S 13 Tim 33

fmrjok
ksmK
q ;d mdol Ihud,dj mdi,a moaO;shg ykajdf ldhh 13 jk fYaK
% f
s ha .=re udf.damfoaY
ix.%y ykajdu;a iu imqK f' 12 jk yd 13 jk fYa%Ksj, isiq isiqhka Yaj oHd,
m%fYh i|yd mj;sk ;r.hg f.dreu ksid ksrka;rj u h ;rul mSvkhlg hg;a f'
kj Ihud,dj m%:u j;djg w' fmd' i' ^W' fm'& i|yd fhdod .efkk g fuu mSvkh ;j;a
f' tjeks wjia:djl Tn w;g m;ajk .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh" Ih ksfoaY ;rug u
.=rejrekg jeo.;a jkafka h' fuys uq,slj u .=rejrhd ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= me;s ;=kla we;'
tk .=re udf.damfoaY Ih ksfoaYh yd mqKj .e<mS ;su" Ihud,df wfmalaIs; ksmqK;d
mdolj Ihud,df oYkh yd lau uq,afldg f.k ilid ;su yd 12 - 13 fYa%Ksj,
orejdf.ka wfmalI
a ;
s idOk ugu fufkys fldg ilid ;su' tfyhska fuh fydka mYS,kh
lsu .=rejrhdg w;HjYH ldhhla yd j.lSula jkafkah'
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh by; lS lreKq ;=k u Tnf.a wjOdkhg f.k tau i|yd 13 jk
fYa%Ksj, b.eka lrk ishu .=rejrekg ta i|yd wjYH mqyqKq ,ndu i|yd o ls%hd;aul
is' ksrka;rj meje;afjk fuu mqyqKq ieisj,g wod< .=rejreka iyNd.su w;sYhska u
wjYH lreKla jkafka fuys lafjk bf.kq-b.eka uQ, Ou yd ls%hdodu jgyd .ekSug
mqyqKqj fnfyka bjy,a jk ksid h' fYaIfhka u mdi,a mdol we.hS ls%hd" ksmqK;d
jOkh i|yd bjy,a lr .ekSu wfmalaId flf' Ih lreKqj,g muKla b.ekau hg;aug
fkd isiqkf.a l=i,;d Tm .ekaf wNs,dIh bgqlrug f ish uey;a wjYH nj
wOHdmk yd we.hS ldhfha kshef,k wm ish u fokd jgyd .; hq;= f'
.=re udf.damfoaY ms<sfh, lsf w;sYh fjfyild ldhh bgqlr,Sug uey;a jq cd;sl
wOHdmk wdh;kfha ishu Ydia;S%h wxYj, ks,Odka we;= ldh uKav, yd ndysrj ta i|yd
odhl jq oaj;a yeu fokdg u o udf.a fYaI ia;+;sh ys f'
wdpdh Wmd,s t' fia o r

wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
ix{dmkh
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh 2010 jIfha isg 13 jk fY%aKsh i|yd bf.kq - b.eka
l%shdj,sh ixOdkh lr .ekSu i|yd .=re Nj;=kayg m%fhdackj;a f'
fuu fmd; imdokh lsug mdol lr.;a Ih ksfoaYh fuf;la mej;s Ih ksfoaYj,g
jvd fjkia jQjls' tu fjki ykd .ekSug fhduqjk Tng th ksmqK;d mdol Ih ksfoaYhla
nj oelsh yels h' tfy;a ksmqK;d ug yd tla tla ksmqK;d ug hgf;a oelafjk bf.kq
M, tu fY%aKsh ;=< u w;am;a lr .; hq;= f' tneka Tng fY%aKshg wod< mdv ie,iq lr
.ekSf tu ksmqK;d ug yd bf.kq M, fnfyka m%fhdackj;a f' fuu bf.kqM,
bf.kq - b.eka l%shdj,sfha tla tla wruqKq ilid .ekSug fukau mka;s ldurfha is
flfrk we.hS WmlrK ilia lr .ekSf ksKdhl f,i fhdod .ekSu flfrys Tnf.a
wjOdkh fhduq lsu wfmalaId flf' fuu Ih yeoEf mYS,kh l< hq;= w;sfl fmd;a
m;a fuka u fj wv mss<sn| isiqka oekqj;a lsug o fuu .=re udf.damfoaYh Tng m%fhdackj;a
f'
fuys fhda; l%shdldrl Tn ksudKYS,s .=rejrfhl= jYfhka l%shd lsf wfmalaId iys;j
wdoYj;a f,i bm;a l< tajd jYfhka i,lkak' tysoS .=re flakaSh mka;s ldur l%shdj,sh
fjkia lr YsIH flakaSh njla we;s lsu fYaIfhka wfmalaId flf' tneka isiqka O
fmd;am;a mYS,kh wka;cd, Nd;h jeks .fIKhg fhduq flfrk bf.kq wjia:d yels
yeug u Wod l< hq;= f' b.ekaf im%odhsl f,i igyka bm;a lsu fjkqjg
wdlIKSh f,i kj oekqu uQ,Ou wdh bm;a l< hq;= f' ta i|yd ;dlaIKh yels;dla rg
fhdod.;a ikaksfok Wml%u ksudKYS,S j Nd; lsug kj mka;sldurh ;=< Wkka h
hq;= f'
13 jk fY%aKsfha fuu Ih b.ekau wrUk Tnf.a isiqkag Ih ksfoaY ukdj meye,s lr
fokak' jIh mqrd l%shd;aul lrk Tnf.a b.ekaf ie,eiau ykajd fokafka k th isiqka
;=< fm<Uula jkq we;' uq Ih ksfoaYh wdjrKh lr .ekSug mdi, fj; isiqka wdlIKh
f' fuu Ihud,d m%;sixialrK rgg oefkk mka;s ldur bf.kq - be.ka l%shdj,sfha
fjkila we;s lrkq i|yd wod< Ih ksfoaYh fuka u fuys fhda; l%shdj,s weiqfrka Tnf.a
ksudKYS,s yelshd mqnqjd .kakd fuka b,a,'
fuu udf.damfoaY ieliSf odhl jQ oaj;a ieug" .=reNj;=kg
a iy cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha
ks,Odkag udf.a ia;=;sh ys f' f ldhh i|yd u`.mkajQ wOHlaI ckrd,a wdpdh Wmd,s t'
fiaor ue;ska fuka u uqK lghq;= is lr mdi,aj,g ,ndf j.lSu Ndrf.k lghq;= l<
wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a we;= ldhh uKav,hg uf.a fYaI ia;=;sh mqo lr'
fuys we;=<;a lreKq ms<sn| j ixjOkd;aul fhdackd wef;d;a ud fj; ,nd fokafka k
lD;{ f'
u,a is h U,df.dv
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
Ihud,d ixjOk mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
II
Wmfoa Y kh(
wdpdh Wmd,s t' fiaor
wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
u,a ishU,df.dv uhd
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
Ihud,d ixjOk mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wla I Kh(
' fla' ;dkf.a uhd

fcHIaG lldpdh ^I fY%aKsh&" fomd;fka;= m%OdkS" f;dr;=re ;dlaIK oHd mSGh
fudrgqj YajoHd,h
f;dr;=re ;dlaIK WmfoaYl" cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
wdpdh tka' ' fldldr

mSGdm;s
m.Kl mdi,
fld<U YajoHd,h
Ihud,d lgq j (
t' t*a' tia' mS' chjOk uhd
m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Od
f;dr;=re ;dlaIK fomd;fka;=j
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
ta' t' ldka;s h
jHdmD;s ks,Odks
f;dr;=re ;dlaIK fomd;fka;=j
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
v,s' t' ta' tia' ffialr uhd
uOHia:dk l<ukdlre
l,dmSh f;dr;=re ikaksfok ;dlaIK wOHdmk uOHia:dkh
yd,s we,
III
tia' t,a' m,sylaldr uhd

uOHia:dk l<ukdlre
l,dmSh f;dr;=re ;dlaIK wOHdmk uOHia:dkh
fudrgqj
wdpdh mS' ta' fla' ta' fla' mKa;r;ak fuh
WmfoaYl" f;dr;=re ;dlaIKh
l,dmSh m.Kl im;a uOHia:dkh
l=reKE.,
fla' mS' t' iS' udkf.a h
f;dr;=re ;dlaIK wxY Ndr ks,OdKS
rdclSh oHd,h
fld<U 07
t' iS' t' chjOk h
.=re WmfoaYl
l,dm wOHdmk ldhd,h
ms<shkao,
t' ' mSia uhd
.=re WmfoaYl
l,dm wOHdmk ldhd,h
l=reKE.,
wfisxy uhd
.=re WmfoaYl
l,dm wOHdmk ldhd,h
uyj
f' ta' lreKdkdhl fuh
ckdm;s oHd,h
rdc.sh
ljr ks udKh(
f' ta' *ka uhd
l,dmSh f;dr;=re ikaksfok ;dlaIK wOHdmk uOHia:dkh
yd,s we,
m.Kl joka ieliq u (

v,s' t' m%shxjod pkafiak fuh
IV
.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh mYS,khg Wmfoia

fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh w'fmd'i ^Wiia fm<& f;dr;=re yd ikakf
s ok ;dlaIK Ihhfha
13 jk jir i|yd ilia lrk ,oaols' fuu Ihh i|yd ksh; ksmqK;d ugj,ska f;dard.;a
ksmqK;d ug 14la i|yd l%shdldrl we;=<;a lr we;'
fuu ksmqK;d ug 14 i|yd bf.kq M, we;=<;a lr we;' fuu bf.kq M,j,g yd ksmqK;d
ugj,g <`.djk wdldrfha YsIH flakaSh bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,shla Tn iska wkq.ukh
l< hq;=h' f i|yd Tng lrk u`. fmkaula f,i f;dard.;a ksmqK;d ug i|yd msiSu
yd bf.kqu i|yd fhda; Wmfoia we;=<;a lr we;' fuys l%shdldrlu wjidkfha Ih lreKq
meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la bm;a lr we;' th Tn mka;s ldurfha isiqka iu`.
wjidkfha idlPd l<hq;= Ih lreKqj,g u`. fmkauls'
fuu .=reudf.damfoaY ix.%yh myrKh lsf my; oelafjk lreKq ms<sn| Tnf.a wjOdkh
fhduq lsu jeo.;a h'
10'7 ksmqK;d ugf o;a; iuqodhl" o;a; yeisru i|yd jD; uQ,dY% uDldx.hla jk
MYSQL uDldx.h Nd; l< yel'
13 jk fY%aKsh i|yd bf.kq-b.eka we.hS WmlrK ;=kla ms<sfh, lr we;'
mgq k
msgqj
fmrjok
ix{dmkh
II
.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh mYS,khg Wmfoia
wdoY l%shdldrl
ksmqK;d ugu 5'1
ksmqK;d ugu 6'3
ksmqK;d ugu 6'4
ksmqK;d ugu 7'7
ksmqK;d ugu 8'9
ksmqK;d ugu 8'11
ksmqK;d ugu 9'3
ksmqK;d ugu 10'3
ksmqK;d ugu 10'4
ksmqK;d ugu 11'3
ksmqK;d ugu 11'4
ksmqK;d ugu 11'5
ksmqK;d ugu 11'8
ksmqK;d ugu 13'1
1
10
18
22
30
35
41
46
51
57
64
71
76
82
9
17
21
29
34
40
45
50
56
63
70
75
81
83
we.hS ie,iq
m<uq jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 1
fojk jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 2
;=kajk jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 3
84 86 88 -
85
87
89
Yo ud,dj
90 -
98
VI
ks m q K ;dj 5(
m.Klhl midOkh je hqKq lsug u;l l<ukdlrKh

Nd; lrhs'
ks m q K ;d ugu 5'1(
O j.fha u;lhka iy tajdfha m%Odk ,laIK ykd .ekSug

m.Kl u;l moaO;sh mlaId lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
ffoksl l%shdj<s Wmfhda.S lr .kska m.Klfha u;lh yd inkaO fldgia yd l%shdj,s

ykdf.k tajd fm< .iajhs'
m.Kl u;lh l%shd;aul jk wdldrh oelaug .e,S igyka ksudKh lrhs'
u;lh .s,syS .sh o u;= m%fhdackh i|yd tys we;=<;a f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug iqiq l%u iy
fhdackd lrhs'
u;=mska lshjka wjYH f;dr;=re fj; <`.d f'
ixlSK l%shdj,s ir,j bm;a lsug rEmK fhdod .kshs'
bf.kq b.eka l%shdj,sh(

ms iS u (
iafPdfjka bm;a jk <uqka y;r fofkl= mka;sh bhg le|jd my; ixjdoh mka;shg
bm;a lrkak'
.=re;=
b;sydih Ihhg f mka;sfha <uqka .;a; ,l=Kq ud Yaf,aIKh l<d' by<

,l=Kq .;a; wh" uOHia: ,l=Kq .;a; wh jf.a u wvq ,l=Kq .;a; wh;a f
mka;sfha bkakjd'
ksu,a lshkak n,kak Tf ,l=Kq wvq jqfKa wehs lsh,d@
ksu,a
uu fyd|g mdv l<d p' l,ska ojfi;a igyka fiaru fyd|g lsfhjd' ta;a
m%Yak m;%h w;g .;a;u bf.k .;a lsis fohla uf.a u;lhg wf kE'
.=re;=
ud,s k ,l=Kq 50 la ,ndf.k ;shkjd' Thdf.a w;aoelS wmg lshkak mqjka

o@
ud,s
ug ld,h u jqKd p' u;l ;shdf.k ysh foaj,a u;la lr .kak l,a
.;jqKd'
.=re;=
,l=Kq 90 la u ,ndf.k ;shk iqo;ag;a fufyu w;aoelS we;s' taj;a wmsg

lshkakflda n,kak'
iqo;a
ug k Nd.h wudre jqfKa kE p' m%Yak m;%h n,mq .ukau W;a;r fiaru
u;la jqKd'
.=re;=
talg fYaI fya;=jla ;shkjd o@
iqo;a
uu m%Odk igykg wu;rj fl igykq;a ;nd .kakjd'

lshj,d jeo.;a lreKq isysm;a lrkjd'
tajd ks;r ks;r
my; i|yka lreKq u;=lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

flld,Sk yd .=ld,Sk jYfhka ksia u;lfha fldgia folla ;sfnk nj
flld,Sk u;lh ;djld,sl jk w;r tys ;ekam;a jQ foa l,a fkdmj;sk nj
bf.kq l%shdj,sfha ksu,a ,o w;aoelS iar u;lfha .nvd fkdue;s nj
ud,s W.;a foa iar u;lfha .nvd ;snqK o ;djld,sl u;lhg f.khdug l%u iy
ilia lr fkd;snqfKka m%udo is jQ nj
iqo;a fl igyka ;nd .kska iar u;lfha ;sfnk foa blaukska ;djld,sl u;lhg
f.khEug iQodk j is nj
m.Kl inkaOj o iar u;l" ;djld,sl u;l" iar u;lfhka ;djld,sl u;lhg
blaukska f;dr;=re f.k hk fl l%u fuka u iar u;lh helS .sh o tys .nvd l<
foa wdmiq ,nd .; yels udOH ;sfnk nj
bf.kq u i|yd fhda ; Wmfoia (

m.Klfha u;l moaO;sh uiuq' tys l%shdld;ajh ykd .ksuq'
Nd.hlg ms<s;=re ,sf isjk my; i|yka ldhhkaf.ka Tn lKavdhug ,efnk
ldhh flfrys wjOdkh olajkak'
.=ld,Sk u;lh il%Sh u'
;djld,sl u;lh fj; wjYH o;a; ixl%uKh u'
;djld,sl u;lfhka Nd. ldhh fj; o;a; f.k hEu yd fuh blauka lsu i|yd
jvd;a wdikak ia:dkhl o;a; tla/ia lr ;eu'
u;lh imQKfhka u wys .sh wjia:dj, ;a o;a; ,nd .ekSug l%fudamdhhka ilia
lr ;su'
Tng ,efnk ldhh bf.kq l%shdj,sfha isjk wdldrh ykd .ekSug l=vd lKavdh
idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
m.Kl u;lh yd inkaO lsk fldgila tu ldhhfhka ksrEmKh jkafka oehs uid
n,kak'
m.Kl u;lh yd inkaO tu fldgi .eUqka wOHhkh lrkak'
tod fuod ;=r tys is we;s fjkial uid n,kak'
Tf wkdjrK ksudKYS,Sj o" iduQyslj o iuia; lKavdhug bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
kIH u;lh
(Volatile Memory)
m.Klj, Nd; jk u;lh m.Klfha l%shdld;ajhg w;HjYH u wx.hla jkafkah'

u;lfhka flfrk m%Odk ldhh jkafka m.Kl o;a; ieliq l%shdj,sfha O whrhka
ys wjYH o;a; ;ekam;alr ;nd .ekSuhs' kuq;a fuu kIH u;l j.fha ,laIKhla jkafka
tajdfha r|jd ;nd we;s o;a; fkduelS mej;Sug k wLKavj ,sh iemhSu mj;ajd .;hq;= uhs'
h fyhlska tu u;lj,g ,efnk ,s n,h ika jqjfyd;a ta jyd u tu u;lj, we;s o;a;
uelS hkq we;' tneka fuu u;l ,sh u; r|d mj;sk u;l j.hls' m.Klfha we;s my;
oelafjk u;l fuu j.hg .efka'
iiNd m%fY u;lh (Random Access Memory - RAM)
fria;r u;lh (Register Memory)
ix; u;lh (Cache Memory)
iiNd m%fY u;lh fyj;a ,shk$lshjk
(Read/Write)
u;lh
fuu u;lh m.Klfha m%Odk u;lh f,i o ykajkq ,ef' m.Klfha uOH ieliq
tallhg h ldhla is lsu i|yd wjYH jk moaO;s uDldx." fh uDldx. iy wfkl=;a
wjYH o;a; r|jd ;nd .kafka fuu m%Odk u;lfha h' fuys ,laIKhla jkafka ieliq
tallhg fuys we;s oE Rcqj u m%fY lr .ekSug yelshdj ;su h' tfia u fuys m%fY ld,h
o b;d wvq neka ieliq ldhh f.j;aj is lsug yelshdj ,ef'
ilikh fuu u;lfha kE u ;eklska Rcqj u o;a; m%fY lr.kq ,nk w;r ta i|yd
wkqms<sfj<la wjYH fkdf' tksid u fuu u;lh iiNd m%fY u;lh f,i ykajkq
,ef'
fuu u;l j.h f.j;a jkakd fia u fuys O jQ Od;d j,ska hqla; f' tfuka u fuys
o;a; lshug fukau ,sug o yelshdj we;' flfiajqj o m.Klh l%shd rys; l< g fuys
/ we;s o;a; ish,a, fudapkh f' iiNd m%fY u;l j. follska ,nd.; yel' tajdk
1' .;sl iiNd m%fY u;l (DRAM)
2' ia;sl iiNd m%fY u;l (SRAM)
kQ;k m.Klj, iq,Nj olakg ,efnk u;l j.h .;sl iiNd m%fY u;l f' fuu
u;lj, ;ekam;a lr we;s l=uk fyda o;a; ksrka;rfhka mqnq lsula (refresh) isf' fuu
u;lfha u;l fldaIj, r|jd we;s o;a; ;;amrhg ,shk jdr .Kkla mqnq flf'
ia;sl iiNd m%fY u;lh m.Klfha fojk j.fha m%Odk u;lh f,i yekah yel'
fuu u;l j, we;s o;a; ksrka;rfhka mqnq lsula is fkdf' kuq;a tu o;a; u; fjk;a
hula ,shk f;la fyda ,sh ika ula isjk f;la ia;sl ms<sUqjQjla f,i mj;S' fuu
u;l >k;ajfhka wvq neka iy th Nd; fkdlrk g ,s n,h Nd;h wju jk ksid
.;sl u;l j.hg jvd ilikfha we;s ix; u;l (cache memory) i|yd jvd;a fyd| f;dard
.ekSula f,i ia;sl u;l oelah yelsh' wfkla w;g .;sl u;lj, o;a; >k;ajh je
ksid m%Odk u;lhg jvd iqiq f;dard .ekSula f,i oelah yel'
fria ; r
m.Kl ksudK Ys,amfha fria;rh hkq b;d l=vd Od;djlska hq;a u;lhls' fjdfha we;s
o;a; fjk;a kE u ;ekl we;s o;a;j,g jvd b;d f.fhka ilikhg m%fYlr.; yelsu
fuys we;s jeo.;a u ,laIKh jkafkah' u;l OQrdj,sfha by<u ;,fha ;sfnkqfha fuu
fria;r u;l f'
ix; u;lh
m.Kl hka;%j, l%shdld;ajh inkaOj ld,h ukskqfha b;d l=vd tall j,sks' WodyrKhla
f,i m.Klhl ilikh m%Odk u;lh m%fY lr .ekSug .;jk idudkH ld,h kefkda
;;amr 60 ls' kuq;a ilikfha l%shdld;ajfha tla pl%hla i|yd .;jk ld,h kefkda ;;amr
2ls' f wkqj ilikhg kefkda ;;amr 60l ld,h b;d Yd, ld,hla f'
f fya;=j ksid u m.Kl ilikhg ;u ldhh i|yd wjYH jk o;a; m%Odk u;lfha isg
m%fY lr .ekSu Yd, ld,hla jehjk lreKla neka" m%Odk u;lhg jvd Od;dfjka wvqjQ
kuq;a f.j;a m%fYhla we;s" ilikhg b;d wdikakfha fyda ilikh ;=< fyda msysgqjd we;s
u;l j.hls ix; u;lh'
ix; u;lfha fndfydag ;ekam;aj we;af;a ilikh iska ksr;=rej u Nd; lrk m%Odk
u;lfha we;s o;a;j, msgm;a f' ilikhg m%Odk u;lfha h wkqia:dkhl we;s hula
lshug fyda tys hula ,sug wjYH jQ g ilikh uq,ska u tys msgm;la ix; u;lfha ;sfo
hkak mlaId lr n,hs' tfia ;sfk ilikh jyd u ix; u;lfha we;s tu o;a; m%fY
lr .kS' th m%Odk u;lfha o;a; m%fY lr .ekSug jvd b;d f.j;a jkafkah'
kQ;k mqoa., m.Klj, ix; u;l ug 3la we;' m<uq ugu (L1) ix; u;lh b;d
f.j;a jk w;r th ilikh ;=< u msysgd we;' f ksid tys o;a; ilikhg .uka lsug
u mqjref o;a; nih Nd; fkdlrhs' tneka th ilikfha f.hg jvd f.hlska
l%shd;aul f' fojk ugu (L2) yd f;jk ugu (L3) ix; u;l u mqjref fyda ilikh
;=< fyda msysgd ;sh yel' fuu u;lh u mqjref we;s gl th o;a; nih Nd; lrk neka
;rula f.h wvq jqj o m%Odk u;lhg jvd f.j;a h' f;jk ugf ix; u;lh fojk
ugf u;lhg wjYH foa ,ndfok w;r fojk ugf u;lh m<uq ugf u;lhg wjYH
foa ,nd fohs' m<uq ugf u;lh ilikhg tu o;a; imhhs' fuu u;l ug ish,a, u
fyda lsysmhla fyda kk m.Kl ;=< we;=<;aj we;'
kIH fkdjk u;lh
(Non Volatile Memory)
fuu j.fha u;lj, ;ekam;aj we;s o;a; fyda f;dr;=re ,sh n,h ika jQ miqj fyda
m.Klh l%shd rys; l< miqj fyda fudapkh fkdf' tk uelS fkdhhs' fuu u;l
j.hg .efkkqfha mGk ud;% u;lh iy oa;Shsl wdphkhka h' fuu u;lhka Od;dfjka
Yd, jqj o kYH u;l fuka f.j;a fkdf' tfuka u f,ka o jeh'
kQ;k m.Kl ;dlaIKfha hqKqj;a iu. u f,dalfha O m.Kl iud. kIH u;lfha
f.hg iudk f.hlska l%shdl< yels mGk ud;% u;l ksmou flfrys oekg u;a ;u
mfhaIK lghq;= lrf.k hkq ,nhs' WodyrKhla f,i IBM iud.u oekgu;a ixjOkh
lrf.k hk Magnetoresistive RAM fyj;a MRAM oelah yel'
kIH fkdjk u;l m%Odk jYfhka fldgia follg fnh yel' tajd k
1' mGk ud;% u;lh (Read Only Memory - ROM)
2' oa;Shsl wdphk (Secondary Storage)
mGk ud;% u;lh

fuu u;lh lshug muKla yelshdj we;s u;lhla jk w;r m.Kl ilikhg tys ,sug
fkdyelsh' fuu j.fha u;lj, ;ekam;aj we;s fYaI uDldx. j.hla we;' tajd iardx.
(firmware) f,i ykajkq ,ef' fuu uDldx. fYaIs; jQ oDVdx.hlg muKla ne we;s fYaIs;
j.hla jk w;r tajd ksr;=rej hdj;ald,Sk lsf wjYH;djla fkdue;s tajdh' fYaIfhka
u mqoa., m.Kl .ek i,ld n,k g tajdfha u mqjref ilr we;s wO ikakdhl mhl
;ekam;a lr we;s iardx.hla u.ska m.Klhla l%shd;aul lrf uQ,sl ldhh bgqlrhs'
m.Klhg ,sh ,ndu;a iu. u l%shd;aul jk fuu iardx.h u.ska m.Klhg inkaOj
we;s Wmdx. ls;i
a l rEkhla is lrk w;r u tu iardx.fha ;j;a fldgila u.ska m.Klfha
fufyhq moaO;sh ;ekam;aj we;s ia:dkfhka tys msgm;la m%Odk u;lhg m%fY lru;a
islrkq ,nhs' wdodk Wmdx.j,ska ,efnk ix{d mj;k lghq;= hkdh o fuu l%uf,aLfha
fjk;a lghq;= f' m.Klj,g wu;rj fjk;a ksys; moaO;sj, o fujeks u mGk ud;% u;l
ilr we;' iuia;hla f,i fuu mGk ud;% u;lj,g m.Kl ilikhg hula ,sug
fkdyels jqj o kk ;dlaIKsl l%u u.ska mGk ud;% u;l ,sh fuka u fjk;a l%u Nd;
fldg fYaI WmlrK u.ska uelsh yels fuka u kej; ,su o isl< yel' fujeks mGk ud;%
u;l lsysmhla my; i|yka m f'
mGk ud;% u;lh
m%l%l mGk ud;% u;lh
uelshyels m%l%l mGk ud;% u;lh
ROM (Read Only Memory)
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read

Only Memory)
oHq;fhka uelsh yels m%l%l mGk ud;% u;lh
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable

Programmable Read Only Memory)
iefk<s u;lh
Flash Memory
m%l%l mGk ud;% u;lh

b;d fyd| mGk ud;% u;lhla ksudKh lsu Yd, ld,hla jehjk ldhhla fuka u b;d
l=vd m%udKfhka ksmou o wl ho iys; ksid fuu mGk ud;% u;l ksudK Ys,amSka
m%l%l mGk ud;% u;l (PROM) kka hq;a u;l mhla ksudKh lrk ,' fuu u;l mh
lsisjla wvx.= fkdl< ysia m f,i wvq ,g ,nd.; yels jk w;r fYaIs; fuj,u u.ska
fuys fla; wvx.= lr.; yelsh'
uelsh yels m%l%l mGk ud;% u;lh
- EPROM
by;ska i|yka l< ROM iy PROM iu. lghq;= lsu tla whqrlska kdia;sldr l%shdjla fia
ie,lsh yelsh' ukao fuu mj, , wvqjqj o tajd kej; kej; fla;kh l< fkdyels neks'
tu ksid u kej; kej; fla;kh l< yels mhla ykajd fok ,' th uelsh yels m%l%l
mGk ud;% u;lh f,i ykajkq ,ef' fuu mfha we;s o;a; mdrcnq, lsrK Nd;fhka
fYaI fuj,ulska uelsh yels w;r th bkamiq kej; ,sh yels ;;a;ajhg m;ajkafkah' fuys
imQK mh u uld oeu isf'
oHq;fhka uelshyels m%l%l mGk ud;% u;lh
- EEPROM
uelsh yels m%l%l mGk ud;% mh m%l%l mGk ud;% mhg jvd .=Kdx. w;ska bfhka ish
o tu mh uelSf yd kej; ,sf ta i|yd fjkajqKq WmlrKhla Nd; lsug isu;a
wvq Y%uhlska f,fyisfhka lr .ekSf yelshdj fkdue;s u;a ksid fuu wmyiq;d u.yrjd
.kska oHq;a l%u u.ska uelsh yels mGk ud;% u;l mh ksmojk ,' fuys uq,a mj, ;snQ
wjdis iy.; ;;a;ajhka ish,a, bj;ajk ,' fuu mh ksmofuka my; i|yka jdisodhl
;;a;ajhka Wod we;'
kej; ,sf mh ilr we;s ;ekska bj;a lsug wjYH fkdu'
imQK mh uld fkdoud wjYH fldgi muKla kej; ,sug yelsu'
wka;.;h uld oeu i|yd fYaIs; fuj,ula wjYH fkdu'
iefk<s u;lh -
Flash Memory
oHq;fhka uelsh yels m%l%l mGk ud;% u;l mh kej; ,sf tljr ,sh yelafla nhs
(byte) 1l m%udKhls' tfuka u th ukao.d f,i isf' fuu ldhh ;rula myiq jqj o l=vd
Od;djlska hq;a o;a; m%udKhla ,su i|yd jqj o ld,h Yd, jYfhka jehu wjdis iy.;
;;a;j
a hls'
h WmlrKhla tys wka;.; mfha we;s o;a;j, blauka fjkialula isl<hq;= jkafka k
tjeks WmlrK i|yd fuu j.fha m iqiq fkdh' f miqnEug iula f,i iefk<s
u;l m ksudKh h' fuu j.fha mhl o;a; kej; ,sf tljr Yd, fldgia
(chunks) jYfhka ,sh yel' tk nhsg 512 l fldgila tljr ,shkq ,nhs' b;d f.j;a j
myiqfjka kej; kej; ,sh yels ksid;a ta i|yd fYaI WmlrKhla wjYH fkdjk ksid;a
iefk<s u;l jvd;a ckm%sh j we;'
uQ,sl wdodk m%;sodk moaO;s
(Basic Input Output System - BIOS)
fuh m.Klh n,.ekaf iardx.hls' m.Klhg ,sh ,ndka ieKska l%shd;aul jk

m<uq jevigyk jk fuu iardx.h CMOS mh ;=< .nvd lr we;' fuu mh m%Odk mqjrejg
inkaO lrkq ,nkafka tu mqjre ksIamdokh lrk wjia:df u h' fuu iardx.fha uQ,sl
ldhNdrh jkafka m.Kl moaO;sfha oDv;eh" h;=re mqjrej" uQislh yd wfkl=;a wdodk yd
m%;sodk Wmdx. ykd.ekSu" mlaId lsu yd uQ,drNh ,nd uhs' fuys moaO;sfha we;s oDVdx.
moaO;shg wkql+, jk ;;a;ajhg m;alru o islrhs' f i|yd fuu oDVdx.j, Odjl uDldx.
m%fY lr tu oDVdx.j, md,kh fufyhq moaO;shg ,ndfoa' fuu l%shdj,sh n, .ekau
(booting) f,i idudkH jHjydrfha ykajkq ,ef'
wkqmQrl f,day Tlaihsv wO ikakdhl mh
(Complementry Metal Oxide Semi-
conductor - CMOS Chip)
fuh m.Kl u mqjref ilr we;s l=vd mhls' fuys wka;.;j we;af;a m.Kl
moaO;sfha kh" f,dj iy wfkl=;a uQ,sl lg,a wx. (settings) h' fuu mhg wjYH jkafka
b;d l=vd ,sh n,hla neka tu n,h l=vd ,s;sh neghla u.ska imhkq ,ef' fuu negh
jir .Kkdjla Nd; l< yel' th CMOS negh f,i ykajkq ,ef'
kIH fkdjk u;l j.hg .efkk wfkla u;l f,i oa;Shsl wdphk yekah yel' fjd
O iajrEmj,ska olakg we;' my; oelafjkafka bka iuyrls'
1' pqnls; m
2' oDV ;e
3' m%ldY ;e
Magnetic tapes
Hard disks
Opticla disks
pqnls; m
pqnl m.; lsu i|yd udOHh jkafka fuu pqnls; m h' isyska >klulska hq;=" mgq
tfuka u .= ma,diala mhla pqnlkh lsu u.ska fuu pqnl m ;kd .kq ,ef' fndfyda
Y%jH oDYH o;a; fuka u m.Kl o;a; .nvdlr ;eu i|yd fjd fhdod.kq ,ef' uq,ska u
fuu pqnls; m ksmojk ,oafoa cuksfha h' fuu m Y%jH oDYH m.; ls iy ms<sjehS
(play back) lrkq ,nk O Wmdx.j, Nd; flf' WodyrK f,i fma frfldavrh iy
fhda frfldavrh hkdh oelah yel' m.Kl o;a; .nvd lsu i|yd o fuu m fhdod
.efkk w;r fuu m Odjlh fma v%hs f,i ykajkq ,ef' uq,a hq.fha m.Klj,
oa;Shsl wdphk f,i nyq,j Nd; lf<a fuu m jk w;r Yd, Od;djlska hq;a fuu m
Wmia: (backup) f,i Nd; lsu iy Yd, o;a; m%udKhka .nvd lsf o oekg o Nd; lrkq
,ef'
oDV ;eh
m.Klj, m%Odk wdphkh f,i Nd; lrkq ,nkafka fuu oDV ;e h' ixLHdxl o;a; .nvd
lr we;s pqnlkh l< yels uqyqK;aj,ska hq;a f.fhka lerlefjk oDV ;e lsysmhlska
iuka; oDV ;e Odjlhla kQ;k m.Klj, olakg we;' fjd O Od;dj,ska ,nd.;
yelsh' pqnl mj,g jvd Yd, f.hlska o;a; m%fY lr .; yels fuu ;e kk
m.Klj, Nd; jk w;HjYH wx.hls'
m% l dY ;e
fjd me;,s jD;a;dldr ;e fYaIhls' fuys ixLHdxl o;a; ;ekam;a lsf tu ;efha we;s
l=vd j,j,a (pits) iy u;=msgj,a mdol lr .kska ixLHdxl 0 iy 1 lshh yels wdldrfha
;dlaIKsl l%uhla fhdod .kshs' fuu o;a; lshjkq ,nkafka f,ai lsrK wdOdrfhks' tfuka
u fuu ;efha o;a; .nvd jkafka f,ai u.ska fyda hdka;%sl uqd u.ska h' idudkHfhka fuu
;e ix.; ;e (Compact Disk-CD-R) f,i ykajk w;r fjdfha tlajrla muKla o;a; ,sh
yel' kej; kej;;a o;a; ,su i|yd CD-RW j.fha ix.; ;e Nd; lrkq ,ef' fjdfha
fndfyda g m.Kl o;a; .nvd lrkq ,nk w;r Y%jH iy oDYH o;a;hka o .nvd l< yelsh'
;%mg yd .S; jeks foa o wo fujeks ;ej, fhdod fj<|fmdf<a we;' f i|yd je jYfhka
Nd; lrkafka DVD ;e h' fuu ;e m%udK lsysmhlska o ,nd.; yel' kQ;k m.Klj,
nyq,j Nd; jk fuu ix.; ;e f,ka o wvq h'
Ih lreKq meye,s lr .ekSug w;aje,la(
l=vd lKavdh wkdjrK iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrjkak'

ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug u m%:u wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fiiq lKavdhj, ixjOkd;aul fhdackd uikak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;=lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
.=ld,Sk u;lfha ;ekam;a oE flld,Sk u;lhg ,nd .ekSu i|yd .=ld,Sk u;lh
il%sh h hq;= nj
m.Klhg ,sh ,nd u;a iu. m.Klfha .=ld,Sk u;lh il%sh tys we;s
fufyhq moaO;sh flld,Sk u;lhg ,ndfok nj
f i|yd CMOS mfha ;ekam;aj we;s BIOS kka ykajk l%uf,aLhla l%shd;aul jk
nj
jir 10l muK wdhq ld,hla we;s neghlska b;d wvq ,s m%udKhla ,nka l%shd;aul
jk CMOS mh hqKq ;dlaIKhlska hq;= nj
m.Klhg ilr we;s oDVdx. BIOS l%uf,aLh u.ska mlaId lr tajdfha l%shdld;ajh
ms<sn| mKsv imhk nj
fuu l%uf,aLh lsheh yels kuq;a fjkia l< fkdyels ksid th mGk ud;% u;lh
(Read only memory - ROM) hk kka ykajk nj
fuu u;l wojk g O iajrEmhkaf.ka ksudKh we;s w;r kej; kej;;a ,sh
yels hqKq l%u iys;j EPROM yd EEPROM hk kj,ska kk m.Klj, wo Nd;
jk nj
fuu ;dlaIKh je hqKq lr iefk<s u;l ksudKh we;s nj
;djld,sl u;lh" lshjk ,shk u;lh (Read Write Memory) f,i ykajk w;r
m.Klfha m%Odk ,sh iemhSu ika jQ g tu u;lh fudapkh jk nj
fuu u;lh iiNd m%fY u;lh (Random Access Memory - RAM) f,i iy m%Odk
u;lh (Main Memory) f,i o ykajk nj
fuu u;lj, Od;dj .=ld,Sk u;lfha Od;djg jvd wvqjk w;r ilikhg wjYH
o;a; ,nd .ekSf wkqms<sfj<la wkq.ukh lsu wjYH fkdjk nj
fuu u;l mh laIq ilikhg wdikakfhka u mqjref msysgd we;s w;r fuys we;s
o;a; laIq ilikhg .uka lrkafka u mqjref o;a; nih yryd nj
u mqjref o;a; nih yryd ilikhg o;a; .,d hdug .;jk ld,h m.Klfha
f.h yd ii|k g Yd, ld,hla f,i ie,lsh yels nj
f ksid ilikh ks;r ks;r Nd; lrk o;a;j, msgm;a ilikh ;=< u fyda thg
wdikakfha msysgqjd we;s ix; u;lfha ;nd .kakd nj
fuu ix; u;lfha Od;dj iiNd m%fY u;lhg jvd wvq jqj;a tys o;a; m%fY
lr .ekSf f.h b;d by< nj
ix; u;lh uq, laIq ilikhg wdikakj msg;ska msysgd ;snqK;a kk m.Klj,
laIq ilik ;=< u oeka th ia:dms; we;s ksid o;a; nih Nd; fkdlr ilikh tys
o;a; m%fY lr .kakd nj
8
laIq ilikhg ,nd .kakd ilia lrk ,o yd ilia fkdlrk ,o o;a; m%Odk u;lhg
heug fmr ;djld,sl j r|jd .ekSug l=vd Od;djlska hq;= fria;r (Registers) laIq
ilikh ;=< msysgd we;s nj
tu u;l" fria;r u;l f,i ykajk nj
iiNd m%fY u;l" ix; u;l iy fria;r u;l ,sh u; r|d mj;sk neka
tajd kIH u;l (Volatile Memory) f,i ykajk nj
kIH u;lj, o;a; ixOdkd;aulj ;ekam;a jk ksid tajd m%fY lr .ekSu f.j;a
nj
tu u;l helS .sh o .=ld,Sk u;lfhys ;ekam;a o;a; wjYH fgl kej; ,nd
.ekSf l%u ;sfnk nj
m.Klh ;=< i lr we;s m%Odk oDV;eh .= ld,Sk u;lh jk w;r .=ld,Sk
u;lfha ;ekam;a o;a; m.Klhg msg;ska ilr ;sfnk pqNl (magnetic) yd m%ldY
(optical) udOHj, .nvd l< yels nj
oDV;e" pqNl m (tapes) iy kuH ;e (floppy disk)" pqNl udOH jk w;r ix.; ;e
(CD) iy DVD ;e m%ldY udOH jk nj
pqNl yd m%ldY udOHfhka ie ,;a .=ld,Sk u;l kIH fkdjk u;l (Non Volatile
Memory) f,i ykajk nj
ks m q K ;dj 6(
m.Klj, iuia; l%h

s dj,sh l<ukdlrKh lsu i|yd fufyhq
moaO;s Nd; lrhs'
fufyhq moaO;sh m.Klhla ;=< l%shd;aul jk jevigykl

wkqLKav (Processes) l<ukdlrKh lrk wdldrh .fIKh
lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
nyqldh iy nyql%uf,aL moaO;sj, ,laIK ia;r lrhs'

l%shdhk mj;sk ;;a;ajhka iy tajd fjkiajk wdldrh myohs'
fufyhq moaO;sh l%h
s dhk Wmf,aLlrKh u.ska l%h
s dhk l<ukdlrKh lrk whqre meye,s
lrhs'
iuia;hla l<ukdlrKh lsu i|yd l=vd fldgiaj,g fjkalr .kshs'
Wmu ldhlaIu;dj ,nd.ekSug ld,h l<ukdlrKh lrhs'

ms iS u (
cx.u rl:khl ldhh iy tys imhd we;s fiajdjka ms<sn|j isiqkaf.ka uikak'
Call waiting jeks myiqlula l%shd;aul jk wdldrh idlPd lrkak'
my; oelafjk lreKq u;=jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
cx.u rl:khl weu;=ula iu`. inkaOj isk g ;j;a weu;=ula ,efk ta
ms<sn|j Yo ix{djla fuka u ;srfha iajk mKsvhla o ,efnk nj
wjYH k inkaOj is weu;=u ;djld,slj k;r lr kj weu;=u ,nd .; yels w;r
th ksujd h<s uq,a weu;=ug inkaO h yels nj
fuu l%shdj,sfha cx.u rl:kh u.ska tljr ldhhka lsysmhla l<yels myiqlula
iemfhk nj
fuu l%uh nyqldh l%shdj,shla (multitasking) f,i yekafjk nj
fuu l%shdj,sh l<ukdlrKh lrkq ,nkafka cx.u rl:khfha fufyhq moaO;sh
u.ska nj
m.Klhl o nyqldh l%h
s dj,s isjk w;r tajdfha l<ukdlrKh m.Klfha fufyhq
moaO;sh u.ska isjk nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld w;=ka Tf lKavdhug ,efnk ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
nyq lhh iy nyq l%uf,aL fufyhq moaO;s j,
ld, Nckh (time sharing) iy ilikfha Wmfhda.S;dj (processer utilization)
l%shdhk (processes) yd tajdfha ;;a;aj (process states)
l%shdhk Wmf,aL lrKh (process scheduling)
10
lsh m%;sldj iuia;hla f,i o Tf ud;Dldjg wod< fldgi iqfYaISj o wOHhkh

lrkak'
m.Klhl l%shdj,sh ;=< l%shdhk iy tajdfha Wmf,aLlrKh nyq ldh fyda nyq l%uf,aL
l%uhg odhl jk wdldrh ms<sn| l=vd lKavdh idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
ilikfha Wmfhda.S;dj ldhlaIuj fhdod .ekSu i|yd l%shdhk l%uf,aLlrKh u.ska
flfrk fufyh ;u lKavdhug bm;a lr idlPd lrkak'
l%shdhk ;;a;aj (process states) j,ska ld,h l<ukdlrKh lrka ldhlaIu;dj jelr
.kakd wdldrh ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq lr we.hSulg ,la lrkak'
T wkdjrK iduQyslj yd ksudKYS,Sj iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
nyq l%uf,aLkh
(Multiprogramming)
uq,a hq.fha Nd; jQ m.Klj, ilikhl ld,h je jkdlulska hqla; jQ w;r tu ld,h
Wmu f,i Wmfhda.Slr .ekSu Ialr ksid m.Klfha Wmdx.j, l%shdld;ajh fnfyka
ukao.d h' tfia jQfha ilikhla h ldhhla lrka ish fjk;a Wmdx.hla fyda
uDldx.hla fyda u.ska w;=re ula (Interrupt) ,o .i u ilikh tf;la lrka is ldhh
k;r lr w;=re u flfrys m%;spdr oelau ksidh' fuh iuia; moaO;shg n,mE n,j;a
wys;lr ;;a;j
a hla h' yeg oYlfha fuu ;;a;j
a hg ms<h
s ula f,i mYS,lhka je m%udKhlg
tljr lghq;= l<yels (Multiuser) iy jevigyka lsysmhla tljr l%shd;aul l< yels
(Multiprogramming) moaO;s ykajd fok ,' fuu moaO;s ms<silr jQfha ilikhg wLKavj
ieliq l%shdj,sh mj;ajdf.k hd yels wdldrhgh' tneka fuu l%uh by< ldhlaIu;djlska
hqla; nj lsj yelsh' fuu moaO;sj, tljr uDldx. lSmhla l%shd;aul lsf myiqj we;sh'
kQ;k m.Klj, h m.Kl uDldx.hla l%shd;aul lsf tu uDldx.fha tla msgm;lg
je msgm;a ixLHdjla tljr m%Odk u;lhg m%fY lr.; yels w;r fuu.ska tl u f,djl
tla wfhl=g jvd je msilg tu uDldx.h iu`. lghq;= lsf yelshdj ,ef' tmuKla
fkdj we;e uDldx.j, tla msgm;la muKla m%Odk u;lhg m%fY lr tu msgm; lsysm
fofkl=g tljr Nd; lsf yelshdj ,ndfoa' fuys tl u uDldx.hl fla; fmdf
fnod.ekSf l%uhla Nd; flf' fuu l%uh mqkrdodkh (Re-entered) hk kka ykajkq
,ef'
ilikhla tljr l%shd;aul lrkafka tla l%shdhkhl tla WmfoaYhla muKla jqj o hlsis
ld, mrdihla ;=< l%shdhk .Kkdjla r|jd ;nd .kS' fuu l%shdhkhka i|yd ilikh u.ska
ld, fo ,ndfoa' fuu ld, fo ,efnk ;=re b;s l%shdhk ;djld,slj l%shdrys; ;;a;ajfha
mj;ajd .kS' hlsis l%shdhk m%udKhla tl u f,djl l%shd;aul fkd h ld, fohla ;=<
l%shd;aul jkafka k tfia u iu.d l%shd;aul u (Concurrent excecution) kka ykajkq
,ef'
nyq l%uf,aL yd nyq ldh fufyhq moaO;shl l%shdhk Yd, ixLHdjla h ld, fohla ;=<
l%shd;aul lru isf' nyq l%uf,aL i|yd ilikh u.ska iEu l%shdhkhla i|yd u ksYa;
11
ld, fohla fjkalsu wjYH f' tf,i u ksh; ld, foh ;=< tu l%shdhkh ksud l<
hq;=h' fuu l%shdhkh wjika ug fmr wjia:djl ilikh u.ska ld,foh wjikal< fyd;a
th kej; yels blaukska wdrN fldg tys b;s fldgi ksu lsug wjia:dj ,ndu ish
hq;=h' by; oelajQ m l%shdhkhka wjika ug fmr w;ru. k;rlsu isl< yels wjia:d
folla we;' tajd k"
1'
2'
fjk;a l%shdhkhla u.ska moaO;shg ndOd mKsvhla ksl=;a lsu' fuu wjia:dj udldx.
w;=re ula (Software Interrupt) f,i yekaf'
oDVdx. j,ska ndOd mKsvhla (Hardware Interrupt) ksl=;a lsula isjk wjia:dj' fuu
wjia:dj oDVdx. w;=re ula f,i ykajkq ,ef'
tla l%shdhkhla kj;d fjk;a l%shdhkhla wdrN lsu ikaoN iaph (Context Switch) hkqfjka
ykajkq ,ef' kQ;k fufyhq moaO;sj, tl l%shdhkhla" wkq l%shdhk .Kkdjlska iuka;
h yelsh' tjeks wkq l%shdhkhka thread f,i yekaf' fujeks wkq l%shdhk j,g ;ksj
l%shd;aul h yelsh'
ld, Nckh
(Time sharing)
mYS,lhka lsysmfofkl= w;r nyqldh iy nyq l%uf,aLk fufyhq moaO;s u.ska lrkq ,nk
ld, l<ukdlrKh" ld,h Nckh kka ykajkq ,ef' fuh uq,ajrg 1960 oYlfha ykajd
ka w;r 1970 oYlh jk g m.Kl ;dlaIKfha ikaia:dkhla iksgqyka lrka m.Klhl
fufyhq moaO;sfha m%Odk ,laIKhla njg m;ah' fuys isjQ tla jdishla f,i mYS,lhka
lsysm fofkl=g tla m.Klhla Nd; lsf yelshdj ,ndu u.ska ho wvqlr .ekSug
wjia:dj ,enqKs' ;j o tl u m.Kl fh l%shdjl tljr lsysm fofkl=g wka;
l%shdld;ajhka u.ska inkaOug o f iu. yelshdj ,eKs'
fuu ixl,amh mek ke.=fKa tla mYS,lhl= wldhlaIu jqj o je mYS,lhska ixLHdjla
fhdod .ekSf je ldhlaIu;djlska hq;=j l%shd lsug we;s yelshdj mok lr f.kh'
fuys tla mYS,lfhla m.Klh iu. h l%shdjla islr wjika kej;;a fjk;a l%shdjla
wdrN lsu i|yd je ld,hla .kakd g tu ld,h ;=< ilikh WodiSkj mj;S' fuu
WodiSkj mj;sk ld,h mYS,lhka .Kk jejQ g fjk;a flfkl=f.a Nd;h i|yd fhdod
.; yelsjkq we;' fujeks nyq mYS,l ldhhka i|yd fhdod.kakd lKavdhu W; jQ ixLHdjla
jk g imQK l%shdj,sh jvd;a ldhlaIu ;;a;ajhg m;af' ;j o ;e, m fyda cd, jeks
wdodk i|yd n,dfmdfrd;a;=fjka isk l=vd ld, fo fjk;a mYS,lhl=f.a Nd;h i|yd
fhdod.ekSu o fuys is flf'
ilikfha Wmfhda.S;dj
(Processor Utilization)
m.Klhla u.ska ldhhka tlla fyda lSmhla bgqlr .ekSf m.Kl moaO;sfha we;s O
im;a Wmfhda.S lr.kq ,ef' fjdfhka jeo.;a u im; jkqfha uOH ieliq tallhhs'
fuys ldhlaIu;dj Wmu whqka fhdod.ekSu ilik Wmfhda.S;dj f,i yekah yel'
tla l%shdhkhla muKla l%shd;aul j we;s g ilikhl Wmfhda.S;dj wju w.hla .kS' kuq;a
nyq l%shdhkfha ilikhl Wmfhda.S;dj Wmu w.hla .kS' tu Wmu Wmfhda.S;dj ,nd
12
.ekSu i|yd fufyhq moaO;sh ;=< O Wml%u fhdod .efka' l%shdhk kshuldrl o f i|yd
iqfYaIS ldhhla bgq lrhs'
l%shdhk iy tajdfha ;;a;aj
(Processors and Process States)
m.Kl fufyhq moaO;sfha .Nh (Kernel) u.ska l%shdhk l<ukdlrKh lsf O mshjr
hgf;a fuu l%shdhk l%shd;aul lru fm<.iajhs' ta tla tla mshjf l%shdhk mj;ajdf.k
hk ;;a;ajhka k lr we;' O fufyhq moaO;sj, fuu k fjkia jqj o tla tla
;;a;ajfha flfrk ldhhka tl iudk f'
l%shdhk kshulrK u.ska fuu l%shdhkj,g wod< ;;a;ajhka mjrk w;r tu ;;a;ajhka
fjkia lrka l<ukdlrKh lrkq ,nhs' fuu ;;a;aj fjkia lsu ikaoN iaph (Context
Switch) kka ykajk w;r l%shdhk Wmf,aL u.ska tu ldhh is lrkq ,ef' fufia O
;;a;ajhka hgf;a mj;ajd.kq ,nk l%shdhk l%shd;aul lrf wjia:d fm<lska miqj tajdfha
l%shdld;ajh wjika fldg m%Odk u;lfhka bj;a lrkq ,ef' l%shdhkj, uQ,sl wjia:d iy
tu wjia:dj, mj;sk ;;a;ajhka i,ld n,uq'
l%shdhk ;;a;aj rEmigyk
(Process State Diagram)
ks; ^kj&
keje;ajQ$wjika l<
Created (New)
Terminated
/isu fyda
iQodku
Odjk
Running
Waiting or Ready
m%Odk u;lh
wjysr l<
Main Memory
Blocked
m%;syrKh l<
iy / isk
m%;syrKh l<
iy wjysr l<
Swapped out and
Swapped out and
Waiting
Blocked
w;;H u;lh
Virtual Memory
by; rEmfha oelafjk b,smaij,ska l%shdhk wjia:d o tajdg ish yels wjia:d udre ms<sn|j
B;,j,ska o fmkakq lrhs' ta wkqj ks; (created) l%shdhkhla iQodk ;;a;ajhg m;a lr th
m%Odk u;lhg meKSfuka tu ;;a;ajfhka l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;a ilikhg hEug fyda
w;;H u;lhg f.dia ;jrg;a /isug fyda isf' l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;ajQjfyd;a tu
13
;;a;ajh wjika lr m%Odk u;lfhka bj;a ug keje;ajQ$wjika l< ;;a;ajh (Terminated

