SUNDARBAN WILDLIFE

SANCTUARIES

BANGLADESH

Sundarban Wildlife Sanctuaries (Bangladesh)

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WORLD HERITAGE

NOMINATION

- IUCN TECHNICAL

EVALUATION

SUNDARBAN WILDLIFE

SANCTUARIES

(BANGLADESH)

1.

DOCUMENTATION

(i)

lUCN/WCMC Data Sheet(25 references)

(ii) Additional Literature Consulted: Dugan, P. ed. 1993. Wetlands in Danger; Mackinnon, J. 1997. Protected Area Systems Review of the Indomalayan Realm. World Bank Report; Alcom, J.B. and N. Johnson. 1989. Conservation of Biodiversity in Bangladesh. WRlrUSAlD Report; NazrulIslam, A.K.M. 1993. Environment and Vegetation of SundarbansMangrove Forest. jar Lieth, H. ed. Towards the Rational Use of High Salinity Tolerant Plants. Kluwer; Pemetta, J. ed. 1993. Marine Protected Area Needs in the South Asian SeasRegion Vol. 1 Bangladesh. IUCN; Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems. IUCN. 1983; Handbook for Mangrove Area Management. IUCN. 1984. (iii) Consultations: 6 external reviewers, Ministry of Environment and Forest officials, University of Dhaka and Khulna staff; conservation Non-Governmental organisations (Wildlife Society, CARDMA). (iv) Field Visit: J. Thorsell, February, 1997 2.
SUMMARY OF NATURAL VALUES

The Sundarbansmangrove forest, one of the largest such forests in the world is formed at the delta of the Ganges,Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal. Total area of the entire Sundarbansis about one million ha, 60% of which is found in Bangladeshand the rest in India. The initial area nominated was the Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary, a 71,500ha area adjacent to the border of Indias Sundarbans World Heritage site. The Raimangal River separatesthe two countries. In responseto the recommendation of the Bureau the Bangladesh government agreed to also include the Sundarbans South (37,OOOha) and Sundarbans East (3 1,OOOha) Sanctuaries. Total size of the three sanctuaries is 139,700ha. The three sanctuaries are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mud flats and small islands of salt tolerant mangrove forests. The area is flooded with brackish water during high tides which mix with freshwater from inland rivers. Becauseof the dominance of saline conditions, the forest flora in the western Sundarbansis not as diverse as in the east. Forest areasare dominated by a few speciesmostly Sundri and Gewu and patchesof Nypa palm and several other of the 27 species of mangrove that are found in the Sundarbans.The fauna of the three sanctuaries,however, is very diverse with some 40 speciesof mammals, 260 speciesof birds and 35 species of reptiles. The flagship species is the Royal Bengal Tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are wild boar, spotted deer, Indian otter and macaque monkey. Five speciesof marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangeredreptiles are present the estuarine crocodile and the Indian python. Crustacea (fiddler and mud crabs) account for the largest portion of the animal biomass. Rainfall along the coast is as high as 2,800mm with a six month dry season followed by a monsoon during June to October. Storms, cyclones and tidal surges up to 7.5m high are features of the area.

Sundarban Wildlife Sanctuaries (Bangladesh)

27

The specific criteria on which the Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuaries (SWS) is being nominated were not provided in the nomination but are imputed to be criteria (ii) and (iv) (the same as used for the adjacent SundarbansWorld Heritage Site in India).
3. COMPARISON WITH OTHER AREAS

