarbonSteel 33200
Conveyor CV- Screw - - 4.27 - - - - CarbonSteel 9920
101
Conveyor CV- Screw - - 2.74 - - - - CarbonSteel 8030
102
Exchanger E-101 Floating 2.533 - 122.64 - - - - CarbonSteel 38700
Head
Exchanger E-102 FlHead
oating 2.533 - 13.84 - - - - CarbonSteel 26200
Exchanger E-103 FlHead
oating 2.533 - 17.8 - - - - CarbonSteel 25600
Pump P-101 Centrifugal 1.01 2.31 - 1 - - - CarbonSteel 7480
Pump P-102 Centrifugal 1.01 1.25 - 1 - - - CarbonSteel 6930
Pump P-103 Centrifugal 1.01 0.64 - 1 - - - CarbonSteel 6830
Pump P-104 Centrifugal 20 0.53 - 1 - - - CarbonSteel 6830
Pump P-105 Centrifugal 1.77 0.56 - 1 - - - CarbonSteel 6830
Pump P-106 Centrifugal 1.77 0.44 - 1 - - - CarbonSteel 6830
Reactor R-101 Autoclave 20 - - - 119 10.5749 3.535 CarbonSteel 909,000
Reactor R-102 Jacketed 1.01 - - - 33.6 5.5679 2.784 CarbonSteel 115000
Agitated
Reactor R-103 Fermenter 1.01 - - - 11.899 3.221 2.1474 CarbonSteel 66200
Tower T-101 (12)Tray
Sieve 2.533 - - - - 14.2 0.707 CarbonSteel 27200
Tower T-102 (20)Tray
Sieve 2.533 - - - - 10 0.65 CarbonSteel 28800
Tower T-103 (45)Tray
Sieve 2.533 - - - - 18.06 0.903 CarbonSteel 69900
Tower T-104 Vertical 2.533 - - - - 4.88 1.83 CarbonSteel 18600
Vessel
Tower T-105 Vertical 2.533 - - - - 4.88 1.83 CarbonSteel 18600
Vessel
*Miller M-101 RollerMill - - - - - CarbonSteel 88423.0342
SUB-TOTAL 1525103.034
FreightCharge 152510.3034
(10%)
TOTAL($) 1677613.338
TOTAL 83,880,666.88
(PHP)
72
II. Estimation of Working Capital
A large sum of money must be supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery
and equipment, before an industrial plant can be put into operation. Land and service facilities
must be obtained and the plant must be established with complete piping, controls and services.
Furthermore, it is necessary to have money available for the payment of expenses involved in the
Fixed Capital Investment is defined as the total cost of processing installations, buildings,
auxiliary services and engineering involved in the establishment of a new plant. About 85 to
90 percent of the total capital is comprised of fixed capital. It is categorized into manufacturing
fixed capital investment also known as direct costs and nonmanufacturing fixed capital
The cost estimation of the Fixed Capital Investment is based from the book “Plant Design
and Economics for Chemical Engineer” by Peters, Timmerhaus, and West (2003). This is
calculated by selecting the appropriate percent Fixed Capital Investment (%FCI) shown in
Table 4.2. The estimated costs were verified using the % purchase equipment cost listed in
Table 6-18 of the same book. The obtained value of FCI is 451,277,987.8 PHP.
73
Table 4.3 Breakdown of Direct Costs and Indirect Costs
COMPONENT Range of FCI, % Selected FCI, % Normalized FCI, % Estimated Cost (PHP) Calculated FCI, %
Direct Costs
Purchased Equipment 15-40 25 18.79699248 83880666.88 18.58736059
Purchased Equipment Installation 6-14 10 7.518796992 33552266.75 7.434944238
Instrumentation & Controls 2-12 8 6.015037594 26841813.4 5.94795539
Piping 4-17 10 7.518796992 33552266.75 7.434944238
Electrical Systems 2-10 8 6.015037594 26841813.4 5.94795539
Buildings (including services) 2-18 15 11.27819549 50328400.13 11.15241636
Yard Improvements 2-5 3 2.255639098 10065680.03 2.230483271
Service Facilities 8-30 20 15.03759398 67104533.5 14.86988848
Land 1-2 1 0.751879699 8388066.688 1.858736059
Indirect Costs
Engineering & Supervision 4-20 10 7.518796992 33552266.75 7.434944238
Construction Expenses 4-17 8 6.015037594 26841813.4 5.94795539
Legal Expenses 1-3 2 1.503759398 6710453.35 1.486988848
Contractor's Fee 2-6 26 4.511278195 20131360.05 4.460966543
Contingency 5-15 7 5.263157895 23486586.73 5.204460967
TOTAL 133 100 451277987.8 100
74
Checking if the estimated costs are within the percentage range given in the book “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers” by Peters,
75
Checking if the Direct Costs and Indirect Costs are within the allowable range:
Direct Costs = material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (65-85% of
340555507 5
% Direct Cost 100%
451277987.8
% Direct Cost 75.464%
Indirect Costs = expenses which are not directly involved with material and labor of actual
110722480.3
% Indirect Cost 100 %
451277987.8
% Indirect Cost 24.535
76
B. Total Capital Investment
The total capital investment is the sum of the fixed capital investment and of the working
capital. In this report, the Working Capital is calculated as 15% of the Total Capital
Investment.
C. Working Capital
The Working Capital required to start up the plant and finance ordinarily amounts to
the production cost before revenues from the process start. This consists of the total amount
of money invested in raw materials and supplies carried in stock, finished products in stock
and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured, accounts receivable, cash
kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses such as salaries, wages and raw
77
III. Estimation of Production Cost
Production costs are the costs incurred in manufacturing a good or providing a service. It includes
a variety of expenses including, but not limited to, labor, raw materials, consumable manufacturing
supplies and general overhead. Additionally, any taxes levied by the government or royalties owed
The cost of production is directly related to the manufacturing cost or the costs of both
the materials and the labor required in the creation of a product. Indirect costs include overhead
such as rent, administrative salaries or utility expenses. Generally, the total production cost is the
In the estimation of the production costs presented in this chapter, an annual cost basis
was used as this method offers the convenience in considering equipment operating factor and
infrequently occurring large expenses. It also permits a more rapid calculation of the operating
costs and smoothens out seasonal variations within the operation of the plant.
A. Manufacturing Costs
Manufacturing costs may be classified under three sub-categories: direct cost, fixed charges
1. Direct Costs
In manufacturing industries, the cost of raw materials and labor cost are primarily
classified as direct costs. These are directly associated to the manufacturing process and
may include other expenses such as the costs of utilities and repair and maintenance costs.
The amount of the raw materials which must be supplied per unit of time or per unit
of product can be determined from process material balances. Direct price quotations from
prospective suppliers are preferable to published market prices. For preliminary cost
analyses, market prices are often used for estimating raw-material costs. In chemical plants,
raw-material costs are usually in the range of 10 to 50 percent of the total product cost.