State) g m;aug fyda w;ru. kj;d wjysr l< ;;a;ajhg m;a w;;H u;lfha / isug
ish yelsh'
uQ,sl l%shdhk wjia:d

ks; fyda kj wjia:dj
(Created or New State)
uq,ajrg l%shdhkhla ksudKh l< g tu ;;a;ajh ks; (Created) fyda kj (New) hk kka
ykajkq ,ef' fuu ;;a;ajfha mj;sk l%shdhk iQodk ;;a;ajhg msiqu ,efnk f;la /
ish hq;=f' fjd md,kh lrkq ,nkafka .=ld,Sk kshuldrl (Long Term Scheduler) kue;s
uDldx.hla u.sk's iQodk ;;a;j
a fha (Ready State) mj;sk fuu l%h
s dhk .= ld,Sk kshuldrlh
u.ska B<`.g t<h hq;= ;;a;ajhg udre lsu islrkq ,nk w;r th m%udoug fyda tu
;;a;ajhg m;a fkdlr bj;a lsug o yelshdj we;' fndfyda jev;, (Desktop) m.Kl j,
fuu m%fY lsu ksrdhdifhka isjk w;r ;;a ld,Sk ieliq (Real Time Processing) isjk
m.Klj, f i|yd m%udohla we;sf' fuhg fya;=j jkafka ;;ald,Sk ieliq j, fuu
wkqLKav Yd, m%udKhla u;lhg we;=<;a lr.kq ,nk w;r tajd l%shd;aul ug mj;sk
;r`.h ksid wjidk m%;sM,h ,nd .ekSug hk ld,h .= uh'
iQodk ;;a;ajh
(Ready State)
fuu ;;a;j
a h /isk (waiting) fyda l%h
s d;aul l<yels (runable) ;;a;j
a h f,i o ykajkq ,ef'
kj ;;a;ajfha mej;s l%shdhkhla B<`.g m;ajkafka fuu ;;a;ajhg h' fuu ;;a;ajhg m;ajk
l%shdhkhka m%Odk u;lfha /|S mj;skafka tu l%shdhk m.Klfha uOHu ieliq tallh
u.ska l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;alrk ;=reh' tu l%shd;aul ;;a;ajh Odjk ;;a;ajh (Running
State) kka ykajkq ,ef' tl ilikhla iys; m.Klhl tljr l%shd;aul jkafka tla
l%h
s dhkhla muKs' tneka iQodk ;;a;j
a fha mj;sk l%h
s dhk lsym
s hla tajd l%h
s d;aul ;;a;j
a hg
m;ajk ;=re m%Odk u;lfha fm< .eiS ;sh yelsh'
kuq;a kk m.Klj, we;s m%n,
ilikj,g tljr l%shdhk lSmhla l%shd;aul lsf yelshdj we;'
Odjk ;;a;ajh
(Running State)
fuu ;;a;ajh il%Sh (Active) ;;a;ajh fyda l%shd;aul (Executing) ;;a;ajh hkqfjka o ykajkq
,ef' fjk;a whqrlska lshf;d;a h wjia:djl uOHu ieliq tallfha l%shd;aul jk
lsh
% dhkh fuu kka ykajkq ,ef' fuu ;;a;j
a fha mj;sk l%h
s dhkhl l%h
s dld;ajh wjikaug
ksh; ld,hg jvd je ld,hla .;h yelsh' tjeks l%shdhkhla kej; iQodk ;;ajhg o
m;ah yelsh' tfia jQ g ;djld,slj wjysr l< ;;a;ajhg (Blocked State) fyda iQodk
;;a;ajhg (Ready State) m;al< yelsh'
wjysrl< ;;a;ajh
(Blocked State)
fuu ;;a;ajh ksd.; ;;a;ajh (sleeping state) kka o yekah yelsh' lsish l%shdhkhla
fuu ;;a;ajhg m;ajqj fyd;a th uOH ieliq tallfhka bj;a fldg m%Odk u;lfha fyda
w;;H u;lfha r|jd ;nkq we;' fufia mj;sk l%shdhkhkag wod< jQ uQ,dY% ,efnk ;=re
wjysrjQ ;;a;ajfha u isug is f' tu uQ,dY% ,enqKq jyd u tu wjysr jQ ;;a;ajh iQodk
;;a;ajhg udre l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;au i|yd kej; fm< .efia'
14
keje;ajQ$wjika l< ;;a;ajh
(Terminated State)
l%shdhkhla l%shd;aul fjka mj;sk g w;ru. kj;d oeu ^keje;ajQ& fyda l%shd;aul
wjika jQ miq ^wjika l<& kj;d oeu f kka ykajkq ,ef' idudkHfhka fuu ;;a;ajhg
m;ajk l%shdhkhla m%Odk u;lfhka fyda w;;H u;lfhka bj;alrkq ,nk w;r tfia bj;a
lsula is fkdjqk l%shdhk wj;dr (Zombies) f,i ykajkq ,ef'
w;sfl l%shdhk ;;a;ajhka
(Additional Process States)
w;;H u;lh Nd; jk m.Kl moaO;sj, l%shdhk w;sfl ;;a;aj folla we;' fuu ;;a;aj
fofla u l%shdhk r|jd ;nkqfha oa;Shsl wdphkfha (Secondary Storage) h'
m%;syrKh l< iy / isk ;;a;ajh
(Swapped out and waiting)
iQodk ;;a;j
a fha mj;sk l%h
s dhkhla fndfyda f,djla m%Odk u;lfha /;snK
q fyd;a blaukska
l%shd;aul h hq;= fjk;a l%shdhkhka i|yd m%Odk u;lfha bv ,nd ug fuu l%shdhkh
oa;Shsl wdphkfha we;s w;;H u;lhg udre lrkq ,ef' fufia udre l< miq th m;ajk
wjia:dj m%;syrKh l< iy / isk ;;a;ajh f,i ykajkq ,ef' fujeks l%shdhk kej;
l%shd;aul lsug wjYH jQ jyd u iQodk ;;a;ajhg m;afldg m%Odk u;lhg udre lrkq ,ef'
m%;syrKh l< iy wjika l< ;;a;ajh
(Swapped and blocked)
by; ;;a;ajh fuka u fuu wjia:df o m%Odk u;lfha we;s wjysr l< ;;a;ajh iys;
l%shdhkhka oa;Shsl wdphkfha we;s w;;H u;lhg udrelrkq ,ef' tg w;;H u;lfha
fuu l%shdhk mj;skafka m%;syrKh l< iy wjika l< ;;a;ajfha h' kuq;a fuu ;;a;ajh kej;
m%;syrKh l< iy ? isk ;;a;ajhg udreh yelsh' bkamiq th iQodk ;;a;ajhg m;aj
m%Odk u;lhg jqj o kej; meKsh yelsh'
kshulrKh
(Scheduling)
nyqldh iy nyq ieliq fufyhq moaO;s ksudKh lsf fhdod .kakd m%Odk;u ixl,amhla
f,i fuh yekah yel' fuys m.Klhl we;s uOH ieliq tall m%udKhg jvd je
l%shdhk m%udKhla ilikh ;=< l%shd;aul jk neka o mj;sk ieliq tall Nd; lr tu
ish l%shdhk l%shd;aul lrug isjk ksid o fuu l%shdhk h wkqms<sfj<lg ilikhkag
fhduqlrf jevms<f
s j<la m.Kl fufyhq moaO;sh u.ska l%h
s d;aul flf' fuu jevms<f
s j<
kshulrKh (Scheduling) kka ykajk w;r th l%shd;aul lsu i|yd kshuldrl (Scheduler)
hk kka ykajkq ,nk l%uf,aLhla we;' tu kshuldrl" m%jdylhd (dispatcher) hk kka
o ykajkq ,ef' fuu l%uf,aLh my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn|j uis,su;a f'
1' uOH ieliq tallh by< ldhlaIu;djlska Nd; lsu'
2' id; m%udKh (Throughput) - ld, tallhla ;=< l%shd;aul fldg wjika lrkq ,nk
l%shdhk ixLHdj
3' ldh mQrK ld,h (Turnaround) - l%shdhkhla ilikhg ,ndka g wod< l%shdhkh
l%shd;aulj mj;sk ld,h
4' m%udo ld,h (Waiting time) - l%shdhkhla ilikhg ,ndug fmr iQodk ;;a;ajfha
fm<.eiS mj;sk ld,h
15
5' m%;spdr ld,h (Response Time) - l%shdhkhlg h Wmfoila ,enqKq fudfydf;a isg th
l%shd;aul ug wdrN jk fudfyd; olajd jQ ld,h
6' ieliq tallfha iEu l%shdhkhlg u ieliq tall ld,h ,ndu idOdrKj bgq lsu
kshuldrl j.
(Scheduler Types)
m.Kl fufyhq moaO;shl meye,s kshuldrl j. ;=kla ;sh yel' tajd k

1' .= ld,Sk kshuldrl (Long term scheduler)
fuh m%fY kshuldrl (Admission scheduler) fyda by< ugf kshuldrl (highlevel scheduler) hk kj,ska o ykajkq ,ef'
2' uOH ld,Sk kshuldrl (Mid term scheduler)
3' fl ld,Sk kshuldrl (Short term scheduler)
fuh m%jdylh f,i o ykajkq ,ef'
.=ld,Sk kshuldrl
(Long term scheduler)
iQodk ;;a;j
a fm<.eiaug we;=<;a l< hq;f
a ;a l=uk l%h
s dhkh o hkak ;SrKh lrkq ,nkafka
fuu kshuldrlh u.sks' tf,i u l=uk l%shdhkh moaO;sfha l%shd;aul h hq;= o hkak o
;SrKh lrkq ,nkafka f u.sks' ;j o tl .g l%shd;aul h hq;= l%shdhkhka m%udKfhka
Yd, h hq;= o l=vd h hq;= o hkak;a fuu.ska ;SrKh flf' kQ;k fufyhq moaO;s j,
;;ald,Sk ieliqj, l%h
s dhk l%h
s d;aulu i|yd uOHu ieliq tallfhka m%udKj;a ld,hla
,ndu o fuu.ska is flf' fuu j.fha kshuldrl uyd mudKfhka ldKav ieliqlrKfha
(batch processing) fhfok iy Yd, mudKfha iqms m.Kl hdkdhg b;d jeo.;a f'
uOHld,Sk kshuldrl
(Mid term scheduler)
fuu kshuldrlh u.ska l%shdhk" m%Odk u;lh yd w;;H u;lh w;r udre lru islrhs'
fuh m%%;syrKh (Swapping) hk kka ykajkq ,ef' fufia lsug isjkafka m%Odk u;lh
;=< iQodk ;;a;ajfhka fndfyda fj,d / ;sfnk l%shdhk bj;a fldg uQ,sl;ajh h hq;=
l%shdhkj,g m%Odk u;lhg msiSug wjYH bv myiql ,ndu i|yd h' fufia w;;H
u;lhg udrel< l%shdhk l%shd;aul ;;a;ajhg m;al<hq;= wjia:dj, tu l%shdhk w;;H
u;lfhka m%Odk u;lhg udrelru fuu.ska isf'
flld,Sk kshuldrl
(Short term scheduler)
fuu kshuldrlh m%jdylh (Dispatcher) f,i o ykajkq ,ef' oekg l%shd;aul ;;a;ajfha
mj;sk l%shdhkfhka miqj m%Odk u;lfha we;s l%shdhkj,ska l=uk l%shdhkh ilikhg heu
i|yd iqiq o hkak fuu kshuldrlh ;SrKh lrhs' th l%h
s d;aul lrkqfha fydard w;=reulska
(Clock Interrupt) fyda wdodk$m%;o
s dk hkdfhka tkq ,nk w;=reulska (I/O Interrupt) fyda fufyhq
moaO;sfhka fokq ,nk ix{djla fyda mKsvhla fyda fjk;a iajNdjhl ix{djla hkd
uey;a j,g miqj h' ;j o by; oelajQ .=ld,Sk yd uOHld,Sk kshuldrl j,g jvd fuu
kshuldrlh ksr;=rej Nd;hg .efka' fuys we;s fudhq,hla jk m%jdylh u.ska ilikhg
hjkq ,nk l%shdjka l%shd;aul lsug uOH ieliq tallh md,kh lsu iy ikaoN iaph
(Context Switch) hk kka ykajk l%shdhkhkaf.a ;;a;ajh udre lsu fuu.ska islrhs' fuu
m%jdyl fudhq,h b;d f.j;a h hq;=h' tfia h hq;af;a iEu l%shdhk ;;a;aj fjkia lsula
16
isjk wjia:djl u fuu m%jdylh l%shd;aul jk ksidh' tla l%shdhkhla kj;d fjk;a
l%shdhkhla wdrN lsug fuu m%jdylhg .;jk ld,h .=ma; m%jdyl ld,h (Dispatcher
Latency Time) kka ykajkq ,ef'

bm;a l< lKavdhug ia;drKh i|yd m<uq wjia:dj ,ndfokak'
my; i|yka lreKq flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
m.Klhl ilikfha ldhlaIu;dj jelr .ekSu i|yd tys ld,h Wmu whqka
fhdod .ekSf wjYH;dj we;s jQ nj
f i|yd ilikh Wmu whqka Nd;hg .; yels nyq ldh iy nyq l%uf,aL fufyhq
moaO;s ksudKh jQ nj
fuu fufyhq moaO;sj,g ilikfha ld,h l<ukdlrKh lr.kska tys Wmu
M,odhS;dj ,nd .; yels nj
fuu fufyhq moaO;sj, we;s m%Odk ,laIKhla jkqfha l%shdhk kka yekafjk
l%uf,aL fldgia fhdod.ekSu nj
fuu l%shdhk tajdfha O ;;a;aj (states) j,g m;alrka tajd lsish ms<sfj<lg
ilikhg hjka l<ukdlrKh lrk nj
fuu l<ukdlrKh islrkafka l%h
s dhk kshuldrl (process scheduler) kka yekafjk
l%ufohla u.ska nj
fuu l%ufoh .=ld,Sk" flld,Sk yd uOHld,Sk jYfhka fldgia ;=klska iuka;
jk nj
tu tla tla fldgfia isjk ldh tlsfklg fjkia jk nj
iuia; l%h
s dj,sfha ilikfha Wmu ldhlaIu;dj ,nd.ekSu i|yd fufyhq moaO;sh
fuu l%shdhk l<ukdlrKh lrk nj
kQ;k m.Kl j, Nd; jk nyqldh iy nyql%uf,aL fufyhq moaO;sj,g fuu
l%ufoh ksid" m.Kl o;a; ieliq l%shdj,sh ika;;j mj;ajd.ekSug yelshdj ,e
we;s nj
17
ks m q K ;dj 6(
m.Klj, iuia; l%shdj,sh l<ukdlrKh lsug fufyhq

moaO;s Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 6'4(
fufyhq moaO;shla u.ska m.Klhl u;lh iy wdodk$m%;os dk

fufyhq l<ukdlrKh lrk whqre .fIKh lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
m.Kl u;lh l<ukdlrKhg uQ,sl jk wx. k lrhs'

m.Klhl u;l l<ukdlrKh lrk wdldrh meye,s lrhs'
wdodk m%;sodk Wmdx. l<ukdlrKh" oDVdx. yd uDldx. wka; l%shdj mdol lrf.k
ia;r lrhs'
h l%shdjl th f.j;a lru i|yd O Wml%u Nd; lrhs'
iuia; l%shdj,shla wLKavj mj;ajdf.k hEug Bg inkaO w;=re l%shdj,s ish,a, l%shd;aul
;;a;ajfha mj;ajd .kS'

ms iS u (
m.Kl u;lh ms<sn| isiqkaf.a fmr oekqu uikak'

my; oelafjk lreKq biau;= jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
m.Klfha u;lh tys l%shdld;ajhg w;HjYH nj
m.Klhg inkaO lrk Wmdx. o m.Klfha u;lh m%fhdackhg .kakd nj
tuksid m.Klh l%shd;aul f tys u;lh l<ukdlrKh lsu wjYH nj
lsh jH fydka mYS,kh lrkak'

my; i|yka ud;Dld weiqfrka Tf lKavdhug wod< ud;Dldj flfrys fYaI wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
i) u;l l<ukdlrKh
u;lh" wNHka;r u;lh yd ndysr u;lh jYfhka fjka lsu'
wNHka;r yd ndysr u;lfha ,laIK
ii) u;l l<ukdlrKhg wod< .eg yd jdo Ih
u;l Nckh
m%;syrKh" msgqlrKh yd wkqrEmlrKh
iii) wdodk yd m%;sodk Wmdx. l<ukdlrKh yd oDVdx. yd uDldx. w;r wka;
inkaO;dj mj;ajd .ekSug Wmdx. Odjl uDldx. j, wjYH;dj
Tf wkdjrK wdldYkSh yd ksudKYS,Sj iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
18
ls h jH
m.Kl u;lh l<ukdlrKh
m.Klfha u;lh" m%Odk jYfhka wNHka;r yd ndysr jYfhka fldgia follg fnh yelsh'
wNHka;r u;lh f,i ie,flkafka"
1' fria;r u;lh
2' ix; u;lh I ugu
3' ix; u;lh II ugu
4' iiNd m%fY u;lh (RAM)
iuia;hla jYfhka .;a l, ish u wNHka;r u;lhka ys my; i|yka ,laIK oelsh yel'
1' wvq Od;djlska hqla; nj
2' wvq m%fY ld,hlska hqla; nj
3' f,ka wl nj
fmdf .;a l, ndysr u;lh" Yd, Od;djlska hqla; f' ;j o idfmalaIj je m%fY ld,
j,ska hqla; jk w;r , b;d wvq h ^, i,ld we;af;a nhsghla i|yd h&'
fria;rh muKla ie,l+ g thg f.j;a j l%shdlsf yelshdj we;;a th ilikh ;=<
wka;.; WmlrKhla neka jkdlka wl h' tys Od;dj o wvq h' m%fY ld,h o wvq
h' ix; u;lh - I ugu yd ix; u;lh - II ugu o f wdldrhg Nd; l< yel' tfia
ke;sjqjfyd;a Bg;a my<g we;s iiNd m%fY u;lh Nd; l< yel' fuys m%fY ld,h je
h' jkdlu oeh yels ugul mj;S' Od;dj o je h' fuhska fmfkkafka by< isg my<g
hkg jkdlu wvqjk w;r Od;dj yd m%fY ld,h jejk njhs'
m.Klhl iuia; ldhh idOkh i,ld n,k g jkdlu" m%fY ld,h yd Od;dj
m%Yia; ugulska mj;ajd .ekSug k by; u;l j. fol u l<ukdlrKh lsu wjYH f'
u;l l<ukdlrKhg wod< .eg yd u;jdo

1 ' u;l Nckh (Memory Allocation)
m.Klhla l%shd;aulf wfmalaIs; m%;sodkh ,nd.ekSu i|yd Bg wod< l%uf,aLh u;lhg
m%fYkh ;sh hq;=hs' f i|yd m%d:l u;lfha bvlv m%udKj;a h hq;= w;r ksisf,i
Nckh ;sh hq;=hs'
2' m%;syrKh" LKavkSlrKh yd iqixys;lrKh (Swapping, Fragmentation, Compaction)
m.Klfha u;l Nckh lsf m%Odk j.lSu we;af;a m.Kl fufyhq moaO;shg h'
m.Klhla Nd; jk O l%uf,aL i|yd Nckh uq,ajrg islsu wiSre ldhhla fkdjkq
we;' kuq;a m.Klh ;=< h h l%shdhkhka wjika jQ g fyda bj;a l< wjia:djkays
fjk;a l%uf,aL kej; kej;;a u;lh fj; f.k;a tajd Nckh lsu myiq ldhla fkdjkq
we;' Bg fya;=j jkafka l%shdhkhla u;l ;=<ska bj;a lsf tys u;l isrla (Memory Hole)
ksudKh u h' fjd ksudKh jkqfha wyUq f,i h' tksid f u;l isre we;sf .egj
ksisf,i l<ukdlrKh lr.; hq;=h'
19
3' li< /ia lsu (Garbage Collection)

iuyr l%uf,aL ;=< .;sl o;a; jHqy Nd; flf' fjd u;l ffi, .;slj m%fhdackhg
.kakjd fuka u bj;a lsu o is flf' ;dlaIKsl j ie,l+ g ;jrg;a wjYH fkdjk o;a;
bj;a lsf tu ia:dkj, la;l u;l ffi, ksudKh f' wyUq f,i ksudKh jk
la;l ffi, tys ldKavhla f,i taldnoaO lsu" fufyhq moaO;shla u.ska laIKslj isfkdf'
tjeks m%foaY li< m%foaY f,i yekaf' fuu li< m%udKh jejk g u;lfha wkjYH
f,i bv weysu o isf' fuh u;l Nckhg Rcqj u n,mE we;s lrhs' tksid li< /ialr
;ndf.k ix.;lrKh isl< hq;=j we;'
4' l%shdhk wdrlaIKh (Protecting Process)
m.Kl l%uf,aLj, ;sh yels fodaI ksid tla l%shdhkhlg Nckh l< u;l ffi, fjk;a
l%shdhkhka u.ska wdl%uKh lsu ish yels wjia:d o oelsh yelsh' fufyhq moaO;sh u.ska
fujeks foa isfkdug j.n,d .; hq;=h' m.Kl fufyhq moaO;shl fuu l%shdj l%shdhk
wdrlaIKh jYfhka ie,fla'
w;;H u;lh
(Vertual Memory)
idudkHfhka ilikhlg Yd, u;l ffi, m%udKhla oDYHudk jqj o m.Klhl fN!;sl
jYfhka we;af;a Bg jvd wvq u;l m%udKhls' tu ksid ;dlsl u;l fhduqjla fN!;sl u;l
fhduqjlg mj;kh lr .ekSf l%ufohla ;sh hq;=h' w;;H u;lh u.ska Yd, fhduq
wjldYhla ksudKh flf' l%shdhkhl j ld,h ;=< th l%shd;aul lrkqfha thjgd we;s
Wmfoia iq m%udKhlska h' tk l%shdhkhla ks;r ks;r Nd; lrkqfha ta yd inkaO jQ o;a;
wvx.= u;l ffi, iq m%udKhls' wvq u;l ffi, m%udKhlska jqj o ldhlaIuj u;lh
l<ukdlrKh lr .ekSu i|yd msgqlrKh yd LKavkSlrKh uy`.= msgqjy,la f'
msgqlrKh yd wkqrEmlrKh
(Paging & Mapping)
w;;H u;l rduqjl we;s fhduqjlg wkqrEm fN!;sl u;lh we;s rduqjl fhduqjla wEu
wkqrEmlrKh f,i yekaf'
fufyhqul jvd kuHYS,SNdjh ,nd .ekSug kE u msgqjla kE u rduqjlg wkqrEmlrKh
lsf yelshdj we;'
ndysr wdphk u;lhla ;=< we;s o;a; m.Klfha m%Odk u;lh fj; m%fYkh lsu i|yd
fkdfhl=;a l%fudamdhka we;' m.Klfha m%Odk u;lfha we;s bv m%udKh iS; neka Yd,
m%udKfha l%uf,aL tljr u;lh ;=<g m%fYkh lr.; fkdyel' f ksid msgqlrKh kka
ykajkakd jQ l%ufohla Nd; flf' m%Odk u;lh l<ukdlrKh myiqlr .ekSu i|yd
ndysr wdphk udOHfha we;s o;a; fyda l%uf,aLk tl u m%udKfha jQ l=vd fldgiaj,g fnod
.efka' fuu LKavhla msgqjla f,i yekafjk w;r msgq jYfhka m%Odk u;lh fj; o;a; fyda
l%uf,aL fldgia m%fYkh lsfuka tys we;s bv m%udKh l<ukdlrKh lr.; yel' ;j o
fuh fmd;l msgq wdldrfha neka wjYH jQ g wjYH msgqj muKla m%fY lr .; yel'
20
wdodk yd m% ; s o dk Wmdx. l<ukdlrKh

fuf;la l,a wms idlPdjg Ndck lr we;af;a isoa l<ukdlrKh lrk wdldrhhs' ksiqka
m.Klh iu`. wka; inkaO;d mj;ajd .kafka wdodk yd m%;sodk Wml%u ;=<ska h'
m.Klh mYS,kh lsf tu moaO;sfha we;s Wml%u lSmhla tljr Nd; lsug isf'
ldhla lsf m.Klfha fndfyda Wmdx. tlsfkl w;r wka; l%shdld;ajfha fhfoa' fuh
fufyhq moaO;sfha uQ,sl ldhhls' fuys moaO;sfha wod< Wmdx. ish,a, iu uqyq;lrKh
(synchronization) we;' fuys l%shdj,s iu uqyq;lrKh u i|yd tla l%shdj,shla iu.
ksh; ld,hl wfkl yuqh hq;=hs' fujeks l%shdj,s lSmhla tljr ish yelsh' fuu isoa
tlsfklg inkaO jkafka ix{d ud.fhks' Iu uQ;lrK (Desynchronization) l%shdj,sh
kE u wjia:djl ish yel'
m.Kl Wmdx. yd Odjl uDldx.
(Driver Software)
fjd m.Kl l%uf,aL jk w;r fjd fufyhq moaO;sh yd oDVdx. w;r isjk ikaksfokh
i|yd odhl f' ksoiqkla jYfhka iqmlaIlh (Scanner) hka;h
% la yd m.Klh w;r inkaOhla
we;slsug iqmlaIlfha Odjl uDldx.h m.Klhg we;=<;a l< hq;=h' bkamiqj m.Klh
yd iqmlaIlh w;r wka; inkaO;djla we;sf'

m<uq ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug m%:u wjia:dj fokak'
u;l l<ukdlrKfha fufyhq moaO;sh my; i|yka l%shdjka islrk nj
1' Nckh
2' yqjudrelrKh" LKavkh yd iqix.slrKh
3' wkjYH foa neyer lsu$li, /ialsu
4' l%shdhk wdrlaIKh
m%Odk u;lhg wu;rj w;;H u;lh Nd; lrk nj' tu Nd;fha msgqlrKh
(Paging) yd wkqrEmlrKh lrk nj
fufyhq moaO;sfhka wdodk m%;sodk Wmdx. l<ukdlrKh flfrk nj
ta u.ska Wmdx. iy uDldx. w;r wka; inkaO;dj mj;ajd .kakd nj
m.Klhg ndysrj inkaO lrk Wmdx. kshudldrfhka l%shdlrug Wmdx. Odjl
uDldx. fhdod.kakd nj
21
ks m q K ;dj 7(
.eg i l%shdj,sfha m.Klhg Wmfoia ,nd u i|yd

m.Kl l%uf,aL NdId (Programming Languages) fhdod .kshs'
ksmqK;d ugu 7'7(
l%uf,aL f.dvke.Sf md,k jHqy (Control Structures) fhdod

.ksh's
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
m.Kl l%uf,aLhla md,kh lsu i|yd md,k jHqyhka fhdod .kS'

l%uf,aL imdokh lsf wkql%l" ir, jrK" nyq jrK hk mqklrK jHqyhka fhdod
.kS'
mqklrKh i|yd .Kl md,k fyda ;dlsl md,k jHqyhka fyda wjYH;dj wkqj f;dard
.ksh's
.egjla if i l%u iuQyhla we;sg jvd;a iqiq iu f;dard .kshs'
.eg if tajdfha jHqyhka ykdf.k tu .egj ;jrg;a ir, Ndjhg m;alr
.kska tajdg i fidhhs'

ms iS u (
isiqka Yd, ixLHdjla iyNd.s jk Nd.hl m%;sM, f,aLkh iliajk wdldrh isiqka iu`.
idlPd lrkak'
fuys islrkq ,nk o;a; ieliSf l%shdj,sh meye,s lsug iafPdfjka bm;a jk
isiqfjl=g wjia:dj fokak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;=jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
Nd.fha tla tla Ih i|yd ,nd.kakd ,l=Kq m.Klhg we;=<;a lsfuka YsIHhka
,nd.;a ,l=Kq j,g wod< fY%aKsh ,ndfok nj
l,ska ;SrKh l< ,l=Kq mrdihla Nd; lrk nj
fY%aKsh ,ndf ,l=Kq ixikaokhla lr wod< fY%aKsh f;dard .kakd nj
fuu l%shdj,sh ish u isiqkaf.a ,l=Kq we;=<;a lsu wjidk jk f;la mqklrKh jk
nj
Tng we;s lsh jH fydka wOHhkh lrkak'

my; oelafjk .eg w;=frka Tn lKavdhug ,nd we;s .egj ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
lsish Ihhl ,l=Kq ,ndf.k ta i|yd wkqrEm jk fY%aKsh m%;sodkh lsu' ta i|yd
my; i|yka fY%aKs .; ms<sfj< wkq.ukh lrkak'
22
,l=Kq
fY%aKsh
75 g je k
65 isg 75 olajd
55 isg 64 olajd
45 isg 54 olajd
0 isg 44 olajd
lsish ixLHdjl 1 isg 12 olajd .=Kk j.=j ksudKh lsu'

NdKav lsysmhl , we;=<;a lr tajdfha tl;=j ,nd .ekSu' ^NdKavhl , f,i 0
,ndka g ;jrg;a , wdodkh lsu wjika f'&
Tng ,e we;s .egj fydka wjfndaO lr th iug wod< l%uf,aLh ilia lrkak'
Tf lKavdhf ms<s;=re ;yjqre lr.ekSu i|yd l=vd lKavdh idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
Tf wkdjrK iduQyslj o ksudKYS,Sj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrkak'
ls h jH
iEu m.Kl l%uf,aLhl u my; i|yka md,k jHqyhka tlla fyda Bg je .Kkla Nd;
flf'
1' wkql%uh (sequence)
2' jrKh (selection)
3' mqklrKh (repetition/iteration)
m.Kl l%uf,aL ;=< we;s j.ka;s l%shd;aul lrk wkqms<sfj< md,k jHqyhka u.ska md,kh
flf'
1' wkql%uh
l%uf,aLhl we;s j.ka;s tlsfkl wkqms<sfj<ska we;s wdldrhg l%shd;aul lsu wkql%uh
kka ykajkq ,ef'
WodyrK 1(
celsius=float(input(Enter Celsius temperature: ))
fahrenheit = 1.8 * celsius + 32
print Fahrenheit = , fahrenheit
fuu l%uf,aLh u.ska WIaK;ajh fi,aishia w.hla jYfhka ,ndf.k th *erkayhs w.hla
njg m;alr th m%;sodkh lrkq ,ef' fuys we;s Wmfoia ish,a, wkql%lj l%shd;aul lrkq
,ef'
WodyrK 2(
price=float(input(Enter Price Rs: ))
qty=int(input(Enter Quantity: ))
23
amount=price*qty
print Amount is Rs: , amount
fuu l%uf,aLh u.ska NdKavhl , iy , .;a NdKav ixLHdj lshjd ,ndf.k ta i|yd
f.h hq;= uq uqo, .Kkh flf'
2' jrKh
fuys f;dard .ekSu i|yd l,am m%ldYk iuQyhla we;s g fok ,o fldkafoaishla mlaId lr
tla l,amhla muKla f;dard .ekSu isf'
a). ir, jrKh
ldrl ;sh
if
expression:
statement 1
statement 2
else:
:.
statement 1
statement 2
:.
WodyrK 3(
a=int(input(Enter a Number: ))
if a%2==0:
print Even number
by; WodyrKfha ixLHdjla ,ndf.k th 2ka fn g b;=rejk w.h 0 k th brf

ixLHdjla hehs m%;sodkh flf'
WodyrK 4(
a=int(input(Enter a number: ))
if a%2==0:
print Even number
else:
print Odd number
fuu WodyrKfha ixLHdjla ,ndf.k th 2ka fn g b;=rejk w.h 0 k print '''Even number'
hk m%ldYkh o tfia fkdue;sk print "Odd number"hk m%ldYkh l%shd;aul flf'
24
nyq jrKh
ldrl ;sh
b).
if
expression 1:
statement 1
statement 2
:.
elif expression 2:
statement 1
statement 2
:.
else:
statement 1
statement 2
:.
WodyrK 5(
price=int(input(Enter Price Rs: ))
if price>1000:
discount=price*10/100
elif price>=500:
else:
net_price=price-discount
print Net Price is Rs: , net_price
fuu WodyrKh u.ska NdKavhl , ,ndf.k ta i|yd ysjk jgu .Kkh flf' NdKavfha
, re' 1000'00 je k 10] jgula o tys , 500 isg 1000 olajd k 5]l jgula o tfia
fkdue;s tajd i|yd 2] jgula o ysf'
WodyrK 6(
num1=int(input(Enter first number: ))
num2=int(input(Enter second number: ))
print 1. Add
print 2. Subtract
print 3. Multiply
25
print 4. Divide
choice=int(input(Enter Choice: ))
if choice==1:
print num1, + , num2, =, num1+num2
elif choice==2:
print num1, - , num2, =, num1-num2
elif choice==3:
print num1, * , num2, =,num1*num2
elif choice==4:
print num1, / , num2, =,num1/num2
else:
print Invalid Entry!
fuu WodyrKh ixLHd folla ,ndf.k th fukqjlska f;dard.;a .Ks; luhg wod< m%;sM,h
m%;sodkh lrhs'
3' mqklrKh
j.ka;s tlla fyda lsysmhla kej; kej; l%shd;aul lsu mqklrKh f,i yekaf'
a)
for m%ldYkh
j.ka;s tlla fyda je.Kkla fyda h ksYa; jdr .Kkla mqklrKh lsu i|yd fuu
m%ldYkh Nd; flf' fuh fhdod.; yelafla wjia:d foll muKs'
h ixLHd mrdihla ;=< mqklrKh is lsu'
ldrl ;s
i)
for var-name in range (start-num,stop-num)
o;a; ,ehsia;=jla iu. Nd; lsu'

ldrl ;s
ii)
for list-item in list

statement(s)
WodyrK 7(
for num in range(1, 5):
print (num)
fuu WodyrKh 1 isg 4 olajd ixLHd m%;sodkh lrhs' fuu WodyrKfha we;s range hkak u.ska
,ndfok ,o wdrNl w.h jk 1 isg wjika w.h jk 5 olajd ixLHd iuQyhla ckkh lrkq
,ef' ^fuys wjika w.h jk 5 we;=<;a fkdf'&
26
WodyrK 8(
numbers=[10,30,40,60,50]
for num in numbers:
print (num)
by; WodyrKh for m%ldYkh o;a; ,ehsia;=jla iu. Nd; flf'