Mangroves are characteristic littoral plant formations found on sheltered coastlines throughout the tropics and subtropics. Countries with the greatest extent of mangrove forests are Brazil, Indonesia. Australia and Nigeria. The Sundarbansmangrove area of India and Bangladesh when taken together forms one of the worlds largest single patches: some one million ha. In terms of species richness, the mangroves of the lndomalayan Realm have the greatestdiversity and the Sundarbansare the only mangrove area in the world inhabited by tigers. Some 18 countries have established protected areas in mangrove forests: In most of these countries the individual areas under protection are less than 1,OOOha. However, protection is afforded to a total of over 11,OOOha four reserves in Venezuela and 26 reservestotalling more than 80,OOOha in have been established in Australia. The Everglades World Heritage Site contains almost 100,OOOha mangrove making it the of worlds second largest mangrove protected area after the Sundarbans.There are also significant amounts of mangrove in Australias Kakadu National Park and in the Wet Tropics and small amounts in the Aldabra and Belize Barrier Reef World Heritage sites. Within the Sundarbansthere are four protected areas including the SundarbansNational Park and World Heritage Site in India (133,OOOha). Three of the four are contiguous. As the salinity gradient is from west to east, the most biologically rich areas of the Sundarbansare in the east where freshwater influences are greater. The existing Sundarbanssite in India and the adjacent SundarbansWest Sanctuary in Bangladesh are thus in the strongly saline zone where diversity is lowest and the trees are stunted and have a poor form. All the above four protected areasin the Sundarbanscollectively conservethe only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for a variety of fauna1species,many of them threatened.
4. INTEGRITY

The Sundarbansregion of Bangladeshand India has changed substantially. It is today only one half the size it formerly was, the other half being cleared and converted to agricultural uses over the past 150 years. There have been significant changes due to the reduced quantity of freshwater inflow (40% of the dry seasonflow is diverted by the Farraka Barrage) and declining water quality. Six major animal specieshave been extirpated this century: the Javan rhino, wild buffalo, swamp deer, hog deer, gaur and mugger crocodile. Therefore, the Sundarbansof today are greatly reduced in both extent and diversity. There are no villages in the Sundarbanssanctuaries but the whole area provides a livelihood for some 300,000 people, working seasonallyas wood-cutters, palm collectors, fishermen, and honey hunters. About two million live in villages surrounding the Sundarbans and depend for much of their subsistence on products from the Sundarbans.The SWS amounts to 24% of the total Sundarbansin Bangladesh and uses inside the area are strictly controlled. The whole of the SundarbansReservedForest has an integrated resourcedevelopment plan which includes a wildlife chapter. Specific managementplans for the three Wildlife Sanctuariesare now being prepared. The Bangladesh Government has recently upgraded the management of all three of the Sanctuaries. Each sanctuary now has three field stations, each with nine staff equipped with patrol boats. There is no contact with colleaguesworking in the SundarbansNational Park in India.
5. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS

The SWS is directly adjacent to the National Park on the Indian side which was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1987. The Sundarbansare one ecological unit and indeed were managed as a single forest
Sundarban Wildlife Sanctuaries (Bangladesh)
28

block prior to national partitioning in 1947. As recommended in.IUCNs 1987 evaluation of the Indian portion, a transfrontier site is again suggested.This is clearly consistent with the ecological realities of the area, the spirit of the Convention and Operational Guideline 16. The Governments of India and Bangladesh will need to be approachedthrough official channels to consent to the possibility that. for purposes of the World Heritage List, a Sundarbansprotected area transfrontier site would be acceptable. In light of the recent cooperative agreement on equitable sharing of water resources between the two countries such a gestureof cooperation would seemtimely. Until there is bilateral agreement on a transfiontier site the name of the Bangladesh portion should be SundarbansWildlife Sanctuaries. 6. APPLICABILITY OF WORLD HERITAGE NATURAL CRITERIA

The SWS includes three protected areas in one of the largest remaining areasof mangroves in the world. It is adjacent to the existing Sundarbans World Heritage Site in India and supports a wide range of fauna including the Bengal Tiger and other threatened species. SWS meets criterion (ii) as a significant example of an on-going ecological process with its exceptional display of the effects of monsoonal rains, flooding, delta formation, tidal influence and plant colonisation. It also meets criterion iv for its exceptional biodiversity and as a haven for many threatenedspecies,especially Bengal tigers. 7. RECOMMENDATIONS

That the SundarbansWild Sanctuariesbe inscribed on the World Heritage List under criteria ii and iv. The Government of Bangladesh should be commended for responding to the Bureaus request to extend the boundary of the site to include all three of the sanctuaries on the Bangladesh side. As the adjacent SundarbansNational Park in India is already inscribed on the World Heritage List, the authorities in both countries should be encouraged to agree to the joint listing of the site as a transfiontier World Heritage property.

