2.4.

1 Interpersonal Communication: Direct interpersonal communication involves a direct face-to-face relationship between the sender and receiver of a message, who are in an interdependent relationship. Because of interpersonal communications immediacy (it is taking place now) and primacy (it is taking place here), it is characterized by a strong feedback component. Communication is enhanced when the relationship exists over a long period of time. Interpersonal communication involves not only the words used but also the various elements of nonverbal communication. The purposes of interpersonal communication are to influence, help and discover, as well as to share and play together. Interpersonal communication can be categorized by the number of participants.

Dyadic communication involves two people. Example: Two friends talking. Group communication involves three or more persons, though communication scholars are inconsistent as to the top end of the number scale. The smaller the number in the group, the more closely this mode resembles interpersonal communication. Often group communication is done for the purpose of problem solving or decision making. Example: University study group.

Group Communication Much communication takes place in the context of small groups, which are defined as those of three or more participants. The various and overlapping types of small groups lead to various types of communication patterns.

Social groups are units such as families, friends living as roommates, and voluntary recreational groups such as soccer teams. Families also form primary groups, which are defined as those in which people share living and financial arrangements. Families also are an example of reference groups, through which participants gain a sense of identity and an awareness of expected behavior. Work groups are another pattern of relationships. These are built by people who are drawn together by a common task, such as students working together on a project or company employees assigned to a common job activity.

Decision-making groups are brought together for the purpose of dealing with a question or policy. Similarly though distinctly, problem-solving groups focus on resolving a problem.

The working of groups has been the subject of much study, particularly from the framework of organizational communication. Leadership styles of small groups have been identified generally in a three-part continuum ranging from high control (authoritarian leaders) through moderate control (democratic leaders) to low control (laissez-faire leaders). A fourth type, called abdacratic, involves the total collapse of leadership over uncontrolled group dynamics. Psychologists and communication scholars have observed a pattern of group development, usually presented in a four-fold model The process begins with an orientation phase in which participants get to know each other and learn what is expected of them as a group. In the conflict phase, they deal with sources of conflict, usually in an effort to avoid conflict within the group. Too much conflict can prevent the group from functioning. However, some conflict is useful to avoid the pressure toward conformity known as groupthink. This norm emergence phase centers on compromise, the convergence of ideas, generation of alternative solutions, and eventually consensus. A technique often used to enhance the early part of this phase is brainstorming, in which unrestrained possible solutions and options are generated with no self-censorship or initial group evaluation. The purpose of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible. Only after the ideas have been generated will they be evaluated, keeping the two steps separate and thus allowing the group to consider all possible options. The closure phase completes the process by concluding the groups work. Public communication involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style generating only minimal feedback. Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are common purposes of public communication. Example: Lecture in university class. Another way of categorizing interpersonal communication is on the function or setting of the communication. Organizational communication deals with communication within large organizations such as businesses. This is sometimes considered part of group communication, but communication scholars have built up a body of knowledge focused primarily on organizations. Example: Work focused discussion between employer and employee. Family communication focuses on communication patterns within nuclear, extended and blended families. Like organizational communication, this too is sometimes seen as part of the general category of group communication, but much research has been focused specifically on communication within a family relationship. Family communication can be enhanced by the longstanding and close relationships among participants as well as the likelihood that families have shared heritage, similar values, and social rituals. Patterns differ in communication between spouses, between parent and child, among siblings, and within the wider family context. Example: Conversation during a holiday meal.

Additionally, some scholars identify a category of impersonal communication. This is a distinction between impersonal and interpersonal communication on the basis of the quality of the interaction. Impersonal communication is that which involves functional short-term exchanges such as might occur between a shopper and a salesman; the label of interpersonal is reserved for communication that functions in deeper and more meaningful relationships. The process of interpersonal communication includes several stages over an extended life cycle. Communication scholar Mark Knapp has outlined one useful framework for understanding the coming-together process. Note that these stages can be applied to personal friendships, romantic relationships, business encounters, and many other types of interaction. The initial encounter offers a first impression that can be full of communication data. Likes or dislikes can be instantaneous, though many people have learned that first impressions may be misleading. Experimenting is the second step in interpersonal communication. In this step, information is exchanged on a variety of topics general and safe at first, gradually becoming more personal and more self-revealing. Intensifying follows when the experimentation leads to positive mutual conclusions that the relationship is worth pursuing. The fourth step in interpersonal communication is integration, in which mutual decisions are made that the relationship is fulfilling. This is the stage of intense friendships, close business partnerships, romantic commitments, and so on. Bonding is the final stage, in which the relationship is sealed (often formally with contracts or written agreements) and generally is publicized (such as through announcements). Knapp also outlined a similar reverse pattern for the unraveling of interpersonal relationships: Differentiating mirrors the initiating phase but focuses instead on the differences that people notice about each other. Communication likewise plays a central role in the circumscribing stage, during which time participants in the relationship begin to minimize their communication and confine it to mainly functional topics. Stagnating is the next stage, in which the relationship becomes flat and personally unfulfilling and is continued mainly for reasons beyond the relationship, such as religious or family obligation, contractual obligation, or social expectation. Overt unpleasantness is evident in the avoidance stage, in which the participants in interpersonal communication both avoid each other and express mutual annoyance when they encounter each other. Termination if the final stage of breakdown, at which time legal, religious or other formal contracts are abrogated and the demise of the relationship is announced to others. Interpersonal communication occurs when two (or a few) people talk face to face. Conversations, dialogues, and small group discussions are interpersonal