,ehsia;=j fhdod .kq ,ef'
fuys uq, ixLHd
WodyrK 9(
for letter in Computer:
print (letter)
b)
while m%ldYkh
fuu m%ldYkh i|yd ,nd fok fldkafoaishla i;Hj mj;sk f;la mqklrKh isf'
WodyrK 10(
num = int (input ('''Enter Number'))
while
num>0:
if num%2==0:
count + = 1
num = int (input ('''Enter Number'))
print "Total Even numbers", count
by; WodyrKfha uq,ska u ,nd .kakd ixLHdj Ok ixLHdjla k num>0 fldkafoaish i;H
f' tfia k while m%ldYkh ;=<g mefKa' tys tu ixLHdj brf ixLHdjla oehs mlaId
flf' tfia k count ys w.h tllska je flf' bkamiq kej; ixLHdjla ,nd .efka' ,nd
we;s fldkafoaish (num>0) wi;H jk ;dla mqklrKh isflf' ,ndka uq brf ixLHd
.Kk fuu l%uf,aLh u.ska m%;sodkh flf'
break
uq,jok
for mh
fyda while mhl l,ska bj;a u i|yd break hkak Nd; flf'
27
WodyrK 11(
i=I
while 1<10:
print i
if i==5:
print "stoping the loop"
break
i+=1
by; WodyrKh u.ska 1 isg 5 olajd ixLHd m%;sodkh flf'

i i|yd
wdfoaY lr we;s w.h 1 neka while m%ldYkfha fldkafoaish i<10 i;H f' tg mh
;=<g meK i ys w.h m%;sodkh flf' bkamiq if m%ldYkh u.ska i ys w.h 5 g iudkoehs mlaId
flf' h wjia:djl i ys w.h 5 iudk jk g "stopping the loop" hkqfjka m%;sodkh lr break
m%ldYkh u.ska while mfhka bj;a f'
Continue
WodyrKh 12(
while True:
name = input ("Enter a name less than four charactors or "quit" to stop")
if name=="quit":
break
if len (name)>5:
continue
else:
print name
by; WodyrKfha "quit" hkak wdodkh l< g mqklrKh k;r flf' we;=<;a lrk kf
wl=re .Kk 5la k ku m%;sodkh flf' tfia fkdue;s k kej; mh uq,g mefKa'
28

ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug u m%:u wjia:dj ,ndfokak'
my; lreKq biau;= jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
m.Kl l%uf,aL ;=< j.ka;s l%shd;aul lrk wkqms<sfj<la we;s nj
f i|yd iEu m.Kl l%uf,aLhl u md,k jHqyhka tlla fyda je .Kkla Nd;
lrk nj
m.Klhl we;s j.ka;s tlsfkl wkqms<sfj<ska we;s wdldrhg l%shd;aul lru
wkql%uh f,i ykajk nj
f;dard .ekSu i|yd l,am m%ldYk iuQyhla we;s g fok,o fldkafoaishla mlaId lr
tla l,amhla f;dard .ekSu jrKh f,i ykajk nj
j.ka;s tlla fyda lsysmhla kej; kej; l%shd;aul lsu mqklrKh f,i yekafjk
nj
29
ks m q K ;dj 8(
M,odhS f,i o;a; yd y~ ikaksfokh iy im;a fnod .ekSu

i|yd" o;a; ikaksfok yd m.Kl cd, ;dlaIKsl l%ufohka
Nd;h .fIKh lrhs'
m.Kl cd, i|yd iei wdlD;shla f,i jD; moaO;s wka;

inkaO;d (OSI) ia;r kshudj,s ks;h fhdod .kshs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
jD; moaO;s iy ixjD; moaO;s w;r uQ,sl fjki meye,s lrhs'

jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d wdlD;sfhys ia;r k lrhs'
jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d wdlD;sfhys uQ,sl ldhNdrh yd j.lS ia;r lrhs'

ms iS u (
;eme,a ldhd,h yryd hyjl=g ,smshla heu ms<sn|j mka;sfhaa wjOdkh fhduq lrjkak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;= lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
;eme,a ldhd,h yryd ,smshla hef l%shdj,sh fldgia lSmhlska isjk nj
fuys hjkafkla" ,nkafkla" hjk udOHhla yd f.khkafkla isk nj
,smsh ,su" ,smskh ,shd ljrhl nyd ;eme,a fmhg oeu" ;eme,a f.k hkakd
;eme,a fmfhka /f.k ;eme,a ldhd,hg ndru" ;eme,a ldhd,fhka ,smh
s ndrf.k
heh hq;= ;eme,a ldhd,hg fhduq lsu hkd f,i hjkakdf.a fldgi by< isg
my<g Wmfldgia ;=klg fnh yels nj
,nkakd r neyerl k w;r u. uOHu ;eme,a yqjudre uOHia:dkhla yryd heh
hq;= nj
uOHu ;eme,a yqjudrej yryd ,nkakdf.a ;eme,a ldhd,hg ,smsh heu" ,nkakdg
,smsh ,ndu iy ,nkakd ,smsh ,nd.ekSu" jD; lsu yd lshu f,ig ,nkakdf.a
fldgi o my< isg by<g Wm fldgia ;=klg fnh yels nj
iEu Wmfldgil u ksjer mqoa.,hdg ,smsh Ndru i|yd ldhNdrhla" j.lSula yd
Wml%u we;s nj
iEug u by< Wmfldgi" my< Wmfldgiska fiajdjla b,a,k w;r my< Wm fldgiska"
tu fiajdj by< Wmfldgig ,ndfok nj
fuf,i u m.Kl cd,lrKfha ;a ia;r lSmhlska hq;= jD; moaO;s ks;hka yuqjk
nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld ;=fkka Tf lKavdhug wod< ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
wka;cd;sl m%;s wdh;kh (ISO) iy jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d wdlD;sh (OSI)
yekau'
30
tla tla ia;rj, uQ,sl ldhNdrh j.lS yd Nd; lrk Wml%u

OSI wdlD;sfhys tla tla ia;rj,g wod< uQ,sl kshudj,Ska
lsh m;%sldj iuia;hla jYfhka o Tf ud;Dldjg wod< fldgi iqfYaISj o wOHhkh
lrkak'
jD; moaO;s iy ixjD; moaO;s w;r we;s uQ,sl fjkialu fidhd n,kak'
lsh m;%sldf we;s lreKqj,g wu;rj Tf ud;Dld .ek Tn okakd fjk;a lreKq
igyka lr .kak'
Tf wkdjrK ksudKYS,Sj o iduQyslj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
OSI wdlD;sfha
ls h jH
ndysr f,dalh iu. wka; l%shdj,shl fhug yelshdjla iy myiql iys; moaO;shla jD;
moaO;shla f,i ykajk w;r tfia ndysr f,dalh iu. wka; inkaO;djka fkdmj;ajka
ish foa tu moaO;sh ;=< u islrkakdjQ moaO;shla ixjD; moaO;shla f,i ykajkq ,ef'
cd,lrKfha oDVdx. iy uDldx. j, ms;r (Specification) u; r|d fkdmj;sk tk
Wmia;rfhka iajdk kE u fjkia moaO;s w;r ikaksfokhg bv i,ik moaO;s ks;
jD; moaO;s f,i i,lkq ,ef'
jD; moaO;s ks; ixl,amh wka;cd;sl fjf<|du myiq u.lg fhduq lrhs' wka;cd,fha
tl u fjf<|fmd< wjYH;djla we;s fjf<kaoka iy mYS,lhska ;;H ld, fudhq,
we;=<;a m.Kl moaO;s Nd; lrhs'
uq,a wjfha m.Kl ikaksfokh m%Odk rduq m.Klh jgd uOH.;j mej;sKs' tu
m.Klhg mhka; WmlrK rdYshla inkaOj ;sKs'
cd,lrKfha ldhNdrh jeu;a iu. tu ldhNdrh fldgiaj,g fnod.ekSf wjYH;djla
u;=h'
ta jk g m.Kl cd, moaO;s w;r ikaksfokh oDVdx. iy uDldx.j, ms;r u; r|d
mej;=Kq w;r rdcH wkq.%yhka hgf;a (ARPAnet) fyda tla tla m.Kl wf,lrejka iska
nyq, f,i cd,lrKh islrkq ,eKs' fuu cd, w;r ikaksfokfha .eg mek ke.=K
neka fmd cd, m%;shl wjYH;djla we;s jQ w;r thg ms<s;=rla f,i kSjdys wka;cd;sl
m%;s wdh;kh u.ska jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d ks;h ykajd fokq ,eKs' tla tla
cd,.; m.Klhla ;j;a cd,.; m.Klhla w;r ikaksfokh iy f;dr;=re yqjudre jk
wdldrh fuu wka;cd;sl m%;s wdh;k ks;fhka ia;r lrk w;r fuh ia;r y;lska hq;=
iei ks;hla h' ienE f,dalfha cd,lrKh iu. fuh .,md .kakd g fuys we;s ia;r
lsysmhla tlg inkaOlr fjk;a ia;rhla ksudKh lr .ekSula l< yels w;r fuh kS;s
moaO;shla fkdj ksfoaY lsula f,i ie,lsh hq;=f'
31
jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d wdlD;sfhys ia;r y; my; oelaf'
7'
fh ia;rh (Application Layer)
6'
iumK ia;rh (Presentation Layer)
5'
ieis ia;rh (Session Layer)
4'
m%jdyk ia;rh (Transport Layer)
3'
cd, ia;rh (Network Layer)
2'
o;a; ikaOdk ia;rh (Data Link Layer)
1'
fN!;sl ia;rh (Physical Layer)
ikaksfokfha moaO;s folla w;r wka;ra inkaO;d we;s ia;r ;sfnk w;r iEu ia;rhlg
u mjrk ,o fYaIs; ldhhla iy j.lSula mjrd we;s w;r tys Nd; lrk Wml%u lsysmhla
o we;'
hjkakdf.a wka;h
(Senders end)
hjkakl= iska ,nkakl= yg o;a; hef hjk wka;fha isg o;a; wjfrdayK l%uhg .uka
lrhs' o;a; by< ia;rfha isg my< ia;rhg .uka lrhs' ^WodyrK y;ajk ia;rfha isg m<uqjk
ia;rhg&
,nkakdf.a wka;h
(Receivers end)
o;a; ,nkakdg ,efnk g th wdfrdayK wdldrhg .uka lsula olakg ,ef' tk my<
ia;rfha isg by< ia;rhg o;a; .uka lrhs'
fh ia;rh fyj;a y;ajk ia;rh

fuh OSI wdlD;sfhys by< u ugu jk w;r fh uDldx." cd,h iu. wka; inkaO;dj
olajk wdldrh fuu.ska fmkakq lrhs'
hjkakd
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
,nkakd
fN!;sl ia;rh
01000110
fuys fiajdf ;;a;ajh iy ikaksfok iylrejka ykd .kakd w;r uDldx.j,g iy

mYs,l l%shdj,Skag iyfhda.h olajhs' fuys mYS,lhdf.a wkkH;dj fm!oa.,sl;ajh iy
o;a; ;sh hq;= wdldrh .ek i,ld n,k w;r fuu ia;rh fh iqfYaIS f' f.dkq yqjudre
32
fiajdj" oHq;a ;emE," o;a; mdol l<ukdlrKh iy wfkl=;a uDldx. fiajd fuu ia;rhg
we;=<;a f' Telnet iy FTP, DNS, HTTP, SMTP jeks kshudj,Ska fuu ugug wod< f'
iumK ia;rh fyj;a yhjk ia;rh

o;a; ksh;" bm;a lsu" mj;kh lsu iy fla;lrKh wdh lrkq ,nk wdldrh fuu
ia;rfha olajkq ,ef'
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension), XDR (External Data Representation) jeks
kshudj,s fuu
ia;rhg wod< f'
ieis ia ; rh
fh w;r inkaO;djla f.dv ke.Su" mj;ajdf.k hdu iy wjika lsu' fuh ia;rfha
miajk ia;rhhs' iEu wka;hl u fhu w;r fonia" yqjudre lrka tajd mj;ajdf.k f.dia
wjika lsu fuys isflf'
fuys Nd; jk kshudj,s folla f,i SIP (Session Initiation Protocol), RTP (Real Time Transport
Protocol) oelah yelsh'
m% j dyk ia ; rh
fuh y;rjk ia;rh f' Odrlhla fyda ikaksfok w.% w;r o;a; mQK j yqjudrej is lrhs'
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) iy UDP (User Datagram Protocol) fuys Nd; jk m%Odk
kshudj,Ska folla f'
cd, ia ; rh
fuh f;jk ia;rh f' ikaksfok cd,hl ia lrKh (switching) iy ux ieliqu iy tla
ikaksfok ,laIHhl isg ;j;a ikaksfok ,laIHhlg o;a; ifm%aIKh fuys ia;r
lrhs' ux ieliqu iy o;a; bhg heu fuka u ,smsk ilia lsu" wjysrhka md,kh iy o;a;
melegq wkqms<fj<g ieliSu hk tajd o fuys ia;r flf'
cd, ia;rfha kshudj,Ska lsysmhla f,i IP (Internet Protocol), RIP (Routing Information Protocol),
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) oelah yel'
o;a; ikaOdk ia;rh

fuh fojk ia;rh jk w;r fuys o;a; melegq" gq njg fla;kh iy gq o;a;j,g
fla;kh lsu oelaf' fuu ia;rh udOH msiq md,k (MAC - Media Access Control) ia;rh
iy ;dlsl ikaOdk md,k ia;rh (LLC-Logical Link Control Layer) f,i Wm ia;r follg fnod
olajkq ,ef' cd,.; m.Klh o;a;j,g m%fY u iy th ifm%aIKhg wjir ,nd .ekSu
MAC Wm ia;rfhka ia;r lrkq ,nk w;r fodaI ksudkh" m%jdy md,kh" rduq iuld,SklrKh,
LLC Wm ia;rfhka w: olajkq ,ef'
fuys PPP (Point to Point Protocol), PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol), kshudj,s oToken ring,
Ethertnet jeks ia;r oHd o ia;r flf'
33
fN!;s l ia ; rh
fuh OSI wdlD;sfhys my< u ia;rh f' fuys ifm%aIK udOHhla yryd o;a; heu oelaf'
tk udOHh" o;a; f.h" ifm%aIK j.h, w;=re uqyqK;alrKh ifm%aIK ud,sh (Transmission Mode) hk tajd fuys w: olajhs'

my; lreKq flfys wjOdkh fhduq lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
ndysr f,dalh iu. wka;l%shdf fhoSug yelshdjla iy myiql iys; moaO;shla jD;
moaO;shla jk w;r tfia fkdjk moaO;shla ixjD; moaO;shla jk nj
m.Kl cd, moaO;s folla w;r Wmia;rfhka iajdkj (platform independent)
ikaksfokhg bv fok ks;hla cd,lrKfha jD; moaO;shla jk nj
wka;cd;sl m%;s wdh;kh u.ska ia;r y;lska hq;= jD; moaO;s ks;hla" ikakf
s okh
iy f;dr;=re yqjudrej i|yd cd,lrKfha ykajd we;s nj
tu wdlD;sh jD; moaO;s inkaO;d wdlD;sh f,i ykajkq ,nk nj
fuys iEu ia;rhlg u lsish ldhNdrhla j.lSula yd Nd; lrk Wml%u we;s nj
iEug u my< ia;rfhka by< ia;rhg fiajdjla imhk w;r by< ia;rfhka tu
fiajdj b,a,k nj
iEu ia;rhlg u tajdg wod< kshudj,Ska we;s nj
jD; moaO;s wdlD;sh iei wdlD;shla jk nj
34
ks m q K ;dj 8(
M,odhS f,i o;a; yd y~ ikaksfokh iy im;a fnod .ekSu

i|yd" o;a; ikaksfok yd m.Kl cd, ;dlaIKsl l%ufohka
Nd;h .fIKh lrhs'
fiajd odhl wkq.%dyl wd.KhKka ys uQ,sl kshuhka .fIKh

lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhss
bf.kq M,(
m.Kl cd,hl we;s fiajd.%dyl yd fiajdodhl m.Kl fjkalr olajhs'

m.Kl cd,hl we;s O fiajdodhl j. ykdf.k ia;r lrhs'
m.Kl cd, yryd wka; cd, fiajd ,nd.ekSf Nd; jk ;dlaIKsl Wml%u oyd
olajhs'
we;e ldh bgq lr.ekSf fiajdodhlhskaf.ka iyfhda.h ,nd.kS'
tfkod ;fha fiajd.%dylhskaf.a O wjYH;d i|yd wkq.%dyl;ajh fiajdodhlfhda
,ndfo;s'

ms iS u (
wikakkaf.a b,a,S jeks i .=jka ,s jevigyka l%shd;aul jk wdldrh ms<sn|j

mka;sfha wjOdkh fhduqlrkak'
my; i|yka lreKq biau;=jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
tys oS Y%djlhd fiajd.%dylhd nj;a .=jka,s fiajd imhk wdh;kh fiajdodhlhd nj;a
biau;= lrkak'
fiajdodhlhd iy fiajd.%dylhd w;r inkaO;djla f.dv k.d we;s nj
fiajdodhlhd yd fiajd.%dylhd w;r ukd ikaksfokhla ;sh hq;= nj
wka; cd,h yd ne m.Kl cd, ;=< o tjeks u fiajdodhl-fiajd.%dyl inkaO;djla
mj;sk nj
Tf lKavdhug ,nd we;s lsh jH fydka mYS,kh lrkak'

my; i|yka ud;Dld w;ka Tf lKavdhug ,efnk ud;Dld fol flfrys fYaI wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
fiajdodhl iy fiajd.%dyl
fj fiajdodhl
;eme,a fiajdodhl
ksfhdack fiajdodhl
fh fiajdodhl
Ih kdu fiajdodhl
.;sl i;aldrl kHdi kshudj,S fiajdodhl
n.;a inkaO;d
35
wka; cd, fiajd imhkakka

ud. ldrl iy fodrgq u.
Tng ,e we;s ud;Dld fol ms<sn|j lreKq wkdjrKh lr.kak'
Tf ud;Dld ms<sn| wkdjrKh lr .;a lreKq iduQyslj o" ksudKYS,Sj o iuia; mka;shg
bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
fiajd.%dyl-fiajdodhl kHdih (Client Server
Configuration)
uyd mudKfha m.Kl i|yd l,amhla jYfhka mqoa., m.Klfha wd.ukh;a iu. mqoa.,
m.Kl weiqre lr.;a m.Kl cd,lrKh ckm%sh h'
m.Kl cd,lrK l%u w;=frka fiajdodhl-fiajd.%dyl cd,lrKh .ek ie,ls,su;a f
fiajd.%dyl m.Kl iy fiajdodhl m.Kl jYfhka m.Kl j. folla ykd.; yelsh'
fiajdodhl
fiajd.%dylhka
fiajd.%dyl
(Clients)
m.Kl
m.Kl cd,hlska fyda wka;cd,h yryd fyda wkq.%dyl m.Klhlska fiajdjka ,nd.kakd
m.Kl fiajd.%dyl m.Kl f,i ykajkq ,ef' idudkHfhka fjd cd, fufyhq
uDldx. Nd;fhka l%shd;aul jk mqoa., m.Kl jk w;r tajd cx.u m.Kl fyda jev;,
m.Kl fyda h yelsh'
fiajdodhl
(Servers)
m.Kl
m.Kl cd, fyda wka;cd,h yryd fiajdodhl m.Kl fj; fiajd imhk m.Kl fiajdodhl
m.Kl f,i yekaf' fiajd.%dylhka yg ldhlaIu fiajdjla iemhSu i|yd fiajdodhl
m.Klfha fufyhq f.h" u;l Od;dj iy wdphk Od;dj idfmalaIj je h hq;=h'
cd,hg inkaO jk fiajd.%dyl m.Kl ixLHdj je jk b,au imqrd,Su i|yd m.Kl
cd, ;=< fiajdodhl m.Kl lsysmhla Nd; jk wjia:d o olakg ,ef'
fia j dodhl j.
fN!;sl jYfhka mj;skk
a d jQ cd, fiajdodhlhka ;=< uDldx. Nd;fhka ia:dms; l< fiajdodhl
lsysmhla jqj o l%shd;aul l< yelsh' fuu fiajdodhl i|yd fYaIs; uDldx. Nd;hg .efka'
tjeks fiajdodhl uDldx. lsysmhla my; oelaf'
fj fiajdodhl (web servers)
;eme,a fiajdodhl (mail servers)
ksfhdack fiajdodhl (proxy servers)
fh fiajdodhl (application servers)
36
Ih kdu fiajodhl (DNS servers)

.;sl ix.%dyl kHdi kshudj,S fiajdodhl (DHCP servers)
fj fiajdodhlhka
(Web Servers)
fj fiajdodhlhka hkq Yaj is hufka wmdG ifm%aIK kshudj,sh (HTTP) Nd;fhka

fiajd.%dyl m.Kl fj; fj msgq imhk fYaIs; uDldx.hls' wka;cd,h ;=< fj wv
m%ldYhg m;alr we;s iEu i;aldrl m.Klhla (Host Computer) ;=< u fj fiajdodhl
uDldx.hla Odjkh fjka ;sh hq;=h' nyq, jYfhka Nd; jk fj fiajdodhl uDldx.
lsysmhla my; oelaf'
1.
Apache Server
2.
IIS - (Microsoft Internet Information Server)
3.
Novell Server
4.
Lotus Domino Server
;eme,a fiajdodhlhka
(Mail Servers)
m%dfoaYh
S iy ria: mYS,lhka fj;ska ,efnk oHq;a ;eme,a mKsv ,nd.kakd iy mYS,lhska
fj; heug we;s oHq;a ;eme,a mKsjqv fnodyef ldhh islrk fYaIs; uDldx. ;eme,a
fiajdodhl f,i yekaf'
WodyrK( 1. Microsoft Exchange
2. Qmail
3. Exim
4. Sendmail
;eme,a fiajdodhl fj; mYS,lhska fj;ska ,efnk oHq;a ;eme,a mKsv m<uqj r|jd ;nd
.kafka ;eme,a mKsv .nvd (message store) f,i ykajk tallhla ;=< jk w;r fojkqj"
wod< ,smskh fj; fhduq flf' mKsjqv hef SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) fyda
ESMTP (External Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) kue;s kshudj,S Nd; lrk w;r mKsjv
q ,nd.ekSf
POP-3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3) fyda IMP (Internet Message Access Protocol) hk kshudj,S
Nd; flf'
ksfhdack fiajdodhlhka
(Proxy Server)
ksfhdack fiajdodhl hkq wka;cd,h Nd; lrk jHdmdl jevy,a m.Kl mYS,lhka iy
wka;cd,h w;r w;ruefhl= f,i l%shdlrk fiajdodhlfhls'
fuys wka;cd,h yryd isjk f;dr;=re m%jdyhka ixOdkd;aulj md,kh lsu" mYS,l
mdYjfha wdrlaIdj ;yjqre lsu yd r|jd ;nd.ekSf fiajdjka ,ndu wdh islrkq ,nhs'
ksfhdack fiajdodhlhl we;s jdishla jkafka tys we;s ix; u;lh ishu mYS,lhka fj;
iemhsh yelsuhs' tneka ks;r ks;r b,a,d isk fj wv ksfhdack fiajdodhl ix;
u;lh (cache) ;=< /f|k ksid mYS,lhdg wvq ld,hla ;=< m%;spdr oelah yelsh'
37
fh fiajdodhlhka
(Application Server)
fh uDldx.hla i|yd jHdmdl ;lk (Business Logic ) imhk" jHdma;jQ cd, ;=< Nd;
jk fiajdodhl uDldx.hla fhojq fiajdodhlhla f,i yekaf'
fj fiajdodhlhla iu. inkaO l%shdlrk fh fiajdodhlhla fj fh fiajdodhlhla
(Web Application Server) f,i ykajhs'
Ih kdu fiajdodhl
(Domain Name Service - DNS Server)
Ih kdu fiajd moaO;shg inkaOu i|yd ,shdmx jQ kE u m.Klhla Ih kdu fiajd"

fiajdodhlfhla f,i yekaf' Ih kdu fiajd" fiajdodhl fYaI ldh cd,lrK uDldx.
fmd IP ,smskhl ,laIK iy fjk;a wka;cd, Odrlhla i|yd wjYH cd,kdu iy ,smsk
we;=<;a o;a;iuqodh l%shd;aul lrhs' Ih kdu IP ,smskh njg mj;kh lsu fuys m%Odk
ldhhhs'
.;sl ix.%dyl kHdih kshudj,s fiajdodhl
(Dynamic Host Configuration Proto-
col - DHCP Server)
mQj IP ,smsk yev.eiq fkdue;s wka;cd, kshudj,s u; mok m.Kl cd, tlsfkl
inkaO lsu i|yd Nd; lrk fiajdodhl uDldx. DHCP fiajdodhl f,i ykajhs'
WmlrKj,g wkkH jQ IP ,smsk meju i|yd Nd; jk kshudj,shla jk fuu fiajdodhl
uDldx.h" m.Kl cd,hg WmlrKh inkaO lsu yd bj;alsu wkqj tajdg ,ndka IP ,smsk
bj;alsu fyda w;a lsu lrkq ,nhs' wka;cd,hg myiqfjka inkaO u i|yd wka;cd,
fiajd imhkakka iska o DHCP fiajdodhl Nd; lrhs' tfia u mq,a m: ud. ldrl (Broad
Band Router) jeks cd,lrK Wmdx. Nd;fhka ia:dkSh .;sl cd,hlg mqoa., m.Klhla
inkaO lsu i|yd o DHCP fiajdodhl fhdod .efka'
n.;a inkaO;d
(Leased Lines)
ia:dk folla w;r rl:k fyda o;a; fiajd yqjudre lr .ekSu i|yd fjka l< rl:k
ikaksfok fiajdjka n.;a inkaO;d f,i yekaf' th fN!;sl /yekla u fkdjk w;r
,laIH folla w;r l%shdlsug fjka l< mm:hls' fjka l< o;a; /yeklg fl fyda .=
rlg me;sh yelsh' iEu g u idm%odhsl rl:k fiajdjkag m%;sreoaO f,i fuu /yeka
iEug u jD; mm: f,i ix{d kv;a;= lrkq ,nhs'
fuu n.;a inkaO;d fndfydag noaog .kq ,nkafka jHdmdl wdh;kj, YdLd ldhd,
tlsfklg inkaO lsu i|yd h' n.;a inkaO;d m%Odk wdldr 2ls'
T1
inka O ;d
T1 wdldrfha
n.;a inkaO;dfjys o;a; ifm%aIK f.h ;;amrhg fu.d nhs 1'544ls' fuu
mm:h ;U /yeka fyda m%ldY ;ka;= /yeka yryd l%shd;aul f'
T3
inka O ;d
fuys o ;U /yeka fyda m%ldY ;ka;= /yeka Nd;jk w;r ;;amrhg fu.d nhs 44'736 l o;a;
ifm%aIK f.hla fmkajhs' fuu /yeka .=r o;a; ifm%aIKh i|yd fYaIfhka
38
Nd;hg .; yelsh' by< o;a; ifm%aIK f.hla we;s ksid o;a; ikaksfokh lrk wdh;k
iska f i|yd ;rul by< udisl .dia;=jla whflf'
wka;cd, fiajd imhkakka
(ISP)
wka;cd, fiajd imhkafkla hkq mdfNda.slhska fyj;a fiajdodhlhska yg wka;cd, fiajd

imhk mqoa.,fhla fyda wdh;khls' ;u fiajdodhlhdf.a wjYH;djkag .e,fmk fia f;dard.;
yels meflac lSmhla Tjqka i;=j ;sh yelsh' tajd my; whqka j. lr oelah yelsh'
1' wlajgk (Dial up) wka;cd, inkaO;d - wka;cd,h Nd; lrk ld,hg muKla whls
is lsu fuys we;s fYaI;ajhhs' fmr f.jq fyda miq f.jq f,i wdldr folla we;'
2' nu. (Leased Line) wka;cd, inkaO;d - wLKav wka;cd, inkaO;djla jk w;r
Nd; l< gq m%udKhg fyda ia:djr .dia;=jlg hg;aj whls isf' fjd fndfyda g
mq,a m: inkaO;d jk w;r /yeka iys; fyda rys; h yelsh'
Y%S
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
,xldj ;=< wka;cd, imhk iud. lSmhla i|yd ksoiqka my; oelaf'
Y%S ,xld fg,sfld
vhf,d.a iud.u
fudfg,a iud.u
,xldfn,a iud.u
iSfld iud.u
hqfld bkagfk iud.u
,xld bkagfk iud.u
ud. ldrl
(Routers)
ud. ldrl hkq ia:dkSh m%foaY cd, mq,a m%foaY cd,hlg inkaO lrk WmlrKhls' tla
cd,hl we;s m.Klhl isg fjk;a cd,hl we;s m.Klhlg o;a; fmd;s ifm%aIKh
lsf ksjer fhduqlsu $ m%fYh imhd fokafka fuu WmlrKh u.sks'
fodrgqu.
(Gateways)
fodrgq u.la hkq tlsfklg fjkia kshudj,s Nd;d lrk cd, w;r wka; inkaO;dj f.dv
k.k cd, ,laIHhls' ta wkqj tla cd,hl isg wfkla cd,hg m%fYh iemhSu fuh yryd is
f' fodrgq u.la oDVdx. yd uDldx. hk foflys iY%Khla f,i l%shd lrhs'
l=vd lKavdh wkdjrK iuia; mx;shg bm;a lrkak'

ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug m%:u wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fiiq lKavdh j, ixjOkd;aul fhdackd uikak'
my; lreKq flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
iuyr m.Kl cd,j, l%shdld;ajh wkqj meye,sj fjka lr ykd.; yels m.Kl
j. folla mj;sk nj'
cd,hl we;s m.Kl fj; fiajd imhk m.Kl fiajdodhl m.Kl f,i ykajk
nj'
39
fiajdodhl m.Kl ;=<ska fiajd ,nd .kakd m.Kl fiajd.%dyl m.Kl f,i
ykajk nj'
m.Kl cd, yd ne wka;cd,h ;=< f;dr;=re ikaksfokhg Wmldr jk O
fiajdodhl mj;sk nj'
wka;cd, inkaO;d iemhSf n.;a inkaO;d" fodrgq u." ud. ldrl yd wka;cd,
fiajd imhkakkaf.ka iqfYaIS jQ ldh Ndrhla bgqjk nj'
ukd ikaksfok ldhhla bgq lr.ekSug ta i|yd u fjka jQ l%shd oduhla mej;sh hq;=
nj'
40
ks m q K ;dj 9(
ldhlaIuj yd iM,;ajfhka hq;=j o;a; l<ukdlrKh lsu

i|yd o;a; iuqodhla ie,iq lr ixjOkh lrhs'
wfuldkq cd;sl m%;s wdh;kfha mudKl ieliq ks;fha

(ANSI SPARC) ug ;=fka ks;sh .fIKh lr o;a; mdolhl
wNHka;r l%shdj,sh mlaId lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
o;a; iuqodhla i|yd jQ ANSI - SPARC ks;sfha ug ;=k k lrhs'

o;a; iajdh;a;;dj hkq l=ula oehs ia;r lrhs'
ANSI - SPARC ks;h we| tys tla tla ugfuka isjk ldhh ia;r lrhs'
idm%odhsl o;a; iuqodh yd m.Kl o;a; iuqodh w;r fjki myohs'

ms iS u (
ks weula ms<sfh, lsf wkq.ukh lrk mshjr isiqka iu. idlPd lrka my;
i|yka lreKq biau;= lr .kak'
mdfNda.slhkaf.a wjYH;d wkqj o;a; tla/ia lsu" weu ie,iq (design) lsu" ta wkqj
wjYH fr j.h f;au" lmk ,o wef fldgia tl,ia lr weu ksu lsu wd mshjr
lSmhla wkq.ukh lsfuka miq zks weulaa ,efnk nj
tu ks weu ,nd .kakd mdfNda.slhd" th ksu lsu i|yd wkq.ukh l< l%shdj,sh
fkdolsk nj
f wdldrhg o;a; iuqodh l<ukdlrK moaO;s (DBMS) f.dv ke.Su o mshjr lSmhlska
isjk nj
o;a; iuqodh l<ukdlrK moaO;s f.dv ke.Su i|yd ANSI - SPARC kka ykajk
ug ;=kl iu; ixlaIsma; ks;h fhdod .kakd nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld w;=frka Tf lKavdhug wh;a jk ud;Dldj flfrys je wjOdkhla

fhduq lrkak'
ndysr ufkdargdj (External Schema)
ixl,ams; ufkdargdj (Conceptual Schema)
fN!;sl ufkdargdj (Physical Schema)
we;s lsh jH iuia;hla f,i o" Tng wod< fldgi iqfYaISj o mYS,kh lrkak'
Tng wod< ud;Dldf fYaI ,laIK ms<sn|j lKavdh iu`. tlaj idlPd lrkak'
tla tla ud;Dldf w: oela fydka jgyd .kak'
fuu ud;Dld w;r we;s inkaOh lKavdh iu`. idlPd lrkak'
zwkqrEmKhz hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ula oehs jgyd .kak'
41
zo;a; iajdh;a;;djz hkq l=ulaoehs w: olajd tys wkq fldgia ms<sn|j wOHhkh lr tajdg
WodyrK bm;a lrkak'
Tf wkdjrK iduQyslj o" ksudKYS,Sj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrkak'
ANSI -
ls h jH
SPARC ug ;=fkys ks;sh(
ANSI - SPARK hk
fl fhfuys f;areu 'American National Standards Institute Standards Planning

And Requirements Committee' f'
fuh o;a; iuqodh l<ukdlrK moaO;s f.dv ke.Su i|yd fhdod .kakd iu; ixlaIsma;
ks;hls' f ms<sn|j m<uq fhdackdj f.k tk ,oafoa 1975 h' fndfyda jdKscH o;a; iuqodh
l<ukdlrK moaO;s (Commercial DBMS) f.dv ke.Su i|yd fuu ANSI - SPARC ks;sh mdol
lr .kS'
ANSI - SPARC
ug ;=fkys ks;sh (The Three Levels of the Architecture)
View 1
View 2
View 3
ndysr ugu
(External Level)
ixl,ams; ugu
(Conceptual Level)
fN!;sl$wNHka;r ugu
(Physical/Internal Level)
DB
o;a; mdolh fN!;slj

.nvd we;s ia:dkh
fuu ks;sh ug ;=klska hq;a; jk w;r tajd ms<sfj,ska ndysr" ixl,ams; yd wNHka;r
jYfhka f'
ndys r ugu
- fuh mYS,lhdg imj we;s w;r tla tla mYS,lhka o;a; olsk
wdldrh fuu.ska ia;r f'
wNHka ; r ugu - fuh fN!;sl ugu f,i o yekafjk w;r fN!;sl wdjhkhg
imj we;s w;r fuh u.ska o;a; fN!;sl jYfhka .nvd lrk wdldrh
ia;r flf'
ixl,a m s ; ugu - fuh ;dlsl ugu f,i o yekafjk w;r wfkla ug fol w;r
wka;r inkaO;dj f.dv k.hs'
42
ndysr ufkdargdj
External
View 1
External
View 2
External
View 3
ixl,ams; oYkh
ixl,ams; ufkdargdj
(Conceptual View)
wNHka;r oYkh
wNHka;r ufkdargdj
(Internal View)
DB
o;a; mdolh fN!;slj

.nvd we;s ia:dkh
ia ; rd;a u l moa O ;s wdlD;s h

ndys r ufkda r gdj
ixl,a m s ; ufkda r gdj
wNHka ; r$fN!;s l ufkda r gdj
o;a;j, ndysr oYkh (External View) w: olajhs'

o;a;j, ixl,ams;$;dlsl oYkh (Conceptual/Logical View) w: olajhs'
o;a; j, fN!;sl oYkh ( Internal/Physical View) w:
olajhs'
ndys r ufkda r gdj

fuh fh uDldx.j, Nd; lr we;s o;a; jHqyh ksfhdackh lrk ufkdargdjls' iEu ndysr
ufkdargdjlau fNaokh jkqfha wNHka;r ufkdargdfjks' flfhka lshf;d;a ndysr ufkdargdj
hkq wjYHjk kEu f;dr;=re moaO;shla .egjlska f;drj inkaO lsf yelshdj we;s o;a;
jHqyh ms<sn| ie,eiauls' fuh mYS,lhka i|ydu f'
ixl,a m s ; ufkda r gdj

fuu ixl,ams; ufkdardgdj uq jHdmD;sh ms<sn| jHqla; w: oelauls' o;a; mdolhl wvx.=
ish f;dr;=re fuu.ska ksrEmKh f' mq,aj lshf;d;a ixl,ams; oYkh" o;a; i;H jYfhka
;sfnk wdldrh fmkaug bv i,ihs' fuh o;a; iuqodh ie,iqlre yd o;a; iuqodh mmd,l
i|yd f'
wNHka ; r ufkda r gdj

fuh fN!;sl wdphkhg imj we;s w;r o;a; fN!;slj .nvd we;s wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
o;a; fidhd ,nd.ekSf l%shdj f.j;a lsug" inkaO;d .nvd lsug" l=uk f.dkq ixOdk
Nd; l<hq;=o hkak ;SrKh lsug iy iQl kka ykajk iydhl o;a; jHqyhka ksudKh
o fuu.ska isf'
43
wkqrEmKh
(Mapping)
N+;d: w;r we;s ;dlsl inkaO;dj wkqrEmKh f,i yekaf'

wkqrEmKh hkq jia;+ka (Objects) iy tajdfha ;dlsl inkaO;djka (Relationship),
o;a;mdolfha iar o;a; wdjhkh ;=< ia:djr we;af;a flfia o hkak oelauhs'
wkqrEmKh fldgia follg fnfoa'
1' ndysr - ixl,ams; wkqrEmKh (External Conceptual Mapping)
2' ixl,ams; - wNHka;r wkqrEmKh (Conceptual Internel Mapping)
ndys r ixl,a m s ; wkq r EmKh

iqfYaIS jQ ndysr oYkhla (External View) yd ixl,am;
s oYkh (Conceptual View) w;r wkqrEmKh"
ndysr-ixl,ams; wkqrEmKh f,i yekaf'
Wod(
1' lafIa;%j,g O o;a; j. ;sh yelsu'

2' lafIa;% iy frfldavj, k fjkia l< yelsu'
3' iuyr ixl,ams; lafIa;% lSmhla tla ndysr lafIa;%hlg tl;= l< yelsu'
tl u f,djl ndysr oYk lSmhla mej;sh yelsh' fok ,o ndysr oYkhla mYS,lhka
lSmfofkl=g Nd; l< yelsh'
ixl,a m s ; wNHka ; r wkq r EmKh

ixl,am;
s oYkh yd wNHka;r oYkh ^.nvd lrk ,o o;a;mdolh& w;r wkqrEmKh ixl,am;
s
wNHka;r wkqrEmKh f,i yekaf' wNHka;r ugf ixl,ams; frfldav iy lafIa;%
flfia bm;a lr we;so hkak fuys ia;r f'
o;a; iajdh;a;;dj
(Data Independence)
o;a; iuqodh wkqlD;sfha (Database Model) my< ugj,g lsis u n,mEula fkdjk m Wiia
ug ksudKh lsu zo;a; iajdh;a;;djz f,i yekaf'
o;a; iajdh;a;;dj wdldr follg fnh yelsh'
1' ;dlsl o;a; iajdh;a;;dj (Logicla data independence)
2' fN!;sl o;a; iajdh;a;;dj (Physical data independence)
;dls l o;a ; ia j dh;a ; ;dj

ndysr ufkda rgd fyda fh l%uf,aLj, fjkila is fkdfldg ufkda rgd (Logical schema)
fjkia lsf yelshdj z;dlsl o;a; iajdh;a;;dj f,i yekaf' tk ndysr yd ixlaIsma;
ksrEmK w;r we;s iajdh;a;djhs' ^Wod( kj N+;d: tl;= lsu fyda uld oeu&
fN!;sl o;a; iajdh;a;;dj

;dlsl ufkda rgdf fjkila is fkdfldg fN!;sl ufkda rgdj fjkia lsf yelshdj
zfN!;sl o;a; iajdh;a;;djZ f,i yekaf' tk ;d;sl yd fN!;sl ufkda rgd w;r we;s
iajdh;a;;djhs' ^Wod( kj wdjhk Wml%u Nd;h" O o;a; jHqyhka Nd;h" tla m%fY
l%uhlska fjk;a l%uhlg inkaOu" O f.dkq ixOdkh fyda wdjhk jHqy Nd;h iqka
(Indexes) klrKh wdh&
44
ldhh mjrd lKavdh .fIKfhys fhdojkak'

lKavdh wkdjrK iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrjkak'
ia;drKh i|yd m<uq wjia:dj bm;a l< lKavdhug u ,ndfokak'
ANSI - SPARC hk fl fhfuys f;areu American National Standards Institute - Standards
Planning And Requirements Committee nj
fndfyda kk fjf<| fmd< o;a; iuqodh l<ukdlrK moaO;s i|yd fuu ANSI - SPARC
ks;sh mdol fldg .kakd nj
fuu ks;sfhys ndysr" ixl,ams; yd fN!;sl f,i ug ;=kla we;s nj
fuu ndysr ugu mYS,lhka i|yd jk w;r ;dlsl ugu o;a; iuqodh ie,iqlre
yd o;a; iuqodh mmd,l (DBA) i|yd jk nj
o;a; iuqodhla ;=< wvx.= jkqfha l=uk o;a; o" tajdfha wka; inkalrKh flfia o@
m.Kl moaO;shla u.ska o;a; iuqodh moaO;shla fN!;sl f,i bm;a lrkafka flfia
o@ hkak oelafjkafka fN!;sl ugfuka nj
fuu ug ;=kg wkqrEmj ndysr" ;dlsl yd fN!;sl f,i k lrk ,o ufkda rgd
;=kla o we;s nj
we;s o;a; iuqodh i|yd fndfyda ndysr ufkda rgd o" tla ;dlsl ufkda rgdjla o tla
fN!;sl ufkda rgdjla o we;s nj
N+;d: w;r we;s ;dlsl inkaO;dj wkqrEmKh (mapping) f,i ykajk nj
fuu wkqrEmKh (mapping) yd ndysr ixl,am;
s wkqrEmK yd ixl,am;
s wNHka;r wkqrEmK
f,i fldgia follg fnfok nj
o;a; iuqodhkays my< ug j,g lsis u n,mEula we;s fkdjk m o;a; iuqodhkays
Wiia ug ksudKh lsu zo;a; iajdh;a;djz f,i yekafjk nj
o;a; iajdh;a;;dj" ixl,ams; o;a; iajdh;a;;dj yd fN!;sl o;a; iajdh;a;dj f,i
fldgia follg fnfok nj
ndysr ufkda rgd fyda l%uf,aL fhj, lsis u fjkila is fkdfldg" ;dlsl ufkda
rgdj fjkia lsf yelshdj z;dlsl o;a; iajdh;a;;djzf,i yekafjk nj
;dlsl ufkda rgdf fjkila is fkdfldg fN!;sl ufkda rgdj fjkia lsf
yelshdj zfN!;sl o;a; iajdh;a;;djz f,i yekafjk nj
45
ks m q K ;dj 10(
nyq udOH ;dlaIKh Wmfhda.S lr .kska fj wv ksudKh

lrhs'
fj msgq ksudKh i|yd HTML Nd; lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
HTML wla
ku mok lr .kska tys w:h u;=lrhs'

f.dkq .=jla Nd; lrka HTML msgqjla iqrlsk wdldrh meye,s lrhs'
fj msgqjlg uQ,dx. we;=<;a lrk whqre ia;r lrhs'
fj<| m%pdrl lghq;= i|yd .;dkq.;sl l%uj,ska neyerj kj ;dlaIKsl l%u fhdod .kS'
fok ,o wruqKq b,lal lr iajhxkfhka lghq;= lrhs'

ms iS u (
mka;sfha isiqka iyNd.s lr .kska l;D iska mqj;am;a jd;djla ixialrKh lrk
wdldrh .ek mka;sfha wjOdkh fhduq lrjkak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;== lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
ixialrKh l< fm< uq,a fm<g by<ska olakg ,efnk nj
jd;dj ,shkq ,nk mdgg jvd fjk;a mdgla fhdod .kska ixialrKh lrkq ,nk nj
fuh jd;dj ,shkakkag muKla jeo.;a jk nj
mqj;am; n,k mdGlhdg ixialrKfha l< i,l=Kq ls olakg fkd,efnk nj
ixialrKfha l;Djreka iska h ms<s.;a fla; l%uhla wkq.ukh lrk nj
mqj;am;a l,df fuka u m.Klfha fj msgq ieliSf ;a w fm< i,l=Kq olakg
,efnk nj
Tng we;s lsh m;%sldj fydka wOHhkh lrkak'

HTML hkak ykd.kak'
HTML iuq;Ska uid n,kak'
f.dkq .= kduh Nd; lrka HTML msgq iqrlsk wdldrh ;u lKavdhug bm;a lr
idlPd lrkak'
my; i|yka ud;Dld ;=fkka Tf lKavdhug wod< ud;Dldj flfrys fYaI wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
fj msgqjlg ;%l we;=<;a lsu'
fj msgqjlg Y%jH oDYH miqre we;=<;a lsu'
fj msgqjlg p,k rEm we;=<;a lsu'
Tf lKavdhug ,e we;s fj msgqjlg uQ,sldx. we;=<;a lsu .ek oeka wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
ir, fm< ixialdrlhla Nd;fhka Tng ,e we;s fla;hka h;=re ,shkh lr fj
w;laiqjlska th iajk whqre mlaId lrkak'
46
f ms<sn|j Tn okakd fjk;a lreKq ,ehsia;= .; lr lsh m;%sldf wka;.;h iu`.

ii|d n,kak'
lKavdh wkdjrK ksudKYS,Sj o iduQyslj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk
jkak'
ls h jH
HTML
yekau
Hyper Text Markup Language hkafkys
wlaku HTML f,i ykajkq ,ef' fuh l%uf,aL NdIdjla

fkdjk w;r i,l=Kq lsf fla;hla f' Standard General Markup Language - SGML j,
Wml=,lhla jk fuh i,l=Kq lsf Wiq,khka (markup tags) iuQyhlska iuka; f'
fj msgq ieliSf uQ,dY% f.dkqjla fyda HTML ixialdrl uDldx.hla Nd; l< yels w;r
uQ,dY% f.dkqjla hkq fm< ixialdrlhla (Text editor) f' ir, fm< ixialdrlhla fhdod
.kska fj msgq ilik g ir," fm< fuka u HTML i,l=Kq lsf Wiq,khka fhdod .kS'
fj w;laiqjla yryd fj msgq oYkh f i,l=Kq lsf Wiq,khka mYS,lhdg olakg
fkd,ef'
HTML
iuq;Ska
HTML fla;hla HTML Wiq,khla
jk w;r fuh fldaK jryklska ("< >") olajkq ,ef' HTML

Wiq,khla idudkHfhka hq., jYfhka mj;sk w;r ;ks ;ks Wiq,khka o olakg ,ef'
hq.,hl m<uq Wiq,kh mgka .kakd Wiq,kh fyj;a jD; lsf Wiq,kh jk w;r fojk
Wiq,kh wjika lrk fyj;a jeiSf Wiq,kh f' jeiSf Wiq,khg $ ixfla;h fhdokq
,ef' wka;.;fha mgka .ekaf yd wjika lsf Wiq,kh we;s w;r iuyr wjia:dj,
wka;.;hla olakg fkd,ef' HTML msgqjla ia;r lsf uq,g yd w.g ms<sfj<ska
<HTML> iy </HTML>Wiq,khka Nd; lrhs' ud;Dldjla fhu i|yd
<head> <title>
ud;Dldj </title> </head> Nd; lrk w;r msgqj, wka;.;h oYkh lr .ekSug <body> iy
</body> Wiq,kh Nd; lrhs'
HTML
f.dkq .
.=
HTML f.dkqjla
iqrlaIs; lrk g .htm fyda .html hk f.dkq .=j,ska tlla Nd; lrhs'
fm<" ;%l" Y%jH oDIH miqre iy p,k rEm jeks uQ,sl jia;+ka we;=<;a
ls u'
HTML fm<
fj msgqjlg fm< tl;= lsu" kE u wjia:djl Wiq,khla Nd; lsfuka l< yelsh'
YSI mdGhla f,i fm< tl;= lsf <h1> isg <h6> olajd Wiq,khka Nd; lrk w;r <h1>
isg <h6> olajd fjkiajk g wl=rej, m%udKh l%ufhka l=vd f'
Wod(
<h1> This is a heading </h1>

<h2> This is a heading </h2>
47
fuh fj w;laiqjlska iajkafka my; wdldrfhka h'

This is a heading
This is a heading
fohla f,i fm< tl;= lsf <p> iy </p> Wiq,kh Nd; lrhs'
Wod( <p> This is a paragraph </p>
wl=rej, m%udKh" yevh" jKh wdh fjkia lsu o wl=re ;omeye lsu <b> iy we,lr ,su
<i> o l< yelsh'
HTML
;%l
fj msgqjlg ;%l we;=<;a lsug <img> Wiq,kh Nd; lrhs' fuhg wjika lsf
Wiq,khla ke;' <img> Wiq,kh ;=< src .=Kdx.h (attribute) Nd; lrhs' src hkak source ys wla
ku f' ksoiqkla f,i xxx.gif k mska;+rhla fj f.dkq tl;=fjys we;s g th my; i|yka
wdldrfhka ,sh yelsh'
HTML
<img src
"xxx.gif"
f.dkqf ku
.=j iu`.
width = "104"
mska;+rfha
m<,
height = "42" >
mska;+rfha
Wi
oekg mj;sk f.dkqf yer fjk;a ia:dkhlska ;%lhla we;=<;a lsf ;%lh we;s ia:dkfha
ksjer fhduqj oelah hq;=h'
m.Klfha oDV ;efha we;s D keue;s fnf ;sfnk images k f.dkqfjys we;=<;a abc.gif
mska;+rh we;= lsug k my; wdldrhg fla; l< hq;=h'
<img src = "D:/images/abc.gif">
;%lhg l,am fm<la oef alt .=Kdx.h fhdohs'

<img src = "ship.gif" alt = "ship">
fla;h
<html>
<head> <title>My First Page </title> </head>
<body>
<h1> Text and Graphics </h1>
<h2> Text </h2>
<p> The Location of Sinharaja <br>
<b> Sinharaja </b> is a rain forest located in the south-west of Sri Lanka </p>
<h3> Graphics </h3>
<img src="C:/......./Sunset.jpg">
</body>
</html>
48
fuys <br> Wiq,khg jid oef Wiq,khla fkdue;' mska;+rh w;laiqf oYkh ug
mska;+rh we;s ia:dkhg ksjer fhduqj oelah hq;=h'
HTML
Y%jH oDYH miqre
HTML msgqjl
Y%jH oDYH miqre we;=<;a lsf .mid, .mp3, .wav, .mpeg, .wmv jeks f.dkq .= Nd;
l< yelsh' fuys <a href> fyda <embed> jeks Wiq,khla fhdod .kS'
Wod( <a href = "myfile.mid"> My Song </a>
<embed> iu`. src .=Kdx.h fhdod .kS'
Wod( <embed src = "myfile.mid" width = "45"> </embed> fuys fhh yels w;r tf,i fhg
iajhxl%Shj oDYH miqre jev lrhs' .wav iy .au jeks f.dkq .= Yd, ksid oYkh ug ld,hla
.;f'
mska;+rhlg inkaO we;s ix.S; f.dkqjla k
<a href = "myfile.mid"> <img src = "mypicture.jpg" Border = "0" alt = "describe picture and music"> </a>
fla;h
<html>
<head> <title>My Second Page </title> </head>
<body>
<h1> Text and Audio </h1>
<h2> Text </h2>
<p><u> Beethoven's Symphony</u><br>
<embed src="C:/......./Beethovens Symphony.mid" autostart="false" loop="false">
</embed>
</body>
</html>
fuys oYH miqr we;s ia:dkhg ksjer fhduqj oelah hq;=h' autostart - "true" jQ g iajhxl%Shj
ix.S;h wefia'
p,krEm
msgqjl p,krEm we;=<;a lsf .swf fyda .gif jeks f.dkq .= Nd; f' <embed>
Wiq,kh src .=Kdx.h iu`. f.dkq .=j .swf f,i f.dkqf ku ,shkq ,ef'
HTML
<embed src = "xxx.swf">

gif ;%l
wdldrh ilD; gif (animated gif) l< yelsh' th <img> iu`. Nd; lrhs' gif ijk
fndfydag fj w;laiq yryd oel.; yelsh' ijk gif, HTML msgqjlg fhu idudkH gif
fhdok wdldrhg iudk h'
Wod( <img src = "filename.gif" alt = "alternate text" width = x hight = y>
fuys j iy ol=Kq t,a,h (alignment) o fhh yelsh'
49
fla;h
<html>
<head> <title>Animation </title> </head>
<body bg color = "ffffaa">
<h1> Text and Animation</h1>
<p> It is a gif </p>
<img src="xxx.gif">
</body>
</html>
fuys xxx.gif kka p,krEmhla Tf m.Klfha idod .kak'