78
The cost of raw materials was estimated on an annual basis with the adapted price of
on adding up the various principal processing steps on the flow sheet (as proposed by HE
Wessel). In this method, a process step and the number of employee-hours per production
per step are specified. The number of hours per step is multiplied by the total number of
Three principal processing steps were considered and the labor cost was estimated on
the basis of 50 - employee hour in a day for each processing step and the plant runs
throughout the 365 days of a year. An hourly wage rate of $33.67 (Php1683.50) for skilled
operation. The extent of necessity for this type of labor depends on the total amount of
operating labor, complexity of the operation, and product quality standards. The cost for
Utility costs for ordinary chemical processes amount to 10 to 20 percent of the total
product cost. The cost of utilities such as process water, steam, and electricity was
To keep the plant in efficient operating condition, repair and maintenance are
necessary and the expenses for this include the cost for labor, materials, and supervision.
instrumentation are primary concern, annual maintenance cost is estimated at 7-11 percent
of the FCI, about 4-6 percent of which is for the materials needed and 3-5 percent for the
labor.
79
Annual costs for equipment maintenance were estimated at 7 percent of the estimated
cost of the purchased set of equipment. This estimation is reasonable enough as repair and
maintenance expenses are usually estimated ranging from 2 - 10 percent of the costs of
2. Fixed Charges
This classification covers the expenses that are practically constant from year to year
and not greatly influenced by the rate of production such as depreciation, property taxes,
The tax and insurance rates were estimated at 1% and 0.4% of the fixed capital
3. Overhead Costs
The expenditures required for the routine services of a complete plant functioning as
one unit are included in plant & overhead costs. The direct costs and fixed charges of non-
manufacturing machinery, equipment, and buildings necessary for many of the general
Similar to the fixed charges, these costs do not vary widely with changes in the
production rate. It may include costs for hospital and medical services; general plant
maintenance and overhead; safety services; payroll overhead including pensions, vacation
allowances, social security, and life insurance; packaging, restaurant and recreation
80
The plant-overhead cost for chemical plants is about 50 to 70 percent of the total
expense for operating labor, supervision, and maintenance. A rough estimate of 50 percent
was considered.
B. General Expenses
Besides the manufacturing costs, other general expenses are involved in any company’s
operations. These general expenses may be classified as (1) administrative expenses, (2)
distribution and marketing expenses, and (3) research and development expenses.
1. Administrative Costs
administrative costs if the economic analysis is to be complete. These costs may vary
markedly from plant to plant and depend somewhat on whether the plant under
This classification of costs varies widely for different types of plants depending on the
particular material being produced, other products sold by the company, plant location,
and company policies. Typically, for most chemical plants these costs range from 2 to 20
percent of the total product cost. The higher figure usually applies to a new product or to
one sold in small quantities to a large number of customers while lower figures apply to
Emphasis on research and development paves the creation of new methods and
products in chemical industries. In the chemical industry, costs for research and
81
Table 4.5 Summary of Product Cost Estimation
82
III. Feasibility Analysis
This feasibility analysis assesses the practicality of the proposed plant design. This can be
done by comparing the current market price of bioethanol to the proposed price of bioethanol
from this report, calculating the return of investment, profitability, and payback period. Through
the following factors enumerated, this plant design report may be plausible and suitable for
operation.
A. Profitability
Currently, according to ICIS, a market information provider, the fuel-grade ethanol price
in Southeast Asian market is $518 - $522 per cubic meter or approximately P25,900 - P26,100
per cubic meter in Philippine currency. With this information, this design report must have a
lower bioethanol price or equivalent to the current market price to compete in the market.
P 616298998.1/yr
Ethanol Price
100000 * 365 kg/yr
( )
785.1kg./m3
The calculated ethanol price is almost half the market price which means the ethanol
produced could compete in the market along with experienced ethanol producers. Thus, to
maximize the plant profit, the selling price of ethanol produced corn stover would be
P23,000/m3.
83
Total Income (Annual Plant Capacity)(Selling Price)
23,000/m 3
Total Income (365)(100,000 kg/day)( )
785.1kg/m3
The total income accounts for the total money received annually by the company from
Consequently, the gross income accounts for the total money received annually by the
company from selling all the ethanol produced during operation and deducting total cost of
production. Hence, considering a 35% tax rate and subtracting it from the gross income,
Therefore, the annual plant profit is calculated as P294,444,499.8. It can be inferred from
this that a fast payback period can be expected when compared to the capital investment for
the plant.
B. Payback Period
However, to compute for the time that the capital invested is returned or more commonly
known as payback period, the depreciation which accounts for the allocated cost of tangible
84
assets over its useful life must be known. The cost of tangible assets is the direct cost from
Table 4.4 less the non-depreciable assets, land and equipment installation cost.
Tangible Assets Cost Direct Cost - Land Cost - Equipment Installation Cost
Tangible Assets
Depreciation
Recovery Period
298,615,174.1
Depreciation
9.5
Depreciation P31,433,176.22
451277987.8
Payback Period
294444499.8 31433176.22
PaybackPeriod 1.38 yrs
85
451277987.8
Payback Period
294444499.8 49769195.68
PaybackPeriod 1.31 yrs
Since, the payback periods for both the depreciation methods are close, with MACRS
faster by just a factor 0.07 years to Straight-Line method, the design engineer can choose
either of the two. However, given the economical setup of Philippines, it is more preferable
to use straight-line method. Therefore, for this design report, a payback period of 1.38
years is chosen.
C. Return of Investment
Return of investment is an economical tool used for financial decisions. It measures the
benefits obtained from investing of some resource. Additionally, this is a profitability ratio to
294444499.8
%ROI (100)
530915279.8
%ROI 55.46
From the calculated ROI, it can be concluded that this report is deemed attractive for
operation.
86
Life of project earnings
2750
Land, salvage, and working
capital recovery
2250
Cumulative cash
1250 position over total
life of project
Construction 750
period
Total capital
investment
(including land) Annual net profit
Start of
construction 250 after taxes
(constant)
-3 capital
Fixed -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
investment -250
(depreciable)
Land, salvage, and working
Annual depreciation Book value of investment capital recovery
Zero-time line charge (straight line) (with 9.5 straight-line depreciation)
Working capital
-750
87
Chapter 5
A number of hazards are associated with the biofuel industry in each stage of the project
and plant life cycle from the concept selection through to the decommissioning. There are many
other challenges like engineering unknowns, lack of reliable failure rate data, inconsistency in
applicable regulations, low skills and competence and entry of new manufacturers. In addition to
these, legislative requirements, corporate policy and commitments, economic benefits, reputation,
public perception to the projects etc. make it obligatory to establish a system for hazard
identification and risk management. It is commonly believed amongst biofuel manufacturers, that
process safety can be achieved by common sense; however, the fact is expertise is needed to
The term “loss prevention” on the other hand is an insurance term, the loss being the
financial loss caused by an accident. This loss will not only be the cost of replacing damaged plant
and third party claims, but also the loss of earnings from lost production and lost sales opportunity.
Safety and loss prevention in process design can be considered under the following broad headings:
(2) Control of the hazards: for example, by containment of flammable and toxic materials.
(4) Limitation of the loss. The damage and injury caused if an incident occurs: pressure
A. Hazard Identification
In process safety and loss prevention, it is said, ‘once the hazards have been identified, half
the battle is won. A number of hazard identification methods and techniques are available and
88
practiced. Different methods are required at different stages of a project and also the depth of
the study depends on the complications and extent of risk from the facility/operation.
The principal hazards from materials in the form of raw materials, catalysts,
Fire hazards.
Runaway/uncontrolled reaction.
Toxic hazards.
Steam flashes.