exchanges. Each person also operates interpersonally during the exchange. Thus, an exchange with just two people involves at least three communication elements the unique thinking done by each person and the overriding process created by the interpersonal exchange. For example, imagine that you accidentally met your friend after a long time. You had a brief chat with him. But you think of meeting him again next evening. Your friend at the same time too thinks of having another meeting with you, in the afternoon, as he is leaving by the evening flight. After some discussion you agree to meet at the breakfast time as you have a busy schedule the whole afternoon. Behavior and Interpersonal Communication: In its simplest form, interpersonal relations are the interactions between two or more persons. We keep coming in contact with other people for personal, professional, social or business reasons. Whatever the context, there is an interaction between personalities in all these situations. Our perception about each other is based on the displayed behavior. The environment in which personal interaction takes place is largely determined by the behavior of the parties involved. All behaviors are motivated. The motives however, may be known or unknown, clear or unclear, controlled or uncontrolled. The net result is the variety in behaviors. Behaviors determine the quality of interpersonal relationships by directly influencing every transaction in interaction. In the organizational context, interpersonal relations become extremely important for smooth functioning of the system, greater coherence, and convergence of effort and minimization of conflict. To communicate well, we need to know our frames of reference and ourselves and to be able to assess other people. Only then can we hope to find the best ways in which to communicate effectively with them, both to pass information and build relationships. Some of the reasons we do not assess other people well are given below: We assume that people would behave the same way in every situation. We try too hard to put everyone into consistent categories.

 We are too influenced by first impressions. We are positively influenced where we have common characteristics with other people, e.g. same school, same function. We are too influenced by apparent negative points, e.g. if someone is not very good at short-term decision making, we might assume that he/she is not going to be good at long-term planning either. We make constant errors because of our own limited frames of reference and self-concept. The Contextual View: Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants involved. The interact-ants are in close physical proximity to each other, there are many sensory channels used, and feedback is immediate. An important point to note about the contextual definition is that it does not take into account the relationship between the interact-ants. Interpersonal communication is contextual, In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:

Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction. Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context. ("You" here refers to both participants in the interaction.)

Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix." Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in a restaurant.

Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of factors in the environmental context.

Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals

trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding. The Developmental View: We have many different relationships with people. Some researchers say that our definition of interpersonal communication must account for these differences. These researchers say that interacting with a sales clerk in a store is different than the relationship we have with our friends and family members. Thus, some researchers have proposed an alternative way of defining interpersonal communication. This is called the developmental view. From this view, interpersonal communication is defined as communication that occurs between people who have known each other for some time. Importantly, these people view each other as unique individuals, not as people who are simply acting out social situations. Interpersonal channels include conversations and dialogues, interviews, and small groups. Conversations involve unstructured, informal, and slightly purposive communication transactions. They may not relate directly to business, but nonetheless contribute to smooth business functioning. Dialogues introduce purpose in relatively structured and formal transactions. The interview is a special type of dialogue. It involves purposes such as appraising an applicant for a job or disseminating information to the media. In the directive interview, the interviewer commands the transaction. In the nondirective interview, both parties give direction to the interview. The stress interviewer uses emotion-laden questions to determine how well the stress interviewer handles stress. The depth interview involves a directive probe into the topic. Small groups include four to ten people, with location, time, topic, purpose, formality, designation, and cohesion having an impact on the transaction. Methods for conducting group meetings include problem solving, educating, brain storming, and role-playing. Functions of Interpersonal Communication: Interpersonal communication is important because of the functions it achieves. Whenever we engage in communication with another person, we seek to gain information about them.