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50 Klbtnetws

COUNTRY Bangladesh NAME The Sundarbans IUCN MANAGEMENT CATEGORY Sundarbans East, West and South Wildlife Sanctuaries Natural World Heritage Site (proposed)- Criteria ii, iii, iv BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE 4.03.01 (BengalianRainforest) GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION The Sundarbans consist of three wildlife sanctuaries (SundarbansWest, East and South) lying on disjunct deltaic islands in the SundarbansForest Division of Khulna District, close to the border with India and just west of the main outflow of the Ganges,Brahmaputraand Meghna rivers. 2130-2230N, 8912-9018E. DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT All three wildlife sanctuaries were establishedin 1977 under the BangladeshWildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, having first been gazettedas forest reservesin 1878. The total area of wildlife sanctuarieswas extended in 1996. The entire Sundarbansis reserved forest, established under the Indian Forest Act, 1878. AREA Total area of Bangladeshsection of Sundarbansis 595,OOOha which 139,699ha are of protected as follows: SundarbansWest Wildlife Sanctuary with 71,502ha; SundarbansEast Wildlife Sanctuarywith 31,226ha; and SundarbansSouth Wildlife Sanctuarywith 36,970ha. SundarbansNational Park (133,01Oha),a World Heritage Site, lies to the west in India. LAND TENURE Stateowned ALTITUDE Rangesfrom sealevel to three metres. IV (ManagedNature Reserve)

PHYSICAL FEATURES The Sundarbans,covering some 10,OOOsqkm land and water, of is part of the worlds largest delta (80,OOOsqkm) formed from sedimentsdeposited by three great rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, which converge on the Bengal Basin (Seidenstickerand Hai, 1983). The total area of the BangladeshSundarbansis 5,77 lsqkm (almost 62 percent of the total), of which 4,071sq.km is land and the rest water (Christensen, 1984). This area is approximately half the size of the area of mangrove that existed 200 years ago, the other half being cleared and converted to agricultural land (Hussain and Archarya 1994). The land is moulded by tidal action, resulting in a distinctive physiography. An intricate network of interconnecting waterways, of which the larger channelsof often a mile or more in width run in a generally north-south direction, intersectsthe whole area. Innumerable small khals drain the land at each ebb. Rivers tend to be long and straight, a consequenceof the strong tidal forces and the clay and silt deposits which resist erosion. Easily eroded sands collect at the river mouths and form banks and chars, which are blown into dunes above the high-water mark by the strong south-westmonsoon. Finer silts are washedout into the Bay of Bengal but, where they are protected from wave action, mud flats form in the lee of the dunes. These become overlain with sand from the dunes, and develop into grassy middens. This process of island building continues for as long as the area on the windward side is exposed to wave action. With the formation of the next island further out, silt begins to accumulatealong the shore of the island and sandis blown or washedaway (Seidenstickerand Hai, 1983). Apart from Baleswar River the waterways carry little freshwater as they are cut off from the Ganges, the outflow of which has shifted from the Hooghly-Bhagirathi channels in India progressively eastwardssince the 17th century. They are kept open largely by the diurnal tidal flow (Seidenstickerand Hai, 1983).