Operational accidents in the biofuel industry range from slips, trips and falls to major
incidents like fire and explosion. Hazards, causes, hazardous events and related
consequences during operation and handling (storage, processing, handling etc.) are given
below:
This includes raw materials, additives, intermediates, finished products and by-
One of the major hazards is the accidents that could result from biofuel
runaway).
89
Overflow of tank, vessel, reactor or tanker.
c. Material Handling
A range of materials in solid form, liquid form and gaseous form are transferred
between equipment, process vessels, storage etc. This involves a number of tools and
transfer system from shovel to conveyor system to pipelines and pumps. Manual
fatalities.
Typically, biofuel plants mainly small/medium scale and occasionally large scale plants
Some of the hazards are very significant when the existing facility (old barn, garage or
storage deport) is modified and converted to a biofuel processing facility. One of the
common failures is failing to recognize the additional requirements to adhere to, e.g.
building regulation codes, electrical installation requirements etc. If the associated hazards
in conversion are not identified and addressed, the facility as such could pose high risk due
to operation.
90
The following are some of the causes associated to biofuel plant projects that may
Land area.
No/improper foundation.
Ventilation.
Lighting.
91
Rest and cleaning.
Weather protection.
animals/pests etc.
B. Risk Management
Risk management is the term used to cover the whole process of identifying and assessing
risk, setting goals and creating and operating systems for their control. Though the biofuel
manufacturing facility often does not come under major accident hazard regulations, it is prudent
that the risk from the biofuel industry is assessed and managed considering the nature of hazards
and the stakeholders involved. The depth of risk assessment should be proportional to the extent
At the request of the Renewable Fuels Association (RFA), the ERI Solutions, Inc. of
Colwich, KS developed an outline of the general plant and employee safety regulatory compliance
1. Recordkeeping (OSHA 1904). The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA)
requires covered employers to prepare and maintain records of occupational injuries and
illnesses. OSHA also establishes requirements and criteria for reporting work-related injuries,
guarding floor & wall openings, stairs and ladders. OSHA requires the use of a guardrail system
3. Exit routes (OSHA 1910.37). Establishes requirements for the proper design and
92
4. Emergency Action Plan (OSHA 1910.38). An Emergency Action Plan (EAP) must be
developed and include procedures for reporting emergencies, emergency evacuation, and for
employees performing medical or rescue duties. OSHA also establishes requirements for alarm
5. Fire Prevention Plan (OSHA 1910.39). Establishes requirements for employers to identify
flammable and combustible materials stored in the workplace and develop ways to control
workplace fire hazards. Completing a fire prevention plan and training employees will reduce
employees are exposed to noise levels at 85 decibels or more over eight (8) working hours. A
7. Flammable and Combustible Liquids (OSHA 1910.106). Establishes requirements for the
handling, storage and use of flammable and combustible liquids with a flash point below
8. Storage and Handling of Anhydrous Ammonia (NH3) (OSHA 1910.111). Facilities that
have anhydrous ammonia systems must comply with this standard. If the process contains
over 10,000 pounds of anhydrous ammonia, OSHA 1910.119 also applies (see Process Safety
9. Process Safety Management (PSM) (OSHA 1910.119). The purpose of this standard is to
facilities are required to comply with this standard if they process or store over 10,000 pounds
of ethanol. OSHA also lists threshold quantities for other highly hazardous chemicals that are
covered under the PSM regulation. Other common chemicals in use at ethanol production
facilities that may fall under PSM regulations are anhydrous (or aqueous) ammonia,
93
hydrochloric acid, denaturant, and chlorine dioxide. This is not an all-inclusive list, but if you
have these chemicals at your site, you should determine for sure whether or not you meet the
10. Emergency Response (OSHA 1910.120). Employers must address what action employees
are to take when there is an unwanted release of hazardous chemicals. Employers may decide
to train and mobilize employees to control or mitigate the release according to the
(HAZWOPER) standard. Employers may also decide to have employees evacuate the danger
area and have local community emergency response organizations respond to the release.
11. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (OSHA Subpart I). Contains regulations for
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) selection and use concerning eyes, face, head and
extremities. All ethanol production facilities must perform and document a workplace hazard
assessment so the proper PPE can be designated and communicated for all areas of your
facility.
12. Permit Required Confined Spaces (OSHA 1910.146). Requires employers to develop
(PRCS). The standard requires an evaluation to determine the existence of PRCSs, the
rescue/emergency procedures. The employer must decide either to train employees on entry
rescues or rely on available external sources to provide entry rescues. Either method must be
documented as to its availability and reliability to respond in the event of an emergency. All
shut down equipment, isolate it from energy sources and prevent the release of potential
hazardous energy while maintenance and service activities are being performed. Employers
94
must develop and document specific procedures for all equipment and machinery that may be
14. Medical Services and First Aid (OSHA 1910.151). Employers must ensure that medical
personnel and adequate first aid supplies are available to workers to handle potential workplace
15. Fire Protection (OSHA Subpart L). Standards for portable fire extinguishers, fire brigades,
and employee alarm systems, automatic sprinkler systems and fixed extinguishing systems.
16. Powered Industrial Trucks (OSHA 1910.178). Establishes requirements for powered
industrial trucks and training requirements for operators of powered industrial trucks.
17. Machinery and Machine Guarding (OSHA 1910.212). General requirements for machine
guarding.
18. Welding, Cutting and Brazing (OSHA Subpart Q). Contains regulations for oxygen fuel
cutting and welding, arc welding and cutting, and resistance welding. The standards also
contain training requirements for personnel who will be performing welding, cutting or
brazing.
19. Grain Handling (OSHA 1910.272). Contains requirements for control of grain dust fires or
20. Electrical (OSHA Subpart S). Contains regulations regarding electrical hazards in the
workplace. Subpart S is based on older versions of the national consensus standard NFPA
70E. OSHA has proposed an update to Subpart S to reflect the more current editions of NFPA
70E.
21. Access to Employee Exposure and Medical Records (OSHA 1910.1020). This standard
workplace. These exposure and medical records must be retained in accordance with this
regulation. The records must also be made available to employees or their designated
representative.
95
22. Blood borne Pathogens (OSHA 1910.1030). This standard applies to all possible
exposure means reasonably anticipated contact with blood or other potentially infectious
materials that may result from performance of an employee’s duties. Employees who are
responsible for rendering first aid or medical assistance as part of their job duties are covered
standard, Hazard Communication establishes requirements for ensuring that chemical hazards
and their associated protective measures are disseminated to employees who could be
standard requires a laboratory to develop a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses specific
hazards found in the laboratory. This standard does not apply to typical facility laboratory, as
they generally only perform quality assurance/quality control type laboratory operations.
96
II. Environmental Constraints and Analysis
Corn is widely cultivated throughout the globe. As one of the most important crops used
in the food, cosmetics and textile industry, its production is growing every year. With its increasing
manufacture yearly, the amount of its by-products such as Corn Stover also increases. Due to lack
of utilization, processing and post-harvest technology, these are eventually converted to organic
wastes. Through the action of microbe methanogens, these wastes emit methane which is found
to be 25 times more destructive greenhouse gas compared to carbon dioxide. Methane emission
can be reduced if organic wastes will be minimized. One good way of helping in the reduction of
emission is to utilize surplus by-products such as Corn Stover into beneficial goods like ethanol.
gasoline, the best ethanol has lower lifecycle global warming pollution. Ethanol represents closed
carbon dioxide cycle. After burning of ethanol, the release carbon dioxide is recycled back into
plant material because plants use carbon dioxide to synthesize cellulose during photosynthesis.