We also give off information through a wide variety of verbal and nonverbal cues. The various functions of interpersonal communication are:
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Gaining

Information:

One

reason

that

we

engage

in

interpersonal communication is to gain knowledge about another individual. Social Penetration Theory says that we attempt to gain information about others so that we can interact with them more effectively. We can better predict how they will think, feel, and act if we know who they are. We gain this information passively, by observing them; actively, by having others engage them; or interactively, by engaging them ourselves. Self-disclosure is often used to get information from another person.
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Building a Context of Understanding: We also engage in interpersonal communication to help us better understand what someone says in a given context. The words we say can mean very different things depending on how they are said or in what context. Content Messages refer to the surface level meaning of a message. Relationship Messages refer to how a message is said. The two are sent simultaneously, but each affects the meaning assigned to the communication. Interpersonal communication helps us understand each other better. Establishing Identity: Another reason that we engage in interpersonal communication is to establish an identity. The roles we play in our relationships help us establish identity. So too does the face, the public self-image we present to others. Both roles and face are constructed based on how we interact with others. Interpersonal Needs: Finally, we engage in interpersonal communication because we need to express and receive interpersonal needs. The three identified needs are:

Inclusion: the need to establish identity with others.

Control: the need to exercise leadership and prove one's abilities. Groups provide outlets for this need. Some individuals do not want to be a leader. For them, groups provide the necessary control over aspects of their lives. Affection: the need to develop relationships with people. Groups are an excellent way to make friends and establish relationships.

Johari Window: A diagram called the Johari Window (above) provides a useful way to graphically visualize the process of self-disclosure. The four quadrants of panes represent the different ways information can be seen and observed, both by oneself and by others. The open pane includes what everyone can see: your physical looks, occupation, economic and social situation, as well as what you say and write. The hidden pane includes information about yourself that you have not revealed to others: secrets, hopes, fantasies. The blind pane is what others see in you that you cannot see: shortcoming, talents, faults. Finally, the unknown pane includes information that nobody yet knows: untapped potential, undiscovered interests.

Mediated communication: Mediated Interpersonal Communication Mediated interpersonal communication involves technology that assists or links the sender and receiver of messages. This may involve immediacy (live, or so-called real time). It does not involve a primary context but instead uses technology to link the various parties in communication. Dyadic communication includes two people, with some of the elements of interpersonal, but the context is not face-to-face. Example: Two business colleagues using the telephone or e-mail. Group communication includes a small group of people. Example: Teleconference in a distance learning class.

Mediated communication offers the advantage that it allows people to communicate over a distance or throughout a time span that would not be possible in direct communication. E-mail offers instantaneous global communication, and cell phones are highly mobile. Computer technology makes it possible for people to do their job without being physically present, allowing them to work from their home or from across the world.

Like direct communication, mediated communication may be formal or informal, personal or public. Feedback may be immediate or delayed. Machines even can assist in communication across language. Mediated communication has several inherent limitations, including the ability of telephone or Internet users to mask or disguise the source of the message, or the susceptibility of machines to various mechanical or technological noise sources. This level of communication occurs when two (or a few) people use some intermediate means for carrying their messages. They do not communicate face to face and thus do not have direct feedback. Mediated communication often uses a mechanical or electrical device to transmit or receive messages. Examples include the telephone, closed-circuit television, radio, radar, and the communication satellite. Mediated communication also occurs through letters, reports, forms, and interoffice memoranda. Person-to-Group Communication: The person-to-group level involves one speaker and audience. The speaker usually faces the audience, and the audience usually contains people with similar interests. A small, private person-to-group situation often has some of the characteristics of interpersonal communication. However, for large public groups, the person-togroup level lacks the benefits provided by interpersonal exchanges. The traditional speaker and audience setting may include microphones, projectors, and tape player. Mass Communication: Mass communication includes messages sent to large, public, dissimilar, anonymous, distant audiences using some intermediate instrument of transfer. The instruments include electronic (for example, radio, television, tape, and film) and print (for example, newspaper, magazine, book, pamphlet, brochure, direct mail campaign). The restricted opportunity for feedback is the most serious barrier to effective mass communication. The "mass media," as they are often called, have grown to include the print media of books, newspapers and magazines, the electronic

media of television, radio, and audio/video recording, and the new media of computers and computer networks. While these media differ in many ways, they all share the characteristics by which scholars define mass communication.