Hyper Text Markup Language hkafkys wlaku HTML f,i ykajk nj
fuh Standard General Markup Language ys Wml=,lhla jk w;r i,l=Kq lsf fla;hla
o jk nj
fj msgq ieliSf fuh fhdod .kq ,nk nj
fj w;laiqjla yryd fjmsgq oYkhf i,l=Kq lsf Wiq,khla olakg
fkd,efnk nj
uQ,dY% f.dkqjla fyda HTML ixialdrl uDldx.hla yryd HTML f,aLkhla ilikq ,nk
nj
idudkHfhka uQ,dY% f.dkqjla hkq fm< ixialdrlhla nj
fm< ixialdrlhla Nd;fhka HTML Wiq,khka ,sf iuq;Ska we;s nj
HTML uQ,dY% f.dkqj iqrlaIs; lsf .html fyda .htm f.dkq .= Nd; lrk nj
fj msgqjlg fm< tl;= lsf YSI mdGhla f,i fyda fohla f,i Wiq,khla
Nd; lsfuka th l<yels nj
fj msgqjlg ;%l we;=<;a lsf <img> Wiq,kh tys . yd m<, we;sj fyda ke;sj
Nd; lrk nj
fj msgqjlg Y%jH oDYH miqre we;=<;a lsf .mp3, .mid, .wav, .wmv iy .mpeg jeks
f.dkq .= Nd; l< yels nj' fuys <img> fyda <embed> Wiq,k Nd; l< yels nj
p,k rEm" fj msgqjlg we;=<;a lsf .gif yd .swf jeks f.dkq .= Nd; lrk w;r
<embed> Wiq,kh Nd; l< yels nj
50
ks m q K ;dj 10(
nyq udOH ;dlaIKh Wmfhda.S lr .kska fj wv ksudKh

lrhs'
fj msgj
q la jehqKq lsu i|yd HTML NdIdf we;s hqKq ,laIK
Nd; lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
fj msgqjl jia;+ka ixOdkh lsf HTML NdIdf we;s hqKq ,laIK Nd; lrhs'
nyqO fj wka;.;hka inkaO lrk wdldrh meye,s lrhs'
fj msgq ksudKfha jia;+ka ixOdkh lsug HTML ys hqKq ,laIK Nd; lsf
wjYH;dj ia;r lrhs'
jH ixOdkh lsu wdlIKSh f,i is lrhs'
f,aLkhlg weuqKqula l%udkql+,j ia:dk .; lrhs'

ms iS u (
mka;sfha isiqka iyNd.s lr .kska www.schoolnet.lk fj msgqfjys wka;.; foa ms<sn|j

ia;r lsug iafPdfjka bm;ajk YsIHhl=g bv ,nd fokak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;== lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
fj msgqjl idudkH wlaIr" oiqka" Y%jH oDYH iy p,k rEm j,g wu;rj ;j;a foa
oelsh yels nj
fjd j.=" rduq" ,ehsia;= jeks foa h yels nj
,ehsia;= wxl iys;j fuka u ixfla; iys;j o fj msgqjl oelsh yels nj
iuyr wlaIrj,g fkdfhla yev" m%udK fuka u jK o we;s nj
fj msgqjla ;j;a msgq iu`. inkaO we;s nj
fuf,i fj msgqjla je hqKq lsu iy fjk;a msgqjlg inkaO lsu l<yels nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld ;=fkka Tf lKavdhug wod< ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
,ehsia;=
j.=
rduq
lsh m;%sldj iuia;hla jYfhka o Tf lKavdhug wod< fldgi iqfYaIsj o wOHhkh
lrkak'
nyqO fj wka;.;hka fj msgqjlg inkaOlrk wdldrh uid n,kak'
Tf lKavdhug ,e we;s ud;Dldj flfrys oeka wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
fm< ixialdrlhla wdOdrfhka Tng wod< fla;hka h;=re ,shkh lr fj w;laiqjlska
th iajk whqre mlaId lrkak'
51
fj msgqjla je hqKq lsf jia;+ka ixOdkh lsug Tng ,e we;s HTML hqKq
,laIKh fhdod .kakd wdldrh iy tys wjYH;dj fidhd n,kak'
lsh m;%sldf f;dr;=re bm;a lsf i,lkq ,nQ lreKqj,g wu;rj Tn okakd
fjk;a lreKq igyka lr .kak'
Tf wkdjrK ksudKYS,Sj o iduQyslj o iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
fj msgq ksudKh i|yd lreKq ixOdkh lsrSfoS j.=" rduq" ,ehsia;= jeks foa fhdod.kq ,ef'
wjYH;djh wkqj fuu wdlD;s Nd; lsfuka fj msgqjla je hqKq lr.; yelsh'
,ehs i a ; =
fj msgqjl wxlkh lrk ,o ,ehsia;=" ixfla; we;=<;A lrk ,o ,ehsia;= fuka u w: oela
we;=<;a ,ehsia;= o olAkg,ef'
ms<sfj<ska wxlkh lrk ,o ,ehsia;= wkql%l ,ehsia;= f,io ixfla; we;=<;A lrk ,o ,ehsia;=
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;= f,io ykajkq ,ef'
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;=jla hkq uq,ska ixfla; fh ,ehsia;=jla jk w;r wkql%l ,ehsia;=jl
uq,ska wxl fhdohs'
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;=jla <ul> Wiq,kfhka wdrN jk w;r wkql%l ,ehsia;=jla <ol>
Wiq,kfhka wdrN f'
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;=
<ul>
<li>coffee</li>
<li>tea</li>
</ul>
fuh fj w;laiqjlska my; mrs iaf' fmrksh wdldrh jD;A;hlA jQ g

coffee
tea
<ul> Wiq,kfha j.h disc, square , circle hk wdldrj,skA ,sh yelsh'
<ul type = circle>
wkql%l ,ehsia;=
<ol>
<li>coffee</li>
<li>tea</li>
</ol>
fuh fj w;laiqjlska iaajkAfka

1. coffee
2. tea
52
w: oela ,ehsia;=
w: oela ,ehsia;=jla <dl> Wiq,kfhka wdrNjk w;r w: oelaula i|yd <dt> Wiq,kh
o tys ia;r i|yd <dd> Wiq,kh o Nd; lrhs'
<dl>
<dt> Sinharaja</dt>
<dd> A lowland rain forest in Sri Lanka </dd>
<dt> Red faced Malkoha</dt>
<dd> Endemic bird to Sri Lanka </dd>
</dl>
fuh fj w;laiqjlska my; mrs iaf'

Sinharaja
A lowland rain forest in Sri Lanka
Red faced Malkoha
Endemic bird to Sri Lanka
j.=
iEu j.=jlau <table> Wiq,kfhka mgka .kS'
iEu fma<shlau <tr> Wiq,kfhka wdrN jk w;r <td> j,ska j.=f o;a; wdrN lrhs'
<html>
<body><p> each table starts with a table tag</p>
<h4>One column</h4>
<table border=1">
<tr><td>100</td></tr>
</table>
<h4>One row and three columns</h4>
<table border=1">
<tr><td>100</td>
<td>200</td>
<td>300</td></tr>
</table>
<h4>Two rows and three columns</h4>
<table border=1">
<tr><td>100</td>
<td>200</td>
<td>300</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>400</td>
<td>500</td>
<td>600</td></tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
53
fuh fj w;laiqjlska my; m iaf'

each table starts with a table tag
One column
100
One row and three columns
100
200
300
Two rows and three columns

100
200
300
400
500
600
<tr> Wiq,kh we;=<; <th> Wiq,kh Nd; lr ud;Dld fhu is lrkq ,ef' j.=jlg
fndavrhla" jKhla jeks .=Kdx. o we;=<;a l< yelsh' my; wdldrhg ;Sre lsysmhla we;s
j.=jla ksudKh lr.; yelsh'
Wod(
<html>
<body>
<h4> table width two rows and three columns </h4>
<table border = "1" border color = "#336699" width = "100%">
<tr>
<th> Name </th>
<th> Marks </th>
<th> Rank </th>
</th>
<tr>
<td> Mala </td>
<td> 70 </td>
<td> 2 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Geetha </td>
<td> 85 </td>
<td> 1 </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
54
rduq (
rduq fhfuka tl u w;laiq ljqjl tllg jvd fj msgq .Kkla Tng oYkh
lr.; yelsh' f,aLkhla uqKh lsf wmyiq;dj iy Html f,aLk lsysmhla iEh
hq;=u rduq fhf we;s wjdis f' iuyr fj w;laiq j,ska oYkh lsf we;sjk
.eg ksid rduq Nd;h wojk g wvq we;' <frameset> Wiq,kh u.ska ljqj fnfok
wdldrh fmkajhs' fuu Wiq,kh u.ska fma<s yd ;Sre .Kk olajk w;r tuksid ;Srfha
Yd,;ajh o fmkajkq ,ef'
Wiq,kh Nd; lr Html f,aLkfha l=uk fldgig rduq fhdokjdo hkak ;SrKh l<
yels f'
<frame>
Wod( ;Sre foll rduqjla we;sg w;laiq ljqf m<,ska 25] m<uq ;Srej o fojk ;Srej 75]
la o f'
m<uq Html f,aLkh "frame-a.html" m<uq ;Srefjys yd "frame-b.html" fojk Html f,aLkh fofjks
;Srefjys o wjYH g th my; m ,shd oelah yelsh'
<frame src cols = "25%, 75%">
<frame src = "frame-a.htm">
<frame src = "frame-b.htm">
</frameset>
fuu ;Srejl m%udKh pixels j,ska o oelah yelsh'

<frameset cols = "200, 500">
rduqj,g Wojq fkdlrk w;laiqj,g <noframes> Wiq,kh ,shkq ,ef'

Wod(
<html>
<frameset cols = "2.5%, 50%, 25%">
<frame src = "frame-a.htm">
<frame src = "frame-b.htm">
<noframe>
<body> your browser doesn't support frames.
</body> </noframes> </frameset> </html>
w inkaOl" r|jkhka
(Anchor)
iy inkaOl
inkaOlhla hkq fjys f,aLkhlg fyda Html msgj

q la" oiqkla iy Yo f.dkqjla hk im;lg
(Resource) we;s fhduqjls'
w inkaOl iy r|jk hk foj.hg u <a> Wiq,kh Nd; lrhs'
<a href = "URL"> Llink Text </a>
fuys oYkh jk fldgi olajhs

Wod(
<a href = "http://www.schoolnet.lk"> visit schoolnet </a>
55
fuh mdi,a cd,hg hd yels w inkaOhls'

target .=Kdx.fhka inka; f,aLkh jD; lrk ia:dkh oelaf'
<a href = "http://www.schoolnet.lk" target = "blank"> visit schoolnet </a>
fuys blank u.ska inkaOh jD; jkafka w;a ljqjlh'

Name .=Kdx.h
fuh lshjkakdg oYkh fkdf'

<a name = "label"> any content </a>
Name r|jkhg
inkaOlh
<a href = "# label"> any content </a>

href .=Kdx.fha # hk
ixfla;h u.ska named r|jkhg inkaOh fmkajhs'

ia;drKh i|yd bm;al< lKavdhug u m%:u wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fj msgqjla ;=< fuka u fj msgq w;r inkaOl i|yd <a> Wiq,kh Nd; lrkq ,nk
nj
fj msgqjla ;=< inkaOl i|yd <a> Wiq,kh iu`. name .=Kdx.h fhdod.kq ,nk
nj
fj msgq w;r inkaOl i|yd <a> Wiq,kh iu`. href .=Kdx.h fhdod.kq ,nk nj
wkql%l fkdjk ,ehsia;= <UL> Wiq,kfhka o" wkql%l ,ehsia;= <OL> Wiq,kfhka o
wdrN jk w;r tajd w;r we;s whs;uhka <li> Wiq,kfhka wdrN jk nj
w: oela ,ehsia;=jla <dl> Wiq,kfhka wdrNjk w;r w: oelaula i|yd <dt>
Wiq,kh o tys ia;r i|yd <dd> Wiq,kh o Nd; lrkq ,nk nj
j.=jla ms<sfh, lsf <table> Wiq,kfhka wdrN lrk w;r fma<shla i|yd <tr>
Wiq,kh o j.=f o;a; we;=<;a lsu i|yd <td> Wiq,kh o fhdod.kq ,nk nj
rduq u.ska tl u w;laiq ljqfjys tllg jvd je .Kkl fj msgq oYkh l<yels
nj yd fuys <frameset> iy <frame> hk Wiq,khka Nd; lrkq ,nk nj
56
ks m q K ;dj 11(
f;dr;=re moaO;shla m%jOkh lsfuys ,d moaO;s ixl,amh

.fIKh lr wdlD;s moaO;s Yaf,aIK iy ksudK l%ufoh
Nd; lrhs'
O f;dr;=re moaO;s ixjOk wdlD;s yd l%ufo .fIKh

lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
O j.j, f;dr;=re moaO;s wdlD;sj, iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'

f;dr;=re moaO;s ixjOkfha Nd; jk jdis yd iSudjka meye,s lrhs'
f;dr;=re moaO;s f.dvke.Sug tu wdlD;s w;ka jvd;a iqiq wdlD;shla u;=lr olajhs'
m%Odk moaO;s ixjOk l%ufohka folla we;s nj fmkajhs'
ffoksl ldhhka ie,iq lsf W; O l%ufohka yd wdlD;s Nd; lrhs'

ms iS u (
Tf mdif,a ksjdidka;r l%Svd ;r`.hl wka; ksjdi l%sl ;r`.dj,shla ixOdkh

lsf lKavdh ;r`. jk wdldrh ie,iq lsf ldhh isiqkag bm;a lrkak'
ta wkqj ;r`.dj,sh ixOdkh i|yd O l%ufo yd wdlD;s we;s nj isiqka ;=<ska biau;=
lr.kak'
Wod( ms<suka msgq oelSf l%uh
- (Knockout)
idp,H l%uh
- (League)
ms<suka msgq oelSf l%uh

A
ch.%dyS
lKavdhu
ch.%dyS
lKavdhu
m%:u ia:dkh
ch.%dyS
lKavdhu
57
idp,H l% u h
A/B
A/C
A/D
B/C
B/D
wjidk ;r.h
je u ;r. .Kkla
kk lKavdh
fol w;r
C/D
my; lreKq biau;=jk fia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

;r. meje;au i|yd by; l%ufoj,ska iqiq l%uhla Nd; l< yels nj
fuu kE u l%uhl m%n,;d fuka u n,;d o mj;sk nj
f;dr;=re moaO;s ixjOkh lsf o O l%ufo iy wdlD;s fhdod .; yels nj
Tng ,nd we;s lsh jH b;d fydka wOHhkh lrkak'

Tn lKavdhug wyUq f,i ,nd we;s my; ud;Dldjg wod<j f;dr;=re .fIKh lrkak'
jHqy.; moaO;s ixjOk l%ufo
jia;= keUqre moaO;s ixjOk l%ufo
h we,s wdlD;sh
ims, wdlD;sh
talS-lD; wdlD;sh
YS>% fhojq ixjOk wdlD;sh
Tf wkdjrK iduQysl j yd ksudKd;aul j iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
f;dr;=re moaO;shla ixjOkh lsf O wdlD;s Nd; lrhs' tjeks wdlD;s f.dvke.S
we;af;a pl%Sh l%uhlg h' tjeks f;dr;=re moaO;s lsysmhla my; oelaf'
1' h we,s (waterfall) wdlD;sh
2' ims, (spiral) wdlD;sh
3' talSlD; ixjOk (united development) wdlD;sh
4' iS.% fhojq ixjOk (rapid application development) wdlD;sh
58
h we,s wdlD;s h
f;dr;=re moaO;shla ixjOk talSh wdlD;sfhys mshjrhka fh ir, l%uhg bm;a lrk
wjia:djla f,i yekaf' fuu wdlD;sh uq,ska u bm;a lrk ,oafoa 1970 jIfha
W.W. Royce isks'
fuys uQ,sl mshjr y; my; wdldrhg oelah yelsh'
1.
System Definition
2.
Software Analizing
3.
System Design
4.
System Development
5.
Testing
6.
System Implimentation
7.
Maintenance
59
h we,s wdlD;sfhys by; mshjrhkag wod< igyka fufia bm;a l< yelsh'
moaO;s YlH;dj wOHhkh
j,x.=;d mlaIdj
System Feasibility
Validation
uDldx. ie,iq yd wjYH;djka
j,x.=;d mlaIdj
Software Plan s &
Validation
ksuejqu ie,iq lsu
i;Hdmkh
Product Design
Verification
ia;rd;aul ie,iq lsu
i;Hdmkh
Detail Design
Verification
fla;lrKh
^fla; ,shd oelau&
tall mlaIdj
Unit Testing
Coding
ix.; lsu
ksuejqu i;Hdmkh lsu
Integration
Product Verification
ia:dmkh lsu
moaO;s mlaIdj
Implementation
System Test
fufyhu iy
kv;a;=j
kej; j,x.=;d
mlaIdj
Operation &
Revalidation
Maintenance
60
fuu wdlD;shg wkqj tla mshjrl j,x.=;dj fyda ilikh wkqj b mshjr lrd fhduqh
yelsh' tfia fkdjqkfyd;a u;=jk tu mshjr mqkrdj;kh isflf' h we,s wdlD;shg wkqj
f;dr;=re moaO;sh ixjOkh fkdkj;sk l%shdj,shls' WodyrK( fufyhq moaO;shla fuj,
lsysmhla Tiafia ixjOkh u f;dr;=re moaO;shla ixjOkh lsu i|yd fhdod.kakd we,s
wdlD;sh' th jvd;a iqiq jkafka wjYH;d fydka i|yka ffoksl ;fha mq,a jYfhka
Nd; jk jHdmD;s i|yd h'
h we,s wdlD;sfhys wjdis

1' ienEf,dalfha f;dr;=re moaO;s jHdmD;s l%shd;aul f iEu g u fh mshjrhka Tiafia
is fkdu ksid fuu wdlD;sh Nd; lsug fkdyels u'
2' fndfyda jHdmD;s wdrN lsf fiajdodhlhdg Tyqf.a ish wjYH;djka l=ulaoehs jHdmD;s
lKavdhug mejiSug fkdyelsu iy fiajdodhlhdf.a ish wjYH;d fudkjdoehs jHdmD;s
lKavdhu ykdf.k fkdue;su'
3' wjidk ksuejqu ,nd.ekSug .;jk ld,h wksYa; u yd fiajd odhlhdg ksujqu
oel.ekSug yelsjkafka wjidk woshf u ksid th ;uka n,dfmdfrd;a;= fkdjQ tlla
h yelsu'
4' fuu wdlD;sfhys mshjr bhg f.khd yelafla mshjfrka mshjr neka" jHdmD;sh bhg
f.k hdug tla mshjrla imQKfhka u wjika l< hq;=u fya;=fjka jHdmD;s lKavdhf
tla tla mshjr ilia lrk idudlhkag wkjYH f,i n,disug isu'
ims , wdlD;s h
ims, wdlD;sh hkq fh wdlD;sh iy uQ,dlD;s wdlD;sfhys iY%Khla iys;j mKduh
jQjls' th 1988 Boehm iska bm;a lr we;' fuu wdlD;shg wkqj uDldx." fj Tiafia
b;d f.j;a j jehqKq lr.; yelsh' ims, wdlD;shla l%shdld rduq fyj;a ldh l,dmhka
lSmhlg fnod we;' idudkHfhka ldh l,dmhka 3 isg 6 olajd m%udKhla mj;S'
2' wjodk Yaf,aIKh
(Analize Risks)
l%shd;aul lr fmkau
1' wka;.;h ykd .ekSu'

oekg mj;sk ;;a;ajh
kej; Yaf,aIKh lr ne,Su
ixjOkh$hdj;ald,Sk lsug wod<
wjodku ke;slsu
i|yd ie,iq lsu
;;a;aj ykd .ekSu

^fldgialrejka$wNsu;d:$
3' ie,iq ixjOkh (Plan Development)
l,am iy iSud&
wjodku ke;slsf l%ufoh

l%shd;aul lsu
5' ie,iq lsu yd l<ukdlrKh
l,amhla ;sfoehs fidhd ne,Su
(Manage & Plan)
wkqms<sfj< ie,iq lsu
ie,iqu hdj;ald,Sk lsu

4' ksuejqu
m%.;s iudf,dapkh
ixjOkh
ksuejqu u; msjeh md,kh
(Product Development)
ksuejqu ixjOkh
yd i;Hdmkh lsu
u`.fmkau iy
iudf,dapkh
61
by; igykg wkqj ldhh l,dm ykd.ekSf my; oelafjk lreKq ms<sn|j wjOdkh
fhduq l< hq;=f'
fiajdodhlhd yd ksuejqu ixjOkh lrkakd w;r M,odhS ikaksfokhla f.dv ke.Sf
wjYH;dj wjfndaO lr .ekSu'
im;a w: oelau" ld, iSudjka ksKh lsu iy jHdmD;shg wod< f;dr;=re ksKh lsu
i|yd wjYH ldhh ie,iq lsu'
wjodk Yaf,aIK ldhh ;lafiare lsf ;dlaIKsl wjodku yd l<ukdlrK wjodku
hk fol u ie,ls,a,g .; hq;=f'
fhojq ksfhdack tlla fyda je .Kkla ksfhdackh i|yd bxfkare ldhh wjYH f'
f.dv ke.Sf iy ksoyia lsf ldhh i|yd f.dv ke.Su" mlaId lsu" msysgqu iy
mYS,l Wml%u iemhSu (Documents & Training) wjYH f'
msysgq lr l%shd;aul lrk wjfha iy ksudKlrK bxfkare wjfha ta u; mok jQ
mYS,l m%;sfmdaIKh wjYH f' uDldx. ixjOkh lrkakka uqyqKfok ish u .eg i|yd
ims, wdlD;sh u.ska i ,nd.; fkdyel'
iS . % f hojq ixjOk wdlD;s h

w;sYh fl ixjOk pl%hla iys; fh uDldx. ixjOk l%shdms<sfj<la iys; wdlD;shls'
wjYH;d fydka mj;S k fuu wdlD;sh Nd;fhka b;d f.j;a f,i uDldx. ixjOkh
lr.; yelsh' jHdmD;s wruqKq fydka wjfndaOlr .ekSu ;=<ska jHdmD;s ixjOk lKavdhulg
mQK ls%hdld moaO;shla b;d fl ld,hla we;=<; ksudKh l< yelsh ^k 60 - 90&' uQ,sl
jYfhka f;dr;=re moaO;shl fhojq i|yd my; oelafjk l,dm ish,a, tlaj .ekSu ;=<ska
fuu wdlD;shg wh;a f;dr;=re moaO;s" fhojq i|yd uQ,sl jYfhka Nd; l< yelsh'
1' jHdmdl
2' o;a;
3' l%shdj,s
4' fhojq
5' mlaId ls
moa O ;s ixjOk l% u fohka

moaO;shla ixjOkh lsf m%Odk jYfhka Nd;hg .efkk moaO;s ixjOk l%ufohka
folla uQ,sl jYfhka ykd.; yel'
1' jHqy.; l%ufoh (Structured Method)
f;dr;=re moaO;s ixjOk l%shdj,sfha ie,iq lrkakdg u`.fmkau i|yd jHqy.; moaO;s
ixjOk l%ufoh Nd;hg .efka' tfy;a fuu.ska moaO;s ixjOk l%shdj,sfha Nd;
lrk mshjrhka .Kk wvq lsula is fkdlrhs'
2' jia;= keUqre l%uh (Object Oriented Method)
moaO;s ixjOkh lsf mdrml jYfhka Nd; l< jHqy.; l%uhg l,am l%uhla
f,i jia;= keUqre l%uh Nd; f' fuu l%uhg wkqj YajikShj kv;a;= l< yels"
uDldx. ie,iq jehqKq lsu i|yd Nd; l< yels uQ,Ou ;=kla mj;S'
62
jHqla;slrKh (Abstraction)
jia;= hkq ienE f,dalfha fjkalr oelah yels fldgils' tk Wmqgd oelah yels
fldgils' tajd fndfyda g kv;a;= l< yelsjd fuka u kej; kej; Nd; lsu o l<
yelsh'
II) ixlaIsma;lrKh (Encapsulation)
kv;a;= lsf yelshdj jehqKq lsu i|yd jia;= wNHka;r wka;.;h wfkl=;a
Wmdx.hkaf.ka i`.jd ;nd .ekSu fyj;a ixlaIsma; lsu'
III) m%fKsh (Inheritance)
jia;= kej; Nd;hg wkqn, u i|yd mka;s wkqms<sfj<la iys;j jia;= ixOdkh
lsu'
I)

ia;drKh i|yd bm;al< lKavdhug m%:u wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fiiq lKavdhj,g o wkqms<sfj<ska ;u wkdjrK mka;shg bm;a lsug wjia:dj ,nd
fokak'
moaO;s ixjOkh i|yd jHqyhl l%ufoh yd jia;= keUqre l%ufoh jYfhka m%Odk
l%u folla Nd; lrk nj
f;dr;=re moaO;s ixjOkh i|yd my; oelafjk wdldrfha O wdlD;s fhdod .kakd
nj
1' h we,s wdlD;sh
2' ims, wdlD;sh
3' talS lD; wdlD;sh
4' YS>% fhojq ixjOk wdlD;sh
by; tla tla wdlD;sj, m%n,;d fuka u n,;d o mj;sk nj
63
ks m q K ;dj 11(
f;dr;=re moaO;sla m%jOkh lsfuys ,d moaO;s ixl,amh

Nd; lrhs'
ksmqk;d ugu 11'4

11'4(
jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh iy ksudK l%ufoh (SSADM) mlaId

lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%hl O whr u;=lr olajhs'

moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%fha whr w;r wkqhd; inkaO;d we;s nj fmkajhs'
jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh i|yd ksudK l%ufoh ia;r lrhs'
h ldhhla lsug fmr th ie,iq lrhs'
ldhhla is lsf mshjr ms<sfj<la wkq.ukh lrhs'

ms iS u (
urejd jeks meye,s jk pl%hla iys; fhl=f.a jk pl%fha iajNdjh ms<sn|j <uqka
w;r ixjdohla f.dv k.kak'

urejdf.a jk pl%h m%Odk whr 4 lska iuka; jk nj
tys whrlska miq wfkla whrg t<fUk nj
tu whr w;r inkaO;dj pl%Sh wdlD;shla u.ska bm;a l< yels nj
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%fha o fujeks whr mj;sk nj
tu whr w;r inkaO;dj pl%Sh wdlD;shla u.ska bm;a l< yels nj
64
bf.kqu i|yd fhda; Wmfoia(

my; we;s ud;Dld w;ka Tf lKavdhug ,nd we;s ud;Dldj flfrys je wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
moaO;s m%jOkh lsu i|yd Nd; lrk jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK
l%ufoh'
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%h iy tys wj k lsu yd tajd ia;r lsu'
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%fha moaO;s ykd.ekSu" moaO;s Yaf,aIKh" moaO;s ie,iq
lsu hk whr ia;r lsu'
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%fha moaO;s m%jOkh" moaO;s mlaIdj" moaO;s l%shd;aul lsu
iy moaO;s kv;a;=j hk whr ia;r lsu'
we;s lsh jH fydka wOHhkh lrkak'
Tng ,nd we;s ud;Dldj ms<sn| f;dr;=re .fIKh lrkak'
Tf wkdjrK wdlIKSh iy ksudKYS,S f,i iuia; mx;shg bm;a lsug iQodk
jkak'
ls h jH
jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufoh
wdh;khla ;=< f;dr;=re moaO;shla f.dvkeSf Nd; l< yels m%Odk l%ufohka lSmhla
mj;S' bka iuyrla idm%odhsl jk w;r wfkla tajd kQ;k l%ufohka h'
f;dr;=re moaO;shla m%jOkh lsf nyq,j Nd; lrk idm%odhsl l%ufohla f,i jHqy.;
moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufoh (SSADM) yekah yelsh' f;dr;=re moaO;shl ixlSK
nj wju lsu i|yd whfrka whr f.dvke.Su jHQy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK
l%ufoh ;=< olakg ,efnk uQ,sl ,laIKhls' tfuka u jHdmD;s l<ukdlrKh ia;r lsug
iqiq iels,a,la o tu.ska imhhs'
tlai;a rdcOdksfha rdcH wxYfha f;dr;=re moaO;sh ksudKh lsf fuu l%ufoh zzrdcH
uOHu m.Kl iy ,sixfoaYk tackaishZZ u.ska l%s'j' 1980 uq,ska u ykajd fokq ,eK'
l%ufohg wkqj moaO;s m%jOk jHdmD;shla fldgia lSmhlg fnod

oela f '
SSADM
1'
2'
3'
4'
fudhq, fyj;a tall (Module)

whr (Stage)
mshjr (Steps)
ldhhka (Tasks)
jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufofhys wruqKq

1'
2'
3'
4'
jHdmD;shl l<ukdlrKh yd md,kh je hqKq lsu'

mqyqKq yd kqmqyqKq ldh uKav,fhka Wmu m%fhdack ,nd .ekSu'
;;a;ajfhka Wiia f;dr;=re moaO;s m%jOkh lsu'
ldh uKav,fha wvqula is jqj;a jHdmD;sh wLKavj lrf.k hdug yels u'
65
5' jHdmD;s i|yd m.Kl wdY%s; uDldx. bxfkare moaO;s jeks m.Kl mdol fuj,
Nd;hg .;yels u'
6' jHdmD;s uKav,hl msi w;r ukd ikaksfokhla f.dv ke.Su'
u.ska moaO;shl YlH;d wOHhk ugf isg fN!;sl ie,iq ksuejqu olajd wdjrKh
flf' fuu l%uhg wkqj moaO;s ixjOkh lsf Nd; jk iEu whrla u wfkla whrg
.,dhk fia ksudKh we;' th hwe,s wdlD;sfha wdldrhg ksrEmKh l< yels w;r YS>%
fh ixjOk wdlD;s (Rapid Application Development) l%uhg mriamr h' Bg fya;=j YS>% fhojq
ixjOk l%ufha iEu mshjrla u iudka;r.; l%uhg jOkh u h'
SSADM
jHqy.; moaO;s Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufofhys mshjr