Furthermore, it only uses energy from renewable energy sources and no net carbon dioxide is
added to the atmosphere making it environmentally beneficial energy source. Ethanol derived from
biomass is the only liquid transportation fuel that does not contribute to the greenhouse gas effect.
97
III. Material Safety Data Sheets
I. Ethanol
SECTION 1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION
98
headache, dizziness, drowsiness, and nausea.
Advanced stages may cause collapse,
unconsciousness, coma and possible death due
to respiratory failure.
Serious Skin Contact Wash with disinfectant soap and cover the
contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream.
Seek medical attention.
Inhalation Remove from exposure and move to fresh air
immediately. If not breathing, give artificial
respiration. If breathing is difficult, give
oxygen. Get medical aid. Do NOT use mouth-
to-mouth resuscitation.
99
tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms
appear.
Fire Extinguishing Media For small fires, use dry chemical, carbon
dioxide, water spray or alcohol-resistant
foam. For large fires, use water spray, fog,
or alcohol-resistant foam. Use water spray
to cool fire-exposed containers. Water may
be ineffective. Do NOT use straight
streams of water.
100
SECTION 6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
101
SECTION 8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS, PERSONAL PROTECTION
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor respirator.
Spill Boots. Gloves. A self-contained breathing
apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation
of the product. Suggested protective clothing
might not be sufficient; consult a specialist
BEFORE handling this product.
102
Melting Point -114.1 °C (-173.4 °F)
Critical Temperature 243 °C (469.4 °F)
Specific Gravity 0.789 (Water = 1)
Incompatibilities with Other Materials Strong oxidizing agents, acids, alkali metals,
ammonia, hydrazine, peroxides, sodium, acid
anhydrides, calcium hypochlorite, chromyl
chloride, nitrosyl perchlorate, bromine
pentafluoride, perchloric acid, silver nitrate,
mercuric nitrate, potassium-tert- butoxide,
magnesium perchlorate, acid chlorides,
platinum, uranium hexafluoride, silver oxide,
iodine heptafluoride, acetyl bromide,
disulfuryl difluoride, tetrachlorosilane plus
water, acetyl chloride, permanganic acid,
ruthenium (VIII) oxide, uranyl perchlorate,
potassium dioxide.
103
gm/kg (female 41 week(s) after
conception) Effects on Newborn - Apgar
score (human only) and Effects on
Newborn - other neonatal measures or
effects and Effects on Newborn - drug
dependence.
104
SECTION 13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
US Federal
TSCA CAS# 64-17-5 is listed on the TSCA
inventory.
Health & Safety Reporting List None of the chemicals are on the Health
& Safety Reporting List.
TSCA Significant New Use Rule None of the chemicals in this material have a
SNUR under TSCA.
Clean Air Act This material does not contain any hazardous
air pollutants. This material does not contain
any Class 1 Ozone depletors. This material
does not contain any Class 2 Ozone depletors.
Clean Water Act None of the chemicals in this product are listed
as Hazardous Substances under the CWA.
None of the chemicals in this product are listed
as Priority Pollutants under the CWA. None of
the chemicals in this product are listed as Toxic
Pollutants under the CWA.
105
IV. Waste Disposal
Typical residuals generated in the dry mill production of ethanol that can be used for other
purposes include:
1. Distillers grains (DGs) or sometimes called mash. A typical 100 MMgy plant
2. Syrup which may also be called evaporated thin stillage. It is the liquid that was
separated from the mash during the distilling process which has been partially dehydrated.
When it is added back to DGs, it creates distillers dried grain with soluble (DDGs).
• Process upsets
• Cooling waters
DGs, DDGs, and syrup can be used as animal feed if economic to transport and used
appropriately. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has voiced three primary
1. Potential to transfer antibiotic residues from distiller grains into animal tissues.
2. Potential for harm to humans that eat tissues containing antibiotic residues
3. Potential for harm to the animal’s health from antibiotic residues in distillers grains
On the other hand, there are many other possible options in disposing the wastes generated
106
• The syrup may be burned for energy recovery. The syrup would not be considered to be
a solid waste as long as it is burned in a boiler, industrial furnace, or power plant that
• The syrup could be disposed at a publicly owned treatment works (POTW) with that
facility’s approval. The POTW may limit the amount of syrup that they will accept due
In this plant design, the waste generated shall be burned for energy recovery. This method
of waste disposal could provide adequate energy that can be utilized during plant operations.
107
Chapter 6
6.1 Conclusion
The main objective in developing a plant design is to determine the economic efficiency
of the production of bioethanol from corn stover in a real life setting. This analysis serves as a
basis for measuring the effectiveness of a plant in terms of production, management, costing and
environmental safety.
which is lesser than the fuel-grade ethanol price for Southeast Asian Markets with a price of
P25,900 –P26,100/m3. Thus, ethanol produced based from this design report can be market-
competitive. The payback period calculated is 1.38 years which means that bioethanol production
from corn stover is feasible. The return of investment (ROI) calculated is 55.46% which signifies
Furthermore, using corn stover, a biomass, for bioethanol production contributes largely
to the awareness of various sectors to consider biofuels as a new source of energy. Utilizing waste
materials for energy production is environmentally sound which makes it more profitable.
6.2 Recommendations
1. Investigate the potential of other biomass which can be used as raw materials for bioethanol
production
108
Bibliography
Corpuz, P., & Bean, R. (2016). Philippine Biofuels Situation and Outlook. Biofuels Annual.
D, H., R, D., Tao, L., C, K., D, H., & A, A. (2011). Process Design and Economics fro Biochemical
Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass to Ethanol . Colorado.
Department of Energy. (2006). Retrieved from DOE website:
https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/issuances/dc_2007-05-0006.pdf
Department of Energy. (2012). Phipippine Energy Plan 2012-2030. Retrieved from Department of
Energy Website: https://www.doe.gov.ph/pep/philippine-energy-plan-2012-2030
Green, D. W., & Perry, R. H. (2008). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. New York: Mc-Graw
Hill.
Harmsen, P., Hujigen, W., Bermudez-Lopez, L., & Bakker, R. (2010). Literature Review of
Physical and Chemical Pretreatment Processes for Lignocellulosic Biomass. Food &
Biobased Research.
Koundinya, V. (2016). Corn Stover. Retrieved from Ag Marketing Resource Center:
http://www.agmrc.org/renewable-energy/corn-stover/
Lin, R., Ladshaw, A., Nan, Y., & Liu, J. (2015). Isotherms for Water Adsorption on Molecular
Sieve 3A: Influence of Cation Composition. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.
Liu, Z.-H., Qin, L., Zhu, J.-Q., Li, B.-Z., & Yuan, Y.-J. (2014). Simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation of steam-exploded corn stover at high glucan loading and high temperature.
Biotechnology for Biofuels.
Marlin, T. E. (2015). Process Control: Designing Processes and Control Systems for Dynamic Performance.
McGraw Hill.
Mikles, J., & Fikar, M. (2007). Process Modelling, Identification, and Control. Springer.
Peters, M. S., Timmerhaus, K. D., & West, R. E. (2004). Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineers. New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
Pit, P., & Vitidsant, T. (2009). Production of pure ethanol from azeotropic solution by pressure
swing adsorption. Korean J. Chem. Eng., 1106-1111.
Provincial Government of Isabela. (2015). The Official Website of the Province of Isabela. Retrieved
from http://provinceofisabela.ph/index.php/municipalities/fourth-district/2013-07-10-
15-14-05
S&P Global. (2017). Platts Biofuel Scan. Retrieved from S&P Global Platts:
https://www.platts.com/products/biofuelscan
Sarkar, N., Gosh, S., Bannerjee, S., & Aikat, k. (2012). Bioethanol production from agricultural
wastes: An overview. Renewable Energy, 19-27.
109
Screw Conveyor Engineering Guide. (2016, August 5). Retrieved from Conveying Knowledge
Workmanship Solutions: http://www.kwsmfg.com/services/screw-conveyor-
engineering-guide/
Seborg, D. E., Edgar, T. F., & Mellichamp, D. A. (2004). Process Dynamics and Control. Hoboken:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Simo, M., Sivashanmugan, S., Brown, C. J., & Hlavacek, V. (2009). Adsorption/Desorption of
Water and Ethnol on 3A Zeolite in Near-Adiabatic Fixed Bed. Ind. Eng. Chem., 9247-
9260.
Sinnott, R. (2003). Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Burlington: Elesevier, Inc.
Towler, G., & Ray, S. (2008). Chemical Engineering Design, Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant
and Process Design. San Diego: Elsevier Inc.
Turton, R., Bailie, R., Whiting, W., Shaeiwitz, J., & Bhattacharya, D. (2012). Analysis, Synthesis,
and Design of Chemical Processes. Pearson Education, Inc.
110
APPENDIX I
In this section, the equations used for the computation of important data needed for the
material and energy balances are presented in Table A.1 with their corresponding nomenclature
111
Ki= Equilibrium (Peters,
constant Timmerhaus, &
Hi Hi= Henry’s law West, 2004)
Ki constant
p
p = pressure of gas
Ai = solute absorption (Peters,
factor Timmerhaus, &
L L = entering liquid West, 2004)
Ai flow rate
KiV
V = entering vapor
flow rate
K
A iN 1 A i Ai = solute absorption (Peters,
solute fraction absorbed factor Timmerhaus, &
A iN 1 1
N = theoretical West, 2004)
number of stages
Fenske equation Nmin = minimum (Peters,
number of stages Timmerhaus, &
ln[(x LK / x HK ) D ( x LK / x HK ) B ] xLK = mole fraction of West, 2004)
N min light key component
ln LK
HK xHK = mole fraction of
heavy key component
Underwood equation Rmin = minimum (Peters,
reflux ratio Timmerhaus, &
n
i x D ,i xD,i = mole fraction of West, 2004)
R min 1 component in
i 1 i
distillate
xF, i = mole fraction of
n
i x F ,i
i 1
1 q component in feed
αi = relative volatility
i
112
L V
0.3 α = surface tension of
0.2
113
APPENDIX II
The charts and tables used in the computation of data for this design report is presented
in Table A2.1. The purpose of using the chart or table, source and page number is indicated.
NO.
Table 2-112 Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH)*, Density of ethanol- (Green & Perry, 2008),
Table 2-199 Thermodynamic Properties of Specific heat of carbon (Green & Perry, 2008),
Table 2-214 Thermodynamic Properties of Density of saturated (Green & Perry, 2008),
heat
Table 2-305 Thermodynamic Properties of Specific heat of water (Green & Perry, 2008),
Fig. 15. 5, Chart for estimating values of Csb Souders and Brown (Peters, Timmerhaus,
Table 2-123 Solubility as a Function of Henry’s law constant (Green & Perry, 2008),
114
Appendix III
Material Balance Calculations
A. Adsorption
Flowchart:
m3
m4 m5
Azeotropic Adsorber Cooler Dehydrated
Ethanol m1 Ethanol, m6
m2
Ethanol Water, m7
Solution:
m1 = 100000 + m7 (1)
m3 = m7 = 16688.0616 (4)
m5 = m6 = 100000 (5)
m4 = 12053.7869 + 100000
m4 = 112053. 7869
Regeneration of adsorbent:
115
B. Ethanol Distillation
Flowchart:
Azeotropic Ethanol
m2=100, 000 kg/day
EtOH
95.6% EtOH
Wet Ethanol 4.4% H2O
m1 Ethanol
75% EtOh Column
25% H2O
Process Water
m3
99.95% H2O
0.05% EtOH
Solution:
116
C. Gas Absorption
Flowchart:
Process Water,
Beer, m1
m2
85% EtOH
99.95% H2O
11% H2O
0.05% EtOH
4% CO2
Absorber
Wet Ethanol, Carbon dioxide
m3 effluent, m4
75% EtOH 80% H2O
25% H2O 20% CO2
Solution:
m1 m 2 m 3 m 4
Overall Material Balance: m1 32071 .70205 148759 .7637 m 4 (1)
m1 m 4 116688 .0617
117
D. Beer Distillation
Flowchart:
Beer, m2
85% EtOH
11% H2O
4% CO2
Fermented broth,
m1 Beer
50% EtOH
Column
30% H2O
15% solids
5% CO2 Stillage, m3
90% H2O
10% EtOH/solids
Solution:
m1 m 2 m 3
Overall Material Balance: m 1 127849 .5284 m 3 (1)
m 1 m 3 127849 .5284
118
E. Reactor (Fermentation)
Flowchart:
Yeast
Carbon dioxide
Solution:
Fermentable sugars needed to produce ethanol are mainly glucose and xylose.
119
Mass of Carbon dioxide: (3)
Check:
Mass of fermentable sugar = mass of fermented broth + total mass of carbon dioxide
329358.6625=329358.6625
120
F. Reactor (Enzymatic hydrolysis)
Flowchart:
Enzyme Water
Fermentable sugar
50% glucose
Pretreated corn 50% xylose
stover, PCS Hydrolyzer
Lignin
Solution:
Assuming that the pretreated corn stover contains 60% glucan and 40% xylan
121
= 247266.2631 + 362410.5
122
G. Steam Explosion
Assumption: at 210oC, 2 MPa, Specific volume= 0.099587 m3/kg; Assume ratio of process
Flowchart:
Process Steam, m1
SE Reactor Pretreated corn stover (PCS),
Milled Corn Stover, m2 m3
Solutions:
123
H. Milling
Flowchart:
Solution:
Assumptions:
1. The yeast needed is determined by the ratio of 2.765 x 10-4 kg yeast: kg corn stover.
2. According to Cellulase enzyme based method for the production of alcohol and glucose from
Yeast = 84.2878 kg
0.003 kg enzyme Enzyme
Amount of Cellulase:
1 kg raw corn stover 304838.381 6 kg
Enzyme = 914.5 kg
124
APPENDIX IV
Energy Balance Calculations
A. Steam Explosion
Flowchart:
Given:
Solution:
Input:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 3.5282 1.996 0 210 0 C
s kg C
kJ
Q 1,478.8803
s
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 3.5282 2.2 0 250 C
s kg C
kJ
Q 1,630.0284
s
kJ kJ
Total heat input 1,478.8803 1,630.0284
s s
125
Output:
kJ
Q mCpΔC 7.0564 2.7 0 900 C
kg C
kJ
Q 1,714.7052
s
126
B. Pre-cooler (SE Reactor to Hydrolyzer)
Flowchart:
Water, 200C
Pre-treated Corn
Cooler PCS (Glucan & Xylan)
Stover, 900C
250C
Water, 500C
Given:
Th,in = 90oC
Th,out = 25oC
Solution:
The energy (Q) required to cool the PCS from 90 to 25oC can be calculated by,
Q = mCpΔT
Where,
kg kJ
Q 7.0564 (2.7 )(25 - 90C)
s kg C
Q = -1,238.3982 kJ/s
The negative sign indicates cooling of entering fluid, therefore, the energy requirement is
Q = 1,238.392 kJ/s
127
C. Reactor (Enzymatic Hydrolysis)
Flowchart:
Fermentable sugar
Glucan, Xylan Hydrolyzer
300C
250C 500C
50% glucose
50% xylose
Given:
Using the equation to determine Q, the total heat added to a reactor per mole of entering
reactant (Levenspiel):
Where:
kJ
Cp of unreacted feed 2
kg 0 C
kJ
Mean Cp of glucose and xylose 0.281
kg 0 C
128
Solution:
kJ kJ kJ
H r 2 1250 2 2347 .87 241 .8
mol mol mol
kJ
H r 6712 .14
mol
kJ
H r 37.29
kg
Q = 42.79 kJ/s
Coolant:
Q = 35.26(4.2)(50-30)
Q = 592.7376 kJ/s
129
D. Reactor (Fermentation)
Flowchart:
CO2, 400C
Given:
Solution:
Input:
kg kJ
Q mCpT 3.8120 1.2552 0 30 0 C
s kg C
Q = 143.5446 kJ/s
Output:
kg kJ
Q mCpT 1.8636 0.9185 0 40 0 C
s kg C
Q = 68.4686 kJ/s
kg kJ
Q mCpT 1.9483 0.805 0 40 0 C
s kg C
Q = 62.7352 kJ/s
130
Total heat output = 62.7352 + 68.4686
131
E. Beer Distillation
Flowchart:
Beer, 1170C
85% EtOH
11% H2O
Fermented broth, 4% CO2
Beer
400C Column
50% EtOH
Stillage, 470C
90% H2O
10% solids
Given:
Solution:
Input:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.9483 0.805 0 40 0 C
s kg C
Q = 62.7449 kJ/s
Output:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.4797 3.542 0 117 0 C
s kg C
Q = 613.2084 kJ/s
132
Sensible heat of stillage:
kg kJ
Q mCpT 0.4685 4.184 0 47 0 C
s kg C
Q = 92.1296 kJ/s
Heat gain/loss = Total heat output – Total heat input = 705.338 – 62.7449
133
F. Pre-cooler (Beer Column to Absorber Column)
Flowchart:
Water, 200C
Water, 500C
Given:
Th,in = 117oC
Th,out = 40oC
Solution:
The energy (Q) required to cool the beer from 117 to 40oC can be calculated by,
Q = mCpΔT
Where,
kg kJ
Q 1.4797 (3.542 )(40 - 117 C)
s kg C
Q = -403.5644 kJ/s
The negative sign indicates cooling of entering fluid, therefore, the energy requirement is
Q = 403.5644 kJ/s
134
G. Gas Absorption
Flowchart:
Beer, 400C
Process Water,
85% EtOH
330C
11% H2O
99.95% H2O
4% CO2
0.05% EtOH
Absorber
Wet Ethanol, Carbon dioxide
340C effluent, 380C
75% EtOH 80% H2O
25% H2O 20% CO2
Given:
Process Stream Mass Flow Rate Temperature Cp
(kg/s) (0C) (kJ/kg0C)
Beer 1.4797 40 3.542
Process Water 0.3712 33 4.188
Wet Ethanol 1.7218 34 3.055
Carbon dioxide 0.1292 38 3.581
Solution:
Input:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.4797 3.542 0 400 C
s kg C
Q = 209.6438 kJ/s
kg kJ
Q mCpT 0.3712 4.188 0 330 C
s kg C
Q = 51.3013 kJ/s
135
Output:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.7218 3.055 0 340 C
s kg C
Q = 178.8434 kJ/s
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 0.1292 3.581 0 380 C
s kg C
Q = 17.6107 kJ/s
= 196.4541 – 260.9451
136
H. Ethanol Distillation
Flowchart:
Azeotropic Ethanol
95.6% EtOH
4.4% H2O
Wet Ethanol
Ethanol
75% EtOh
Column
25% H2O
Process Water
99.95% H2O
0.05% EtOH
Given:
Solution:
Input:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.7218 3.055 0 340 C
s kg C
Q = 178.8434 kJ/s
Output:
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.3506 3.357 0 380 C
s kg C
Q = 172.2906 kJ/s
137
Sensible heat of process water:
kg kJ
Q mCpT 0.3712 4.188 0 330 C
s kg C
Q = 51.3013 kJ/s
= 223.5919 – 178.8434
138
I. Adsorption
Flowchart:
Cooling fluid
Adsorbed fluid
Azeotropic Dehydrated
Adsorber Cooler
Ethanol Ethanol, m6
Regenerating fluid
Ethanol Water
Given:
Solution:
Input (adsorber):
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.3506 3.357 0 380 C
s kg C
Q = 172.2906 kJ/s
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 0.1395 2.046 0 116 0 C
s kg C
Q = 33.1084 kJ/s
139
Output (adsorber)
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 0.1931 2.484 0 350 C
s kg C
Q = 16.7881 kJ/s
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 1.2969 2.046 0 116 0 C
s kg C
Q = 307.8011 kJ/s
= 324.5892 -205.399
Input (cooler):
Q = 16.7881 kJ/s
Q = 307.8011 kJ/s
Output (cooler):
kg kJ
Q mCpΔC 0.1931 3.411 0 710 C
s kg C
Q = 46.7652 kJ/s
140
Sensible heat of dehydrated ethanol:
kg kJ
Q mCpT 1.1574 1.637 0 380C
s kg C
Q = 71.9972 kJ/s
Heat loss/gain = Total heat output – Total heat input = 118.7624 – 324.5892
141
APPENDIX V
A. Roller mill
1. The gap between the rolls is approximately equal to the maximum size of the product.
3. The particle size of the product ranges from 1 to 12 mm (0.04 to 0.5 in) with a feed particle
4. Rolls are usually 12 to 16 inches across the face and 22 to 36 inches in diameters (911
Metallurgy Corporations).
Perry, 2008).
4. For spot-examined carbon steel, Ej = 0.85 and S = 94, 500 kPa (Peters, Timmerhaus, &
West, 2004).
2. The energy requirement for fluid 1 is equal to the energy requirement for fluid 2.
D. Hydrolyzer
1
4. W (D impeller ) (Green & Perry, 2008)
10
142
E. Fermenter
Perry, 2008).
4. For spot-examined carbon steel, Ej = 0.85 and S = 94, 500 kPa (Peters, Timmerhaus, &
West, 2004).
F. Beer Column
1. Fenske equation is used to determine the minimum number of stages (Peters, Timmerhaus,
2. The Underwood equation is used to developed the Rmin (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2004).
3. The equation proposed by Eduljee is used to determine the number of theoretical stages
4. The Kirkbride method is used to determine the number of stages below and above the feed
5. Sieve tray is used as the most common tray internal because its tray fundamentals are well-
2. The energy requirement for fluid 1 is equal to the energy requirement for fluid 2.
H. Absorber
1. Use a packed column when column diameter is less than 0.65m and the packed height is
less than 6 m. If not, use a trayed column (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2004).