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
YlH;dj mlaId lsu'

mj;sk mir ;;a;ajhka .fIKh lsu'
l,am jHdmdr moaO;s f.dv ke.Su'
wjYH;d ksjpkh lsu'
l,am ;dlaIKsl moaO;s f.dv ke.Su'
wdl ie,iq ksudKh lsu'
fN!;sl ie,iq ksudKh lsu'
ta wkqj moaO;sh f.dv ke.Sf we;s h yels .eg u yrjd .ekSu i|yd moaO;s ie,iqlrejka
iska ;dlsl inkaO;djka ksrEmKh lrk moaO;s m%jdy rEigyka (System Flow Diagrams) iy
o;a; m%jdy igyka (Data Flow Diagrams) Nd; lrhs'
mmQK wdlD;shls' fuys mj;sk iqfYAIs ,laIKh jkafka wod< jHdmD;shla i|yd
fuys we;s W; wx. muKla Nd; l< yels uhs'
SSADM
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%h (Systems Development Life Cycle)

wNHka;r yd ndysr uQ,dY% j,ska ,nd .kakd o;a; ksYa; ;SrKhla .ekSug W; f;dr;=re njg
m;a lr.ekSf l%ufohla f;dr;=re moaO;s j, olakg ,ef' f ksid f;dr;=re moaO;s
ksidf.a tfkod lghq;= b;d id:lj bgq lr.ekSu i|yd fnfyka odhl f' tneka rdcH
wdh;k fuka u fm!oa.,sl jHdmdl iud. o ;u wfmalaIs; b,lal lrd <du i|yd kj
f;dr;=re moaO;s f.dv ke.Su fyda oekg mj;akd f;dr;=re moaO;s klrKh lsu fyda is
lrhs'
f;dr;=re moaO;shla f.dvke.Su b;d ixlSK jQ ldhhls' ta i|yd .;jk ld,h" wjYH msjeh
iy thska n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk ksuehqu ms<sn|j we;s wksYa;;dj o b;d by, h'
f;dr;=re moaO;shla f.dvke.Su i|yd Nd; lrk O l%u fo we;' tfia u th mqkrdj;k
l%shdj,shls' kag jk pl%hla we;s w;r ta Tiafia Tjqkaf.a mKdu l%shdj,sh isf' fuu
,laIKh f;dr;=re moaO;s ;=< o olakg ,ef' f wkqj f;dr;=re moaO;shla m%jOkh lsu
i|yd Nd; lrk tla l%ufohla f,i moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%h (SDLC) yekah yelsh'
66
uq,ska u moaO;s ie,iqlrejka iska wod< moaO;sh foi b;d mq,a f,i wjOdkh fhduq lrhs'
bka miq iuia; moaO;sfhys fldgia yd ug fjk fjk u f.k ia;rd;aul f,i wOHhkh
lrhs'
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%fha m%Odk wj
moaO;s m%jOk jk pl%h
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'
moaO;s ykd.ekSu fyj;a uYkh (Systems Investigation)

moaO;s Yaf,aIKh (Systems Analysis)
moaO;s ie,iq lsu (Systems Design)
moaO;s ixjOkh (Systems Development)
moaO;s mlaIdj (Systems Testing)
moaO;s l%shd;aul lsu (Systems Implementation)
moaO;s kv;a;=j (Systems Maintenance)
moaO;s ykd.ekSu fyj;a uYkh
(Systems Investigation)
kj moaO;shla ms<sn| woyila bm;a lsu fyda mj;sk moaO;shla ms<sn|j ixjOkd;aul
fhdackd bm;a jQ wjia:djl isg fuu whr l%shd;aul fjhs' fuu whf moaO;sh ms<sn|j
mQK wjfndaOhla ,nd .ekSu ;=<ska tjekakla ksudKh lsf wjYH;dj ksKh lrhs' ta
i|yd wxY folla Tiafia uYkh is flf'
1' uQ,sl uYkh (Preliminary Investigation) - fuys moaO;sh ykd.ekSu yd tys mj;sk
.eg ykd.ekSu is fldf'
67
2' YlH;d wOHkh (Feasibility Study)- moaO;sh mysgqu ms<sn|j fhda.H;d mlaIKhla is
lrk w;r tys fhda; moaO;sh mqoa.,hdg fyda wdh;khg fl;r rg .e,fma o hkak
ms<sn|j ia;rd;aul uYkhla ,nd fohs'
moaO;s Yaf,aIKh
(Systems Analysis)
YlH;d jd;dj ms<sn|j jHdmD;sh Ndr lgqj u.ska kj moaO;shl wjYH;dj .ek iEySulg
m;a jqjfyd;a ta ms<sn|j iia;rd;aul wOHhkhl fhug jHdmD;s lgqj ;SrKh lrhs' ta
wkqj YlH;d wOHhk jd;dj Tiafia ,nd we;s lreKq ;j rg;a uYkhg ,la flf' kj
moaO;sfha wruqKq" Bg wod< Ih ikaOdrh" wjYH jk fN!;sl yd udkj im;a iy fhda; kj
moaO;sh ixjOkh lsf we;s h yels .eg yd iSud wdh ms<sn|j fuys fYaIfhka i,ld
n,kq ,ef' tfia u moaO;s Yaf,aIK l%shdj,sfha wdh;kfha jHqyh ms<sn|j;a" l<ukdlrK
ug iy fufyhq ug ms<sn|j;a ia;rd;aul f;dr;=re /ia lr .ekSula is lrkq ,ef'
Bg fya;=j fhda; kj moaO;sh u.ska l<ukdlrejkaf.a iy mYS,lhkaf.a wjYH;d imqrd,sh
hq;= u h' ta wkqj moaO;s Yaf,aIK wjfha o;a; tla/ia lsu iy o;a; f;dr;=re njg m;a
lsu ;=<ska moaO;sfha wjYH;d ia;rd;aulj uYkhg ,la flf'
moaO;s ie,iq lsu
(Systems Design)
fhda; kj moaO;sh ie,iq lsu isjkafka YlH;d wOHhhkh iy moaO;s Yaf,aIKh hk

whr j, m%;sM,hla jYfhks' moaO;s ie,iq lsu m%Odk wdldr follska oelah yel'
1' ;dlsl moaO;s ie,iq lsu (Logical Systems Design) - fuys moaO;sfha o;a;" f;dr;=re"
l%shdj,Ska iy f.dkq wdh ;dlsl jYfhka inkaO jk wdldrh ksrEmKh lrkq ,ef'
f i|yd my; oelafjk l%fudamdhhka Nd;hg .efka'
moaO;s .e,S rEigyka (Systems Flow Diagram)
o;a; m%jdy rEigyka (Data Flow Diagram)
2' fN!;sl moaO;s ie,iq lsu (Physical Systems Design) - fuysoS my; oelafjk idOl
ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq flf'
w;=re uqyqK;a ksudKh
wdodkh
ieliqu
m%;sodkh
l%uf,aLkh
mYS,kh
wdrlaIdj
moaO;s ie,iq lsu ;=< ;dlsl yd fN!;sl moaO;s ie,iq j,g wod< f;dr;=re b;d u;a
f,i f,aLk.; flf'
moaO;s ixjOkh
(Systems Development)
ie,iq l%ufo j,g wkqj imQK moaO;sh fudhq,j,g fnod l%uf,aLlhska fj; ,nd fohs'
l%uf,aLlhska iska W; m.Kl NdIdjla fhdod.kska fodaI wju jQ l%uf,aL wvx.= fh
68
uDldx. moaO;s iEu lrkq ,ef' fufia ksudKh lrk ,o fudhq, ish,a, uq,ska ms<sfh,
lr.;a w;=re uqyqK;la iu. inkaO lr iuia; moaO;sh f.dvke.Su isflf' < mshjr
jkafka fuu moaO;sh mlaIdjg ,la lsu h'
moaO;s mlaIdj
(Systems Testing)
fuu whf m%Odk wruqK jkafka fodaI wju" ;;a;ajfhka Wiia .Kfha moaO;shla fiajd
odhlhd fj; ,nd u h'
fuys iajdk lKavdhula iska moaO;sh imQK mlaIdjg Ndck lrkq ,nk w;r moaO;sh
iska fiajd odhlhdf.a wjYH;djka Tyq n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk wdldrhg iemfha o hkak mlaIdjg
,la flf' tfuka u l%uf,aLfha we;s fodaI .ek o uYkh flf'
moaO;s mlaId whf moaO;sh my; i|yka mlaIdjkag fhduq flf'
tall mlaIdj (Unit Testing)
iuia; mlaIdj (Integrated Testing)
moaO;s mlaIdj (System Testing)
m%;s.%yK mlaIdj (Acceptance Testing)
moaO;s l%shd;aul lsu
(Systems Implementation)
id:lj ksulr.;a moaO;sh l%shd;aul lsu fuu whf isf' fuys imQK moaO;sfha
l%shdld;ajh f,aLKdrEV lsula is l< hq;= w;r moaO;sh Nd; lrk wdldrh ms<sn|j
mYS,lhka ish fokd oekqj;a flf'
moaO;sh ia:dmkh lsu mshjr lSmhlska isf' tajdk(
iDcq ia:dmkh (Direct Implimentation)
iudka;r ia:dmkh (Parallel Implimentation)
whruh ia:dmkh (Phased Implimentation)
kshuquh ia:dmkh (Pilot Implimentation)
moaO;shg wjYH oDVdx. ia:dmkh lsu yd uDldx. ia:dmkh lsu fuu wjosfha oS is f' tfia
u moaO;sfha id:l;ajh yd wid:l;ajh fuu whf ;SrKh f'
moaO;s kv;a;=j
(Systems Maintenance)
kj moaO;shla ia:dmkh l< miqj th l%shd;aul lsf O .eg mek k.S' m.Kl
moaO;shl we;s fYaI;ajh jkqfha ;dlaIKfha YS>% hqKqj;a iu. ksr;=rej hdj;ald,Sk l<hq;=
u h'
moaO;s kv;a;= whf moaO;shg n,mdk fjkiia mlaId lr ta i|yd wjYH fhdackd
moaO;s kv;a;= lgqj u.ska wdh;kfha l<ukdld;ajhg bm;a flf' tfia u moaO;s kv;a;=
lgqj iy wdh;kfha l<ukdld;ajh iska wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;= ksKdhl lSmhla mj;S'
moaO;shl wruqK"q ldhlaIu;dj" M,odhs;dj" fhdod.kakd ;dlaIKh" jehjk msjeh" wdrlaIdj
iy moaO;sh u.ska ,efnk m%;s,dN ta w;ka m%Odk f' moaO;s kv;a;= wjfha ykd.kakd
fjkia isl< hq;af;a by; fjkia j,g wkql+,j h'
69
Ih lreKq meye,slr.ekSug w;aje,la(
YsIH lKavdhj, wkdjrK iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrjkak'

ia;drKh i|yd bm;al< lKavdhug m%:u wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fiiq lKavdh j, ixjOk fhdackd uikak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;= lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
f;dr;=re moaO;shla m%jOkh lsf idm%odhsl l%ufohla f,i jHqy.; moaO;s
Yaf,aIKh yd ksudK l%ufoh Nd; lrk nj
SSADM l%uhg wkqj moaO;s m%jOkh lsf jHdmD;shla whr lSmhlska l%shd;aul
jk fudhq, lSmhlg fnod fjka l< yels nj
SSADM ys m%Odk wruqKq lSmhla we;ss nj
SSADM mshjr lSmhlska l%shd;aul jk nj
moaO;s ixjOk jk pl%h f;dr;=re moaO;shla f.dvke.Su i|yd Nd; l< yels
mshjfrka mshjr bhg .uka lrk l%ufohla nj'
moaO;s ixjOk jk pl%h ;=< m%Odk whr lSmhla we;s nj
moaO;s ixjOk jk pl%fha we;s whrhka w;r pl%Sh jQ wka; inkaO;djla
mj;sk nj
moaO;s ixjOk jk pl%fha tla tla whrj, Bg u wdfKsl jQ l%shdoduhla
mj;sk nj
70
ks m q K ;dj 11(

Nd; lrhs'
kj f;dr;=re moaO;shl wjYH;djh iy tys idOH;djh uid

n,hs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
ixOdkhl fyda wdh;khl oekg mj;sk f;dr;=re moaO;sfha .eg fidhd n,d bm;a
lrhs'
mj;akd .eg ksrdlrKh i|yd kj f;dr;=re moaO;shl wjYH;dj bm;a lrhs'
m%jOkh lsug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j ia;rd;aul uYkhla is
lrhs'
hlsis ldhhla ie,iq lsf we;sh yels .eg ykd .kshs'
h ldhla lsug fmr" ta ms<sn|j uYkhla is lrhs'

ms iS u (
kj ksjila blsf wkq.ukh lrk l%shdj,sh ms<sn|j isiqka iu`. idlPdjl fhfokak'
ta idlPdj weiqfrka my; lreKq biau;= lrkak'
ksjila fkdue;s u oekg mj;sk .egj nj
ksji iEu i|yd fhdod .kakd N+h iy wjg mirh uq,ska u mlaId lsu islrk nj
ksji blsug n,dfmdfrd;a;=jk N+fha iajNdjh u; ksjdi ie,iqu ilialrk nj
ilialrk ,o ie,iqug wkqj ksji blsug wod< weia;fka;=j ilialrk nj
weia;fka;=j,g wod< uqo,a m%udKj;a fkdf k uqo,a fidhd .ekSu i|yd O l%u
Nd; lrk nj ^nexl= Kh .ekSu wdh&
ksji blsu i|yd m%foaYfha m<d;a md,k wdh;k u.ska wkque;sh ,nd.; hq;= nj
by; wjYH;d imQK lr.;a g ksji blsu islrkq ,nk nj
kj f;dr;=re moaO;shla m%jOkh lsf o mj;akd .eg ykd.; hq;= nj
we;s lsh jH b;d fydka mYS,kh lrkak'

kj f;dr;=re moaO;shla ykajd u i|yd fhda; my; oelafjk ia:dk w;=frka Tn
lKavdhug ,efnk ia:dkh ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq lrkak'
1' Tf mka;sfha YsIH YsIHdjkaf.a f;dr;=re we;=<;a f;dr;=re moaO;shla ilia lsu i|yd
uQ,sl uid ne,Sula islr YlH;d wOHhk jd;djla bm;a lsu'
2' Tf mdif,a f;dr;=re ;dlaIK YsIH iudcfha idudl f;dr;=re we;=<;a f;dr;=re
moaO;shla ilia lsug wod< uQ,sl uid ne,Sula islr YlH;d wOHhk jd;djla ,nd
u'
71
3'
mdi,a iuqmldrfha NdKav lsKSf l%shdj,sh ldhlaIu lsu i|yd m.Kl .;

,am;a ksl=;a lsug wod< f;dr;=re moaO;shla ilia lsu'
tu ia:dkh i|yd YlH;d wOHhkhla islsug wjYH miqu ilialr .ekSug Tn lKavdhu
;=< idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
iqiq l%ufohka fhdod .kska wod< ia:dkhg f.dia wjYH f;dr;=re ,nd .kak'
kj f;dr;=re moaO;sh ykajdu i|yd wjYH YlH;d jd;dj ilia lrkak'
lKavdh wkdjrK iy YlH;d wOHhk jd;dj ksudKYS,Sj o iduQyslj o mka;shg
bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
ls h jH
uQ,sl uid ne,Su
(Preliminary Investigation)
;SrK .ekSu yd .eg ksrdlrKh lsf l%shdj,sfhys f;dr;=rej, n,mEu w;sYhska u jeo.;a
f' tl u f;dr;=rla O ugj, tlsfklg fjkia wruqKq i|yd Nd;hg .efka' tfia
jqjo tl u moaO;shla tlsfklg fjkia jQ wruqKq i|yd fhdod .ekSu W; fkdf' tneka
;SrK .ekSf " O ug wkqj Bg jvd;a .e,fmk f;dr;=re moaO;s Nd; lrkq ,ef' th
ie,iq l< hq;af;a wod< ixOdhlhkaf.a wdh;kfha jHqyh" wruqKq iy wfmlaId wkqj h'
lsish wdh;khlg ;u f;dr;=re moaO;shla ie,iq lsf mj;sk moaO;sh ms<sn|j fyda
ie,iq lrkq ,nk kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j mQj uid ne,Sula w;HjYH h'
wdh;kh ;=< f.dvke.Sug hk kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j u;aj wOHhk lghq;= islsug fmr
moaO;sh ixjOkh lsf wruqKq iy fya;+ka ykd.ekSu fuys m%Odk jYfhka is flf' g
wod< lreKq wdh;kfha by< l<ukdld;ajhg bm;a lr wkque;sh ,nd .;hq;= f' fuys
kj moaO;s ie,iqlrejka iska my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;=h'
mj;sk moaO;sfha we;s .eg ykd .ekSu iy ta ms<sn|j jd;djla ilia lsu'
kj moaO;s ie,iqlrejka iska uq,ska u isl< hq;af;a wdh;kh ;=< ksrdlrKh lr.; hq;=
.eg ykdf.k tajdg i fidhd.ekSug wkq.ukh l< hq;= l%shdud. fudkjdoehs
bm;a lsu h' fuh wdh;kfha by< ugf isg my< ugu olajd we;s .eg ksrdlrKh
lr.ekSug uy;a msgqjy,la f'
l,am i fhdackd lsu'
kj l,am i bm;a lsu hgf;a" jHdmD;shg w;ska we;=<;a l< hq;= fldgia" oekg
mj;sk moaO;sfha ixfYdaOkh l<hq;= ia:dk yd kj fhdackd wd wdh;kfha id:l;ajh
i|yd by< l<ukdld;ajhg myiqfjka ;SrK .; yels wdldrfha l,am fhdackd ,ndu
isl< hq;=h' fuys
1' fhda; kj jHdmD;sh u.ska wdh;kfha hqKqjg ,efnk m%;s,dN iy msjeh'
2' wdh;kh ;=< kj moaO;sh Nd; lsug woyia lrkq ,nk lafIa;% iy bka ,eh yels
m%fhdack
3' kj moaO;sh hqKq lsf uqyqKug ish yels iSud fyj;a Ialr;djka yd tajd
u.yrjd .; yels wdldrh ms<sn| ia;r
4' fhda; kj moaO;shg wjYH im;a yd tajd wdh;kh ;=< fn hdhq;= wdldrh
72
5' kj jHdmD;sh ixjOkh lsu i|yd .;jk ld, iSudj

hk lreKq fhdackdj,g we;=<;a h hq;=h'
f;dr;=re moaO;sfha wjYH;djg m%uqL;dj ,ndu'
fuu uQ,sl wOHhk jd;dj mok lr.kska wdh;kfha by< l<ukdlrK uKav,h
iEySulg m;af k kj f;dr;=re moaO;shg m%uqL;dj ,nd moaO;sh f.dvke.Su islrkq
,ef'
YlH;d wOHhkh
(Feasibility Study)
fhda; kj moaO;sh ms<sn| wkque;sh wdh;kfha by< l<ukdld;ajh ;=<ska ,ndka miqj
YlH;d wOHhk lKavdhu iska kj moaO;sfha fhda.H;dj wOHhkh lrkq ,ef' kj
moaO;sh wdh;khg ykajd f .egj ms<sn|j lrkq ,nk ia;rd;aul uYkhla f,i
YlH;d wOHhkh yekaf'
tneka moaO;s uYk (System Investigation) wjia:df mj;sk w;HjYH mshjrla f,i
YlH;d wOHhkh yekah yelsh'
kj jHdmD;sfha YlH;dj uid ne,Su wx. lsysmhla Tiafia YlH;d wOHhk l%shdj,sh ;=<
isflf' tajd my; oelaf'
;dlaIK YlH;dj - (Technical Feasibility)
wdl YlH;dj
- (Economic Feasibility)
fufyhq YlH;dj - (Operational Feasibility)
wdh;ksl YlH;dj - (OrganizationalFeasibility)
;dlaIKsl YlH;dj
mj;sk f;dr;=re moaO;sh hqKq lsu i|yd fyda kj moaO;shla m%jOkh i|yd i,ld ne,sh
hq;= jeo.;a idOl fudkjdo@"ta i|yd Nd; l< yels m%fY iy l%u fudkjdo@" kj moaO;sh
;=< Nd; l< yels o;a;" l%shdj,s" f;dr;=re" m.Kl" m.Kl cd, iy uDldx. yd Bg
wod< fjk;a im;a iy Wml%u fudkjd o@ hkak ms<sn|j;a" tajd mj;sk moaO;sh yd .e,mSu
ikaikaokd;aul f,i wOHhkh lsu;a ;dlaIKsl YlH;dj ;=< islrkq ,ef'
tk" kj moaO;shg wod< oDVdx." uDldx. yd wfkla Wmdx. .egj ksrdlrKh i|yd
,nd.; yelso@ hk nj fidhd ne,Su ;dlaIKsl YlH;djhs'
wdl YlH;dj (Economic Feasibility)
kj moaO;sh m%jOkh i|yd jehjk wdl jkdlu ms<sn|j iEySulg m;ah yels o@ hk
nj iy tys msjeh Bg .;jk ld,h yd ieif idOdrK o hk j. wdl YlH;dj
jYfhka ie,fla'
fuys YlH;d wOHhk lKavdhu u.ska fhda; moaO;sh i|yd jehjk iuia; msjeh yd tys
m%;s,dN ms<sn|j Yaf,aIKh lrkq ,ef' fuh islrkq ,nkafka oekg mj;sk moaO;sh
ms<sn|j i,ld ne,Sfuks' f i|yd jehjk iuia; msjeh
1' ksYa; ho
- Tangible Cost
oDVdx." uDldx." l<ukdlrejka iy fiajlhka yd fiajdjka i|yd jehjk msjeh
ksYa; ho f,i yekaf'
2'
wksYa; ho - Intangible Cost f,i fldgia follg j.l< yelsh'

fiajl Wkkaj j, u" jer yd jxpd isu" wdh;kfha lS;s kduhg ydks meKSu"
ksIamdok yd l=Kq wvqu wdh wksYa; ho f,i yekaf'
73
tfuka u wdl YlH;dj ;=< moaO;shg ,efnk m%;s,dN o j. follg fnod oelah
yelsh'
1' ksYa; m%;s,dN - Tangible Benifits
WmlrK" hka;% iQ;% mmd,k lghq;=" l<ukdlrK uKav, iy ldhuKv, inkaO
jQ msjeh wvqu fyda b;su wdh ksYa; m%;s,dNhka f'
2' wksYa; m%;s,dN - Intangible Benifits
l<ukdlrK uKav,hg ;SrK .ekSu i|yd jvd;a W; ldhlaIu yd M,odhS f;dr;=re
iemhSu" ixOdkfha fyda wdh;kfha ldhhkaj, .=Kd;aulNdjh by< kexug yelsu"
wdh;khg inkaOjk fiajd odhlhka i|yd Wiia fiajdjla ,ndu" yd ta ;=<ska
wdh;kfha m%;srEmh iy lS;skduh by< kexu wdh wksYa; m%;s,dNhka f'
fufyhq YlH;dj (Operational Feasibility)
kj moaO;sh fufyhq i|yd l%shdld;ajhg m;al< yels o hkj. wOHhkh lsu fufyhq
YlH;dj f,i yekaf' kj jHdmD;sh ms<sn|j wNsfm%arKh (Motivation) ldhlaIu f,i
ie,iq ixOdkh yd l%shdjg kexu iy m%;s.%yKh (Acceptance) fuhg wod< f'
wdh;ksl YlH;dj (Organizational Feasibility)
kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j wdh;kfha fyda ixOdkfha l<ukdlrK uKav,fhys iy ldh
uKav,fhys oelshyels wdl,am yd phd ms<sn|j wOHhkh lsu wdh;ksl YlH;dj hs'
f wjia:df YlH;d wOHhk lKavdhu u.ska my; i|yka lreKq ms<sn|j f;dr;=re
,nd.; hq;=h'
wdh;kfha ldh uKav,fha m.Kl mph
fhda; kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j wdh;kfha ldh uKav,h ;=< mj;akd wdl,am
kj moaO;sfhys fjkial ldh uKav,fha /lshd ms<sn|j we;slrkq ,nk n,mEu
kj moaO;sh ms<sn|j wdh;kfha ldh uKav,h oekqj;a l< yels wdldrh
fuu f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu i|yd wdh;kfha l<ukdlrK uKv,fha iy fiajl fialdjkaf.a
iyfhda.h w;HjYH f'
YlH;d wOHhk lgqj u.ska by; lreKq ms<sn|j ,nd.;a f;dr;=re weiqfrka ta ms<sn|j ksjer
wOHhkhla lr miqj wdh;kfha by< l<ukdlrK uKav,h fj; YlH;d jd;djla bm;a
l< hq;=h' tjeks YlH;d jd;djl fmdf we;=<;a h hq;= lreKq lsysmhla mj;S' tajd my;
oelaf'
1' wdh;kh ;=< oekg mj;sk moaO;sh iy Bg inkaO .eg" u;jdo yd th hqKq lsug wod<
ia;rhla
2' kj moaO;sh hqKq lsu yd inkaO imQK ie,eiau ms<sn| ia;rhla
3' kj moaO;sh wdh;khg iqiq nj oelafjk YlH;d wOHhk lgqf woyia ms<sn| ia;rhla
4' kj moaO;sh ixjOkh i|yd .;jk ld,h iy hou ms<sn|j weia;fka;=jla
5' moaO;sh ixjOkh lsf mj;sk kS;suh miqu iy m%;Ska ms<sn| ia;rhla
YsIH lKavdhj, wkdjrK iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrkak'

ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug u m%:u wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
my; lreKq u;=lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
74
kj f;dr;=re moaO;shla ykajd u fyda mj;sk moaO;sh klrKh lsu fyda i|yd
n,mdk .eg ykd.; hq;= nj
wdh;khl fyda ixOdkhl we;s f;dr;=re moaO;s yd inkaO .egj,g l,am i
yd fhdackd mj;sk nj
.egj ms<sn|j ia;rd;aul uYkh lsu ;=<ska kj moaO;s m%jOkh lsu islrkq
,nk nj iy tu uYkh YlH;d wOHhkh kka ykajk nj
YlH;d wOHhkh islsf Bg wod< iqfYaIS lreKq lsysmhla ms<sn|j i,ld ne,sh
hq;= nj
YlH;d wOHhk jd;dj u; kj moaO;sh m%jOkh lsu fyda fkdlsu fyda islrkq
,nk nj
75
ks m q K ;dj 11(