2. Pressure should be greater than the ambient pressure and the temperature near ambient
143
Hi
3. For an ideal solution at subcritical temperature, K i where Hi is the Henry’s law
p
constant and p is the pressure of the gas (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2004).
4. Kremser method is used to calculate the number of equilibrium stages (Peters, Timmerhaus,
I. Ethanol Column
1. Fenske equation is used to determine the minimum number of stages (Peters, Timmerhaus,
2. The Underwood equation is used to developed the Rmin (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2004).
3. The equation proposed by Eduljee is used to determine the number of theoretical stages
4. The Kirkbride method is used to determine the number of stages below and above the feed
5. Sieve tray is used as the most common tray internal because its tray fundamentals are well-
J. Adsorber column
1. Continuous bulk separation is applied for adsorbate with a weight concentration greater
2. The adsorbent recommended for ethanol-water systems is 3A molecular zeolites with the
3. Feed conditions in which this mixture is nearly saturated but it has not yet reached its critical
temperature use the type II adsorption isotherm ( (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2004).
4. Adsorption columns with pressures above atmospheric must be designed like process
144
K. Pre-cooler (Around Adsorber Column)
2. The energy requirement for fluid 1 is equal to the energy requirement for fluid 2.
145
APPENDIX VI
A. Roller Mill
300rev π 100cm
s
min 1rev
s 94,247.78 cm/min
Using the Ribbon theory from Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook 8th edition, the
dLs
Q
2.96
Q 522,183.64 59 cm3/min
C πD
C π 91 cm
C 285.88 cm
146
B. Steam Explosion Reactor
Operating Conditions:
Temperature = 210°C
m 12,701.599 2 kg
Vmcs
ρ 160 kg/m 3
Vmcs 79.3850 m3
Vshell 1.3Vmcs
Vshell 103.2004m 3
L
3~ 4
D
L 3D
π 2 3π 3
V D L D
4 4
4 (103.2004)
D vessel 3
3π
D vessel 3.5250 m
Lvessel =3Dvessel
Lvessel = 3 (3.5250)
Lvessel = 10.5749 m
147
Thickness of Torispherical Head Vessel (tshell)
P 2, 682.075 kPa
Pri
t shell Cc
SE j 0.6P
(2628.075) (3.5250/2)
t shell 0.003175
94,500(.85 ) 0.6(2628.0 75)
t shell 0.062 m
0.885PL a
t head Cc where La ri
SE j 0.1P
IDD 1.3414 m
2π
Vhead 0.9[ (L a ) 2 (IDD)]
3
2π
Vhead 0.9[ (1.7625) 2 (1.3414)]
3
Vhead 7.8544 m 3
148
Total Volume of Pressure Vessel
Vtotal 118.9092 m3
149
C. Pre-cooler (SE Reactor to Hydrolyzer)
kg kJ
Q1 25,403.198 4 (2.7 )(90 25C)
h kg C
Q1 4,458,261. 319kJ/h
Q1 Q 2
kJ
4,458,261. 319 m 2 (4.2 )(50 20C)
kg C
m 2 35,383.026 3kg/h
Correction factor, F:
Th,in Th,out 90 25
P 2.167
Tc,out Tc,in 50 20
Tc,out Tc,in 50 20
R 0.75
Th,in Tc,in 90 50
150
Area for the shell-and-tube exchanger, A:
Q
A
U Δ Tm
4,458,261. 319kJ/h
A
W 1K kJ/h
600 2 ( )(16.83 C)(3.6 )
m K 1C W
A = 122.6387 m2
151
D. Hydrolyzer
kg
Density of glucan 1110
m3
mglucan 10,302.761 kg
Vglucan
ρglucan 1110 3
kg
m
Vglucan 9.2817m 3
kg
Density of xylan 1130
m3
m xylan 15,100.437 5 kg
Vxylan
ρ xylan 1130 3
kg
m
Vxylan 13.3632m 3
Vpcs 22.6448m 3
kg
Density of water at 25 o C 997.08
m3
m water 3186.9632k g
Vwater
ρ water kg
997.08 3
m
152
Vwater 3.1962m 3
Vtotal 25.841m 3
Vactual = 1.3Vcalculated
Vreactor 1.3(25.841 m3 )
Vreactor 33.5933m 3
H
2
D
πD 2
Vreactor H
4
π(Dreactor) 2
33.5933m 3
2D reactor
4
D reactor 2.7840m
H reactor 2D reactor
H reactor 2(2.7840m)
H reactor 5.5679m
Impeller Diameter:
Dimpeller 0.3(2.7840 m)
153
Dimpeller 0.8352m
Z Dimpeller 0.8352m
Baffle Width:
1
W (D impeller )
10
0.8352 m
W
10
W 0.08352 m
154
E. Fermenter
m yeast 3.512 kg
Vyeast
ρ yeast 905.105 kg/m 3
Vyeast 0.0039m 3
msugar 13,723.227 6 kg
Vsugar
ρsugar 1,530 kg/m 3
Vsugar 8.9694 m3
Vm Vyeast Vsugar
Vm 0.0039 8.9694
Vm 8.9733 m3
Vreactor 11.6652 m3
H
1.5
D
155
π 2 3π
V D H D3
4 8
D reactor 3 8Vreactor/3π
8 (11.6652)
D reactor 3
3π
D reactor 2.1474m
H reactor 3.2210 m
(1,530 905.105)
Pstatic ρgH (9.81)(3.2 21)
2
Pstatic 38472.236 Pa or 38.472 kPa
P 185.93 kPa
Pri
t reactor Cc
SE j 0.6P
(185.93)(2 .1474/2)
t reactor 0.003175
94,500(.85 ) 0.6(185.93 )
t reactor 0.00566 m
0.885PL a
t head Cc where La ri
SE j 0.1P
156
Inside Depth of Dish (IDD)
IDD 0.1076 m
2π
Vhead 0.9[ (L a ) 2 (IDD)]
3
2π
Vhead 0.9[ (1.0737) 2 (0.1076)]
3
Vhead 0.2338 m 3
Vtotal 11.899 m 3
157
F. Beer Column
ln[(x LK /x HK ) D (x HK /x LK ) B ]
N min
lnα LK
HK
n
αi x F,i
α
i 1 Θ
1 q
i
Reflux ratio, R:
Assume R = 1.2Rmin
R = 1.2 (0.824)
R = 0.989
158
Actual number of theoretical stages, N using the Eduljee eqn:
N N min R R min
0.566
0.751
N 1 R 1
0.751
N 1 0.989 1
N 12 theoretic al stages
ND B x (x ) 2
log 0.206log HK LK B
NB D x LK F (x HK ) D
ND
log 0.55118155 24
NB
N ND NB
12 N D N B
ND
log 0.55118155 24
12 N D
N D 3 theoretic al stages
N B 9 theoretic al stages
Souders and Brown factor for flood conditions at flood conditions, Csb:
0.5
L ρ V
0.3
0.989 692.07
0.073
V ρ L 1.989 423920
Assuming a tray space of 0.61m for a sieve tray column internal, the Csb from Fig.15.5
159
Net vapor gas velocity, Vnf :
0.3
ρL ρV
0.2
α
Vnf Csb
20 ρ V
0.097
20 722.0522
Vnf 0.670m/s
An 0.334
Ac 0.393m 2
0.85 0.85
Column diameter, D:
1/2 1/2
4A 4(0.393)
D c 0.707m
π π
Column height, H:
Assume H=20D
H 20D 20(0.707)
H 14.15m
160
G. Pre-cooler (Beer Column to Absorber Column)
kg kJ
Q1 5327.0636 (3.542 )(117 40C)
h kg C
Q1 1,452,871. 364 kJ/h
Q1 Q 2
kJ
1,452,871. 364 m 2 (4.2 )(50 20C)
kg C
m 2 11,530.725 1 kg/h
Correction factor, F:
Tc,out Tc,in 50 20
R 0.44
Th,in Tc,in 117 50
161
Area for the shell-and-tube exchanger, A:
Q
A
U Δ Tm
A = 13.84 m2
162
H. Absorber
Tabsorbent = 330C
Hi = 1992 atm
1992
Ki 3.254
612
L 0.495
Ai
K i V 3.254(0.15 2)
A i 1.000792
A iN 1 A i
solute fraction absorbed
A iN 1 1
1.000792 N 1 1.000792
0.093
1.000792 N 1 1
N 10 theoretic al stages
Assume N = 2Ntheo
N = 2(10)
N = 20 actual stages