Nd; lrhs'
fhda; moaO;sh ixjOkh lr mlaId lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo myhs
bf.kq M,(
m%jOkh l< moaO;sh iqiq l%uf,aLk NdIdjla Nd; lr fla;lrKh lrhs'

moaO;sh i|yd m%jOkh l< l%uf,aL l%shd;aul lr tajd mlaId lrhs'
moaO;sfha fodaI ksKh lr fodaI yrKh lrhs'
lsish ldhhla lsu i|yd uq,ska ilia l< ie,eiaula Nd; lrhs'
h l%shdjl wjidk M,h by< .=Kd;aulNdjfhka yd Wiia m%;shlska hq;=j ,nd ug l%shd
lrhs'

ms iS u (
wdmk Yd,djl Nd; lrk laIKsl ls f;a idok hka;%hla ms<sn| mka;sfha isiqkaf.ka
uikak'
my; i|yka lreKq u;=lrka ixjdohl fhfokak'
hka;%hg wjYH wuq jH jk f;a fld<" iSks iy ls wdodkhka f,i ,ndh hq;= nj
bkamiq th l%shdj,shlg Ndckh jk nj
hka;%fha fnd;a;u ;ol< miq ksYa; Od;djla we;s fldamamhlg idod.;a ls f;a tu
m%udKhg muKla jefgk nj
fuu l%shdj,sh isug ta i|yd l,ska ilia l< jevigykla tys wka;.; l< hq;= nj
fuhg wdodkh l< jH h l%shdj,shlg Ndckh bka m%;sodkhka ,efnk nj
ta wkqj fuh o moaO;shla f,i l%shd;aul jk nj
tf,i u ;ekam;a l< jevigykl md,kh hgf;a" moaO;shla fufyhh yels nj
my; i|yka ud;Dld w;=ka Tf lKavdhug ,efnk ud;Dldj flfrys wjOdkh fhduq
lrkak'
l%uf,aLkfha ms<smeh hq;= l%uf,aLk YslaIK yd i;Hdmkh
mlaId wjia:d (Test Cases) " tall mlaIdj" taldnoaO mlaIdj" moaO;s mlaIdj
m%;s.%dyl mlaIdj" ld, uxcqid mlaIdj" Yaf; uxcqid mlaIdj
lsh m;%sld iuia;hla f,i o Tn lKavdhug wod< fldgi iqfYaISj o wOHhkh
lrkak'
Tf wkdjrK wdlIKSh yd ksudKYS,Sj iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
76
ls h jH
fla ; lrKh
fla;lrKhl fyda l%uf,aLk whrl wruqK jkafka moaO;s ksudKhla we;s l%uf,aLk
NdIdjlg mj;kh lsuls'
tu.ska ,nd.;a fla;h m.Klh l%shdlrjd" moaO;s ksudKfhys jer ksjr Ndjh i;Hdmkh
l< hq;=h'
fla;lrK whr mlaId lsu yd kv;a;=lrK whr hk folg u n,mEula we;s lrhs'
wm okakd m fla;lrKhg .kakd ld,h yd msjeh" uDldx. msjeh iu`. ii|k g b;d
iq m%;sY;hls' moaO;s mlaIdj yd kv;a;=j i|yd Yd, msjehla jeh f' fuhska meye,s
jkafka fla;lrKfha wruqK moaO;sh l%shdjg kexf hou wvq lsu fkdj moaO;s mlaIdj
yd kv;a;= hou wvq lsu h'
l%uf,aLhla O ;;a;aj hgf;a ksYaph l< yelsh' tajd k lshf yelshdj" l%uf,aLlfha
Yd,;ajh" Odjk ld,h yd l%uf,aLlhg wjYH u;l m%udKh hkdh hs'
lshf yelshdj yd f;are .ekSf yelshdj l%uf,aLhl ;sh hq;= fYaI .=Kdx. f' tu.ska
uDldx.h kv;a;= lsu jvd myiq jkq we;'
l% u f,a L k Ys l a I Kh
fla;h ,sf wkq.ukh l< hq;= ksfoaYs; YslaIKhla we;' fuu YslaIKh fla;h ir,j
lshug yd f;are .ekSug yelsjk m ,shd oelaug uy`.= rel=,la f' tajdhska iuyrla
my; i|yka m f'
k lsu
(naming)
fudhq, yd p,H i|yd k f;dard .ekSf tajd w:dka; h hq;=h' ;j o fudhq, kduh
tys l%shdjg W; jQjla h hq;=h'
md,k jHq y h
jHqy.; fkdjk wdldrhg Wmfoia ud,djla ilia lsfuka m.Kl jevigyk ys ldhlaIu;dj
j, f' tuksid u;a md,k jHqyhla Nd; l< hq;=h'
w;= r e M,
fudhq,hla le|f fhdod .kakd mrd;ska fjkia lsul iuyr g tys w;=re M,hla
f,i l%uf,aLlh o fjkia ulg Ndckh h yelsh' fujeks w;=re M, u.yeh hq;= w;r th
ksjer wdldrhg f,aLk.; l< hq;=h'
77
kSv lsu
(nesting)
fla;lrKfha > jYfhka kSv lsu je<elah hq;=h' tfia jqjfyd;a fla;h f;are .ekSug
wmyiq f'
fudhq , fha m% u dKh

fudhq,j, m%udKh taldld u jeo.;a f' fudhq,j, m%udKh b;d Yd, jqjfyd;a
mlaId lsf .eg iy.; ;;a;ajhla we;sf' fla;" wkjYH f,i > h yels ksid
fudhq, b;d l=vd wdldrhg ,shd oelafuka je,lsh hq;=h'
fudhq,hl w;=re uqyqK;a

fudhq,fha ixlSK w;=re uqyK
q ;a ;sfoehs mlaId l< hq;h
= ' w;=re uqyK
q ;l mrd;Ska mylg
jvd ;snK
q g th fydka mlaId lr th ir, w;=re uqyK
q ;a lSmhlg fjkalr tys ldhlaIu;dj
jel< yelsh'
l% u f,a L fha ms ie,iq u

l%uf,aLlh myiqfjka lshug tys wkqfok" ysia bv m%udKhka" jryka wdh iqiq wdldrhg
fhdod.; hq;=h'
wNHka;r m%f,aLkh
(internal documentation)
fla;lrK whr m%;sodk m%f,aLkh jYfhka i,lkqfha fla;h hs' fuu m%;sodk m%f,aLkfha
we;s fla;h ilia lr we;af;a f;are .ekSu myiqjk wdldrhg h' m%;os dk m%f,aLkh fla;lrKfha
l%uf,aLlhd iska fla;hg jrK fhu is flf' jrKhla m%ldYhla jk w;r th
l%uf,aLh Odjkfha wjYH fkdf' fla;h u.ska flfrk ldhh l=ulaoehs jrKhla u.ska
ia;r flf'
i;Hdmkh
(verification)
fla;lrK whf m%;sodkh i|yd i;Hdmkh Nd; lrkq ,nkafka tu whfrys we;s fodaI
wkdjrKh lsu i|yd h'
fla;h i;Hdmkh lr fodaI ke;s njg ;yjqre lsfuka fmkakq lrkafka fla;h" ie,iqug
wkql+, jk nj;a tu uDldx.h l%shd;aul lsug iqiq nj;a h'
l%uf,aL i;Hdmkh lsf wdldr folls' tajd ia;sl wdldrh yd .;sl wdldrh f'
.;sl wdldrfha l%uf,aLlhg mlaIl o;a; (test data) we;=<;a lr th l%shd;aul flf' tg
tu wjia:df l%uf,aLlfha m%;sodkh ys fodaI ;sfoehs mlaId flf'
ia;sl wdldrfha l%uf,aLhg h:drEmS mlaIK o;a; we;= lr tajd h:drEmS j l%shd flf'
ia;sl Ys,amSh l%ufha l%uf,aLlh imdokh lr l%shd lru is fkdflf' fuys fla;h
i;Hdmkh lsu" lshu" iudf,dapkh lsu" wkqjrKh lsu (walk through) hkdh islrkq
,nhs'
78
moa O ;s mla I dj
moaO;s m%jOk l%shdj,sfha kE u whrl fodaI u;=h yelsh' tla tla whrj, we;sjk fodaI
wkdjrKh lsug fhdod.kakd O Ys,amSh l%u we;' flfia fj;;a fuu ljr l%uhl jqj
o ishhg iShla u ksjer j tk fodaI rys; moaO;shla l%shd;aul lsug yelshdjla fkdue;'
fndfyda wjia:dj, tla tla whfrys we;sh yels fodaI uDldx. fla;lrK wjfha biau;=
h yelsh' fuhg fya;= jkqfha Bg fmr whrj, j,x.=;d mlaId yia;Shj islrk ksidh'
l%uf,aLhla Odjkh lsf we;sjk fodaIj,g wu;rj l%uf,aLl m%jOkhl we;sjk
ie,iq fodaI fuka u fiajdodhlhdf.a wjYH;dj ksjer ikaksfokh fkdu ksid we;sjk
fodaI o olakg ,ef'
l%uf,aLhla m<uqjrg l%shd;aul lrkq ,nkafka mlaId wjia:df h' mlaId wjia:djl
,efnkakdjQ m%;sodkh wm n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk ldhh idOk ugug <`.dh hq;=h' f ksid
l%uf,aL mlaIdjla is lrkq ,nkafka tys we;s fodaI ke;s lsug h'
mlaId wjia:d
(Test Cases)
moaO;shl we;s fodaI ykd.ekSug mlaId wjia:d Wmld f' mlaId l%shdj,sfha mlaId
wjia:d wdodkhka jk w;r moaO;sh ksjerj l%shd;aul foehs oek .ekSug j,x.=;d mlaId
wjia:d Yd, m%udKhla wjYH f'
m%Yia; mlaId wjia:djl ldhh bgqjkafka l%uf,aLlfha fodaI ke;s jQ g h'
m%Yia; mlaId wjia:djl ie,lsh yels ldhhla jkafka l%uf,aLlhl h yels wdodk thg
we;=<;a l< yels g h'
l=vd l%uf,aLlhl jqj o wdodkh i|yd ;sh yels uQ,dx. ixLHdj Yd, mrdihl h yelsh'
f ksid mlaId lsul h:d wruqK jkafka m%Yia; ugug wdikak mlaId wjia:d iuQyhla
f;dard .ekSuhs'
moaO;s mlaId lsf wdldr

by; oelajQ mlaId lsf wdldr ms<sn| yekaula my; oelaf' fufia mlaId lsf
moaO;sfha imQK l%shdld;ajh ksrjoH wdldrhg isjk nj iar lr .; yelsh'
ld, uxcqid mlaIdj (black box testing)

Yaf; uxcqid mlaIdj (white box testing)
tall mlaIdj (unit testing)
taldnoaO mlaIdj (intergrated testing)
moaO;s mlaIdj (system testing)
m%;s.%yl mlaIdj (acceptance testing)
79
ld, uxcq i d mla I dj

fuu mlaIdj islrkq ,nkafka m%;s.%yK wjfha h' fuys moaO;sh ixjD; fmhla f,i
i,lkq ,nhs' fuys mlaIlg moaO;sfha wNHka;rh .ek wjfndaOhla ;su wjYH fkdf'
tk mlaIl iska wjYH wdodk we;=<;a lr m%;sodkj, ksrjoHd;dj mlaId lrkq ,nhs'
wfmalaIs; m%;sodk iu. fkd.e,fma k Tyq iska tu fodaI jd;d lrkq ,nhs'
Ya f ; uxcq i d mla I dj
fla; mlaIdj islsug moaO;sh l%shd;aul lr we;s wdldrh .ek oekSula wjYH f' fla;
mlaIdjg moaO;sh ;=< o;a; .e,S Yaf,aIKh" .e,S md,kh" fla; mlaIdj u.ska mlaIdjg
,la flf' fojkqj uDldx.j, iM,;dj yd ksrjoH;dj mlaId lsug" mlaIl fpkd;aul
oDIa fldaKhlska th foi ne,sh hq;=f' f;jkqj mlaIdj M,odhS f,i l%shd;aul lsug
fla; mlaIdf l%shd;aul lsug fla; mlaIdf l%shd;aul lrk fjkia wdldrfha
fuj, yd Ys,amSh l%u .ek;a mlaIljrhd oekqj;au wjYH f' fla; mlaIdf fuu
wjYH;d ;=k ;ks ;ksj u l%shd;aul fkdjk w;r tajd tljr l%shd;aul f'
fiajdodhlhdf.a wjYH;dj
m%;s.%yK mlaIdj
wjYH;djka
moaO;s mlaIdj
ie,iqu
taldnoaO mlaIdj
fla;lh
tall mlaIdj
ta l l mla I dj
fuys moaO;sfha tla tla ixrpl ;ks ;ksj u mlaIdjg ,la flf' fuu mlaIdj lrkq
,nkafka l%uf,aLl iska jk w;r Tyqf.a iuhqre iska th i;Hdmkh lrkq ,nhs' fuu
mlaIdf wruqK jkafka fudhq,fha wNHka;r ;lh mlaId lsuh' l%uf,aLlhd ish u
j,x.= fkdjk ;;a;aj mlaId lr th ljr ;;a;ajhla ;=< fyda jevigyka ula ;sfoehs
mlaId l< hq;= w;r l%uf,aLlfha ldhnoaO;dj o mlaId l< hq;=h' fuys ish fla;l
wdjrKh jk m fuu mlaIdj .ek fyd| ;lafiarejla l%uf,aLl iska ,ndh hq;=h'
ta l dnoa O mla I dj
fuu ugf fndfyda tall mlaIs; fudhq, Wm moaO;sj,g taldnoaO lr kej; mlaIdjg
,la lrkq ,nhs' fuu mlaIdf wruqK jkqfha fudhq, ksishdldrj taldnoaO lr we;aoehs
fidhd ne,Su h' fjk;a wdldrhlska lshf;d;a fuu.ska islrkqfha fudhq, w;r w;=re
uqyqK;a wjOdrKfhka hq;=j mlaId lsu h'
moa O ;s mla I dj
fuys imQK uDldx.h mlaIdjg ,la flf' fuu l%shdldrlu i|yd iuqoafoaY f,aLkhla
jYfhka fhdod.kq ,nkqfha moaO;s wjYH;d f,aLkhhs'
80
fuys wruqK jkafka uDldx.h tys wjYH;djka imqrd we;aoehs fidhd ne,Suhs'
fuh fndfyda g j,x.=;d mlaIKhla jk w;r fndfyda wjia:dj, fhdod.kakd tl u
j,x.=ldrl l%shdldrlu o fuh f' moaO;s mlaIdj jvd;a M,odhS jkafka iajdk lKavdhula
md,s; mirhl islrk g hs'
fuu l%shdjg wu;rj moaO;sfha iqrlaIs;;dj" m%;sidOkh (recovery) iy moaO;sh kej; kshu
wdldrfhka mgka.kafka o hkak mlaIdjg ,la l< hq;=h'
m% ; s . % y K mla I dj
m%;s.%yK mlaIdj i|yd fhdod.kq ,nkafka o;a; h' fuys fiajdodhlhdg" m%jOkh l<
uDldx.h i;=gqodhl f,i l%shd;aul jk nj wdoYkh lr fmkah hq;=h'
fuys mlaIdjg ,la lrkq ,nkafka moaO;sfha ienE yeisuhs'
fiajd odhlhd fhda; moaO;sh wkqu; lsu fyda m%;slafIam lsu islrkq ,nkqfha fuu
mlaIdfjka wk;=rej h' B<`. whr jk moaO;s l%shd;aul lsf whr wdrN lrkq ,ef'
l=vd lKavdh wkdjrK iuia; mka;shg bm;a lrkak'

ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug m<uq wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fiiq lKavdhj, ixjOkd;aul woyia uikak'
fla;lrKfha ta i|yd we;s YslaIKhka Nd; l< hq;= nj
fla;lrKfhka miq th yhdldrj ,shd we;aoehs ;yjqre l< hq;= nj
moaO;sh mlaId lsug mlaIl wjYH wdodk we;=<;a lr m%;sodkj, ksrjoH;dj mlaId
l< hq;= nj fuu mlaIdj ld, uxcqid mlaIdj fyj;a Black Box Testing hkqfjka
ykajkq ,nk nj
moaO;sh mlaId lsf m<uqj tla tla ixrpl ;ks ;ksj u mlaIdjg ,la l< hq;=
nj' fuh tall mlaIdj kka ykajk nj
l%uf,aLfha fudhq, Wm moaO;sj,g taldnoaO lr mlaIdjg ,la l< hq;= nj' fuh
taldnoaO mlaIdj kka ykajk nj
imQK uDldx.h mlaIdjg ,la l< hq;= nj' th moaO;s mlaIdj kka ykajk nj
;d;al o;a; wdodkh lr fiajdodhlhdg moaO;sh i;=gqodhl f,i l%shd;aul jk nj
wdoYkh lr fmkah hq;=nj' fuh m%;s.%yK mlaIdj kka ykajk nj
wjidkfha Wiia m%;sfhka hq;= ksuejqula fiajdodhlhdg ,ndh hq;= nj
81
ks m q K ;dj 13(
f;dr;=re yd ikaksfok ;dlaIKfha kj keUqrej iy wkd.;

Ydk;sh .fIKh lrhs'
m.Klfha kj keUqre;d iy wkd.; Ydk;sh .fIKh lrhs'
ld,h(
ld,fo y;rhs
bf.kq M,(
;d;al f,dalfha ksoiqka ;=<ska nqoah yd ye`.S ms<sn| ixl,am ykd .kshs'
nqoauh hka;% oHdf tk (Artificial Intelligence) nqoauh m.Kl l%uf,aL ms<sn| .fIKh
lrhs'
lkafia moaO;s (Kansei Systems) iy ye`.S ms<sn| m.Kl l%uf,aL .fIKh lrhs'
nqoauh hka;% oHdj iy lkafia moaO;s hkq iajNdl nqoah$ ye`.S ms<sn| m.Kl
l%uf,aLl jk w;r" tajd lD;s%u nqoahla fyda ye`.Sula .ek fkdmjihs'
fyg k f,dalfha we;sh yels ksia$hka;% iymeje;au (Coexistance) meye,s lrhs'

ms iS u (
ukqIHdN (Humanoid) frdfndajl=f.a fhda oYkhla mka;shg bm;a lrkak'

my; oelafjk lreKq biau;=jkfia idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
wm lrkakdjQ tfkod l%shdldrl i|yd nqoah Nd; jk nj
tjeks yqremqre ye`.S k l< yels nj
tjeks ye`.S nr ,laIK iy nqoah frdfndajl= i;=jk nj
tjeks ukqIHdN frdfndajl= m.Kl ;dlaIKh ;=<ska ksudKh l< yels nj

.=rejrhd iska ixOdkh lr.;a f,djl i-Robot ;%mgh krUkak'
;%mfha tk ukqIHdN frdfndajrekaf.a p;j, we;s nqoauh yd ye`.=nr ,laIK ykd
.kak'
fuys Tn olsk ksia yd frdfndajkaf.a iymeje;au ms<sn| ksoiqka idlPd lrkak'
nqoauh hka;% oHdj$lkafia moaO;sj, w: oelau yd lD;%su nqoah ms<sn|j my; oelafjk
fj wv w;ka Tn lKavdhug ,efnk fj wvh Tiafia fydka lreKq yodrkak'
Wikipedia
American Association for Artificial Intelligence
Sri Lanka Association for Artificial Intelligence
Tn lKavdhug ,e we;s fj wvh u.ska wod< ud;Dldjg wkqj f;dr;=re .fIkh
lrkak'
Tnf.a wkdjrK wdlYkSh yd ksudKYS,Sj iuia; mka;shg bm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
82

ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhug m<uq wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
fiiq lKavdhj, ixjOkd;aul woyia uikak'
ukqIHdN frdfndajl=g nqoah yd ye`.S nr ,laIK we;s nj
frdfndajl=f.a ish ,laIK iajdNdl nqoah$ye`.S j, wdlD;shla nj
lD;%su nqoah ye`.S ms<sn| woyila fkdjk nj
nqoah yd ye`.S hkq tlsfklg fjkia oE nj
wkd.;fha ksiqka jeksu hka;% ysjk nj
wjidkfha hka;%hla ksiqkag jvd my< fyda by< ugulg m;a fkdjk w;r ksiqka
iu`. hka;% iymeje;af mj;sk nj
83
we.hS ie,iq
^1&
we.hS wjia:dj
m<uq jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 1
^2&
wdjrKh flfrk
ksmqK;d ug
10'3" 10'4
^3&
WmlrKhg wod<
Ih ikaOdrh
HTML NdIdj
ykajd u
HTML iu;hka
f.dkq .= (Extentions)
fj msgqjla i|yd uQ,sldx. we;=<;a lsu
wl=re" ;%" Y%jH" oDYH" p,k rEm
hqKq ,laIK Nd;fhka jia;+ka (Objects) ixOdkh
lsu
wdlD;s" ,ehsia;=" j.=" rduq ksudKh lsu
nyq O fj wka;.;hka inkaO lsu
weuqKq" msgq" nyq udOH jia;+ka
^4&
WmlrKfha iajNdjh
m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlu
^5&
WmlrKfha wruqKq
fj<| m%pdrl lghq;= i|yd .;dkq.;sl l%uj,ska

neyerj kj ;dlaIKsl l%u fhdod.kS'
ksudKd;aul ka;kh jehqKq lr .kshs'
jH ixOdkh lsu wdlYKSh f,i is lrhs'
f,aLkhlg weuqKqula l%udkql+,j ia:dk.; lrhs'
^6&
l%shd;aul lsu i|yd

.=re Wmfoia
ksmqK;d ugu 10'4 wjidkfha m%dfhda.sl

l%shdldrlula lsug we;s nj ksmqK;d ugu 10'3
wdrNfha u isiqkg oekq fokak'
we.hS ksKdhl ms<sn| isiqka oekqj;a lrkak'
mka;h
s lKavdh 3lg fnod tla tla lKavdhug my;
i|yka m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlu ,nd fokak'
fj<| m%pdrl lghq;= i|yd Nd; l< yels wju
jYfhka msgq folla iys; fj tlla ksudKh
lrkak' ^uq,a msgqj iy wE msgq&
iEu isiqfjla u ;ud wh;a lKavdhf l%shdldrlu
;ud m%dfhda.l
s j fj msgj
q la ksudKh lsf ,nd.;a
oekqu weiqre fldg l<hq;= nj okajkak'
m%dfhda.l
s l%h
s dldrlu ndru i|yd khla wjOdrKh
lrkak'
wod< tla tla wjia:df ksKdhlj,g wkqj ,l=Kq
,nd fokak'
84
l%shd;aul lsu i|yd

isiq Wmfoia
7&
.=re Wmfoia ms<smkak'

wod< m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlu i|yd wjYH f;dr;=re
.=re Nj;df.ka wid oek.kak'
ksh; khg wod< m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlu .==re;=udg
,ndug j. n,d .kak'
lKavdhf iEu idudlhl= u m%dfhda.l
s l%h
s dldrlug
iyNd.s h hq;= nj i,lkak'
.=re;=ud okajk kfha Tf iajhx l%shdldrlu
.=re;=udg bm;a lsug j. n,d .kak'
iajhx l%shdldrl ish,a, ie,ls,a,g f.k .=re;=ud
okajk khl ;ks l%shdldrlula ilia lrkak'
,l=Kqf l%uh
ksKdhl
m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlug wod<j wx. we;=<;a lr ;su'

ksh; khg lghq;= ksu lsu'
Ih lreKq fuka u kj f;dr;=re o we;=<;a lr ;su'
.=re Wmfoia ms<smeu'
ksudKYS,Sj bm;a lsu'
,l=Kq mrdih
b;d fyd|hs
fyd|hs
uOHia:hs
ixjOkh h hq;=hs
85
04
03
02
01
we.hS ie,iq
^1&
we.hS wjia:dj
fojk jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 2
^2&
wdjrKh flfrk
ksmqK;d ug
8'9" 8'10" 8'11
^3&
WmlrKhg wod<
Ih ikaOdrh
jD; moaO;s wka; inkaO;d (Open System, Inter

Connection) ia;r yf;a kshudj,S wdlD;sh
cd, Wmdx. yd tajdfha uQ,sl ldhhka
mSgr (Repeters), m%;sckl (Regenerators)
kdNs (Hub), fia;= (Bridges), iap (Switches)
ud. ldrl (Routers), fodrgq ux (Gateways)
fiajd odhl" wkq.%dyl kHdi (Client Server
Configuration)
^4&
WmlrKfha iajNdjh
;a;s mqj;am;
^5&
WmlrKfha wruqKq
ksudKd;aul ka;kh yd ,sf yelshdj jehqKq

lr .kshs'
f;dr;=re fiug kj uQ,dY% lrd fhduq f'
m.Kl cd,j, uQ,l
s Wmdx. yd ia:r yf;a kshudj,sh
ms<sn| oekqu jehqKq lr .kshs'
^6&
l%shd;aul lsu i|yd

.=re Wmfoia
ksmqK;d ugu 8'11 wjidkfha m%dfhda.sl

l%shdldrlula lsug we;s nj ksmqK;d ugu 8'9
mka;h
s lKavdh 3lg fnod tla tla lKavdhug my;
i|yka ud;Dld w;ka tla ud;Dldj ne.ska ,nd fokak'
ia;r yf;a kshudj,s wdlD;sh
cd, Wmdx. yd tajdfha uQ,sl ldhhka
fiajdodhl wkq.%dyl kHdih
iEu isif
q jla u ;ud wh;a lKavdhug ,ndka ud;Dldj
ms<sn| ;a;s mqj;am;la ;ud l,ska bf.k.;a foa iy
uqs; fyda oHq;a udOH u.ska ,nd.;a oekqu weiqre
fldg ksudKh l<hq;= nj okajkak'
isiq ksudK ndru i|yd khla wjOdrKh
lrkak'
ixfYdaOkfhka miq wod< lKavdh fj; ,ndka
ish u lKavdh ;=< isiqkaf.a wOHhkfhka miq ;ks
ksudKhla f,i oelaug isiqka oekqj;a lrkak'
86
l%shd;aul lsu i|yd

isiq Wmfoia

,nd fokak'

wod< ksudK i|yd wod< f;dr;=re mqj;a m;a" i`.rd"
wka; cd,h hkd ud. mYS,kfhka ,nd .kak'
ksh; khg wod< ksudK ,ndug j. n,d .kak'
lKavdhf iEu idudlhl= u ud;Dldjg wod<j
f;dr;=re /ia lsu l<hq;= nj i,lkak'
.=re;=ud okajk lrk kfha Tf iajhx ksudK
iajhx ksudK ish,a, ie,ls,a,g f.k .=re;=ud
okajk khl ;ks jd;djla ilia lrkak'
tu ksudK wod< kfha mqj;am; i|yd ,nd fokak'
7&
,l=Kqf l%uh
ksKdhl
ud;Dldjg wod<j f;dr;=re we;=<;a lr ;su'

ksh; khg lghq;= ksu lsu'
Ih lreKq fuka u kj f;dr;=re o we;=<;a lr ;su'
,l=Kq mrdih
b;d fyd|hs
fyd|hs
uOHia:hs
ixjOkh h hq;=hs
87
04
03
02
01
we.hS ie,iq
^1&
we.hS wjia:dj
f;jk jdrh" we.hS wjia:dj 3
^2&
wdjrKh flfrk
ksmqK;d ug
8'13" 8'14" 8'15
^3&
WmlrKhg wod<
wka;cd,h
imhk fiajdjka
Yaj is huk (WWW)
fmd wk;=re (Common Vulnerabilities)
;ck (Threats)
wdl%uK (Attacks)
fodaI ckl jevigyka (Malwares)
^4&
WmlrKfha iajNdjh
.fIKh
^5&
WmlrKfha wruqKq
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88
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Abstract
Abstraction
Acknowledgement
Addition
Addressing
Address space
Advantages
Alignment
Algorithms
Amplitude
Analog
Application Servers
Architecture
Arguments
Arithmetic & Logic Unit
Associative
Attenuation
Attribute
Auction
Authentication
Automated
Axiom
Bandwidth
Backup
Basic
Batch
Binary
BIOS-Basic Input Output System
Bit / Byte
Bitwise
Blocked State
Blogs
Booting
Boolean Algebra
Boundary
Cache Memory
90
Capacity
Canonical
Causes
Characteristics
Chunk
Classes
Classification
Client
Clips
CMOS Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Collecting
Command
Communication Partners
Communication Technology
Commutative
Compaction
Compare
Competency
Competency Level
Compiler
Complement
Computer
Computer Based
Computing
Concept
Concurrent Execution
Context Switch
Control Unit
Copyright
Counter
Coverage
CPU(Central Processing Unit)
Crackers
Criteria
Created State
Data
Data Flow Diagram
Data Packets
Decimal
91
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Definition
Defragmentation
Degree
Dependency
Design
DHCP Servers
Digital
Dialup
Digital Circuit
Digital Signature
Direct
Directory
Disadvantages
Disclosure
Disk
Dispatcher
Distortion
Distributive
Division
Domain
Domain Name Service Server
Eaves dropping
Electro Mechanical
Electronic
Elements
Elcode
Encrypted
Entities
Error Checking
Espionage
Evolution
Executable
Features
Fiber Optics
Field
File
Firewalls
Firmware
92
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Fixed
Flash Memory
Floating Point
Flow Charts
Flow Control
Folder
Format
Fragmentation
Frames
Frame Synchronization
Gateway
Generalization
Generation
Grading
Guided
Hackers
Headings
Hand Traces
Hardware
Hardware Interrupt
Hexadecimal
Hierarchy
Host Computer
Humanoid
Hyperlink
Hypertext
Identifiers
Identity
Image Maps
Implementation
Inaccuracy
Index
Independence
Information
Infrared
Input
Instruction Set
Integer
Integrated Development Environment
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Interface
Internet
Interpreter
Intranet
Karnaugh Map
Kansei Systems
Kernel
Key Constraints
Keyword
Landmark
Laws
Leased Line
Libraries
Lists
Logic
Logic Gates
Logical Link
Logical Link Control Layer
Magnetic
Mail Servers
Malware
Management
Manual handling
Mapping
Mark up language
Mash up
Media access control
Memory
Meta data
Methods
MICR
Micro
Micro Processors
Microwave
Mini
Mobile Computing
Motherboard
Multimedia
Multiplication
94
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Multiprogramming
Multitasking
Multi-user
Network
Newsgroups
Non Volatile Memory
Normalization
Number System
Numeric Data
Object Oriented
Objects
OCR
Octal
Offset
OMR
Open Source Software
Operating System
Optical
Organization
Organizing
Output
Paging
Parameter
Password
Patch
Performance
Phase
Phased Implimentation
Physhing
Pictures
Pilot
Pilot Implimentation
Pits
Plagiarism
Plan
Playback
Platform Independent
Portals
Postulate
95
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l%shdhk ;;a;ajh
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m%isoaO lsu" m%ldYhg m;a lsu
lafjdkag
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mrdih
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Presentation
Problem
Procedures
Process
Process State
Processes
Process Scheduling
Process Scheduler
Programme
Programmer
Proprietary
Protocols
Prototype
Proxy Servers
Pseudo Codes
Publishing
Quantum
Random Access Memory - RAM
Range
Read Only Memory
Re-entered
Real time
Real Time Processing
Receiver
Reduction
Redundancy
Reference
Refresh
Relationship
Remedies
Remote
Register
Repudiation
Response Time
Reverse
Review
Router
Running State
Save
96
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m%;syrKh l< iy wjysr l< ;;a;ajh
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moaO;s m%jOkh
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Scheduling
Schema
Secondary Storage
Selection
Semi conductor
Sensor
Sequence
Sessions
Servers
Settings
Simple
Single Precision
Single User
Slowness
Software
Software Interrupt
Solution
Sort
Source file
Spiral
Spoofing
Standardization
Statement
Storage
Subtraction
Support
Swapping
Swapped out and Waiting State
Swapped and Blocked State
Switching
Synchronization
Syntax
System Development
System Flow Diagram
Tables
Tag
Tampering
Techniques
Technology
97
fm< ixialdrl
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Text editor
Terminated State
Theorem
Theorems
Thread
Throughput
Time Sharing
Topologies
Transistor
Translate
Translators
Transmitter
Transmission Mode
Truth Table
Turnaround
Tuples
Twisted Pair
Two state logic
Type
Unique
Update
User
User Authentication
Variables
Verification
Video Conferencing
Virtual Memory
Volatile Memory
Waiting State
Waiting Time
Web Browsers
Web Servers
Word length
World Wide Web
Zombies
98

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