163
I. Ethanol Column
ln[(x LK /x HK ) D (x LK /x HK ) B ]
N min
lnα LK
HK
n
αi x F,i
α
i 1 Θ
1 q
i
2.3033(0.5 4) 1(0.46)
1 0 Assume feed is in the vapor phase : q 0
2.3033 Θ 1 Θ
Θ 1.5995
n
αi x D,i
R min 1
i 1 αi Θ
Reflux ratio, R:
Assume R = 1.2Rmin
R = 1.2 (3.58)
R = 4.296
164
Actual number of theoretical stages, N using the Eduljee eqn:
N N min R R min
0.566
0.751
N 1 R 1
0.751
N 1 4.296 1
N 45 theoretic al stages
ND B x (x ) 2
log 0.206log HK LK B
NB D x LK F (x HK )D
ND
log 1.17256365 6
NB
N ND NB
45 N D N B
ND
log 1.17256365 6
45 N D
N D 3 theoretic al stages
N B 42 theoretic al stages
Souders and Brown factor for flood conditions at flood conditions, Csb:
0.5 0.3
L ρ V 4.296 722.0252
0.12
V ρ L 5.296 423920
Assuming a tray space of 0.46m for a sieve tray column internal, the Csb from Fig.15.5
165
Net vapor gas velocity, Vnf :
0.3
ρL ρV
0.2
α
Vnf Csb
20 ρ V
0.079
20 722.0522
Vnf 0.545m/s
An 0.545
Ac 0.641m 2
0.85 0.85
Column diameter, D:
1/2 1/2
4A 4(0.641)
D c 0.903m
π π
Column height, H:
Assume H=20D
H 20D 20(0.903)
H 18.06m
166
J. Adsorber Column
Operating conditions:
Temperature: 35-1160C
To determine the amount of 3A molecular zeolites needed, the following ratio is used:
20 kg H 2 O 4634.2747 kg H 2 O
100 kg 3A zeolite Mass of 3A zeolite
The pressure required for this adsorption system ranges from 1 to 2.5 atm. According to
Green & Perry (2008), adsorption columns with pressures above atmospheric must be designed
like process pressure vessels. A process pressure vessel has the following dimensions:
167
Selection of adsorption cycle
To determine the appropriate adsorption cycle, the process conditions of the feed and
product streams must be observed (Peters, Timmerhaus, & West, 2004). From the data used in
the material and energy balances, there is a pressure difference for each stream. Since ethanol has
a boiling point temperature of 780C (Green & Perry, 2008), the temperature of the feed (azeotropic
ethanol) has already exceeded this but note that it will not still evaporate since it has not reached
yet 1000C, the boiling point of water. Thus, this mixture is nearly saturated but it has not yet
reached its critical temperature and pressure. For this feed condition, the type II adsorption
168
K. Pre-cooler (around Adsorber Column)
m1 = 4668.84 kg/h
kg kJ
Q1 4668.84 (2.046 )(116 - 38C)
h kg C
Q1 745,090.83 79kJ/h
Q1 Q 2
kJ
745,090.83 79 m 2 (2.484 )(71 - 35C)
kg C
m 2 8332.1126k J/h
Correction factor, F:
Tc,out Tc,in 71 - 35
R 0.44
Th,in Tc,in 116 35
169
Area for the shell-and-tube exchanger, A:
Q
A
U Δ Tm
745,090.83 79kJ/h
A
W 1K kJ/h
750 2 ( )(15.50 C)(3.6 )
m K 1C W
A = 17.8038 m2
170
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN ASSESSMENT RUBRIC
Team Members: 1.
2.
3.
4.
171
Use of Computer–aided tools are Computer–aided tools Minimal application and Serious deficiencies in
Computer– used effectively to develop used with moderate use of appropriate tools. Understanding the correct
Aided Tools and analyze designs. effectiveness to develop selection and/or use of
designs. tools.
(1)
Application of Critical selection and Effective application of Serious deficiencies in No or erroneous
Engineering application of engineering Engineering principles proper selection and use application of engineering
Principles Principles ensuring resulting in reasonable of engineering principles. principles yielding
reasonable results. solution. unreasonable solution.
(3)
Final Design Design meets or exceeds Design meets desired Barely capable of Not capable of achieving
desired objectives. objectives. achieving desired desired objectives.
objectives.
(3) Effective implementation Moderately effective No implementation of
of resource conservation utilization of resource Minimal utilization of resource conservation and
and recycle strategies. conservation and recycle resource conservation and Recycle strategies.
potentials. recycle potentials.
Process Effective use of profitability Reasonable profitability Reasonable cost estimates No or totally erroneous cost
Economics analysis leading to Analysis presented, but no presented, but no Estimates presented.
improvement interpretation of the results. profitability analysis
(2) recommendations included.
Format Format is consistent Format is generally Mostly consistent format. Work is illegible, format
& Aesthetics throughout including consistent including changes throughout, e.g.
heading styles and heading styles and font type, size etc.
(1) captions. captions.
Figures, Graphs Figures and tables are Figures and tables are Figures and tables are Figures and tables are
& Tables presented logically and neatly done and provide legible, but not convincing. sloppy and fail to provide
reinforce the text. intended information. intended information.
172
(2) All tables are effectively Most tables are properly Many tables are not Tables are not used
interpreted and discussed interpreted and important interpreted. Important effectively. Little
in the report. features noted. features are not understanding of important
communicated or features or issues.
understood.
Safety & Health Complete understanding Sound understanding of Serious deficiencies in No understanding or
Issues of health and safety issues health and safety issues. addressing health and appreciation of safety and
leading to sound and Mostly effective in safety issues leading to an health related issues.
(2) supported results. achieving supported unsupported and/or
results. infeasible result.
(1)
References Reference section Minor inadequacies in Inadequate list of No referencing system
complete and references. references or references in used.
comprehensive. Consistent referencing text.
(1) Consistent and logical system. Inconsistent or illogical
referencing system. referencing system.
TOTAL
173