Alluvial deposits are geologically very recent and deep. The soil is a silty clay loam with alternate layers of clay, silt and sand. The surface is clay except on the seaward side of islands in the coastal limits, where sandy beachesoccur. In the easternpart of the Sundarbans the surface soil is soft and fertile, whereasit is harder and less suitable for tree growth in the west (Choudhury, 1968). The pH averages8.0 (Christensen,1984). CLIMATE Rainfall is heavy and humidity high (80%) due to the proximity of the Bay of Bengal. About 80% of the rain fall in the monsoon, which lasts from June to October. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 1,800mm at Khulna, north of the Sundarbans,to 2,790mm on the coast. There is a six-month dry season during which evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. Conditions are most saline in February-April, the depletion of soil moisture being coupled with reduced freshwater flow from upstream. Temperatures rise from daily minima of 2-4C in winter to a maximum of about 43C in March and may exceed 32C in the monsoon. Storms are common in May and October-November and may develop into cyclones, usually accompaniedby tidal waves of up to 7.5m high (Seidenstickerand Hai, 1983). Climatic data for Khulna are summarisedby Christensen(1984). VEGETATION The mangrovesof the Sundarbans unique when comparedto non-deltaic are coastal mangrove forest. Unlike the latter, the Rhizophoraceae of only minor importance are and the dominant speciesare sundri Heritiera fames, from which the Sundarbanstakes its name, and gewa Excoecaria agallocha. The reason for this difference is the large freshwater influence in the north-eastern part and the elevated level of the ground surface. The Sundarbanscan be classified as moist tropical seral forest, comprising a mosaic of beach forest and tidal forest (Champion, 1936). Of the latter, there are four types: low mangrove forests, tree mangrove forests, salt-water Heritiera forests and freshwater Heritiera forests. Sundarbans West occurs within the salt-water zone, which supports sparse Ecoecaria agallocha, a denseunderstory of Ceriops, and densepatchesof hantal palm Phoenixpaludosa on drier soils. Dhundal and passur Xylocalpus spp., and Bruguiera occur sporadically throughout the area. Sundri and gewa cover most of the Sundarbansbut Oryza coarctata, Nypa fruticans and Imperata cylindrica are prevalent on mud flats (Khan, 1986). Large stands of keora Sonneratia apetala are found on newly accreted mudbanks and provide important wildlife habitat (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). Prain (1903) gives an account of the flora of the mangrove forest of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. Seidensticker and Hai (1983) report a total of 334 plant species, representing 245 genera, present in the Bangladesh portion of the delta, and list principal woody and herbaceousspecies.Chaffey and Sandom(1985) provide a detailed list of trees and shrubs in the Bangladeshportion. Islam (1973) provides an accountof the algal flora of the mangroves. FAUNA The Sundarbansis the only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for a variety of fauna1species.The presenceof 49 mammal specieshas been documented.Of these, no less than five spectacularspecies, namely Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus (CR), water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (EN), swamp deer Cervus duvauceli (VU), gaur Bosfrontalis (VU) and probably hog deer Axis porcinus (LR) have become locally extirpated since the beginning of this century (Salter, 1984). The only primate is rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, consideredby Blower (1985) to number in the region of 40,000 to 68,200, basedon surveys by Hendrichs (1975) and Khan (1986), respectively, as comparedto the much higher estimateof 126,220 derived by Gittins (1981). The Sundarbansof Bangladesh and India support one of the largest populations of tiger Panthera tigris (EN), with an estimated350 in that of the former (Hendrichs, 1975). Again, Gittins estimate of 430-450 tigers may be overoptimistic (see Blower, 1985). Spotted deer Cewus axis, estimatesof which vary between 52,600 (Khan, 1986) and 80,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), and wild boar Sus scrofa, estimated at 20,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), are the principal

prey of the tiger, which also has a notorious reputation for man-eating. Of the three speciesof otter, smooth-coatedotter Lutra perspicillata (VU), estimatedto number 20,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), is domesticatedby fishermen and used to drive fish into their nets (Seidenstickerand Hai, 1983). Other mammalsinclude three speciesof wild cat, FeZis bengalensis, F. chaus and F. viverrina, and GangesRiver dolphin Platanista gangetica (EN), which occurs in some of the larger waterways. Speciesaccountsand a check-list are given by Salter (1984). The varied and colourful bird-life to be seen along its waterways is one of the Sundarbans greatest attractions. A total 315 specieshave been recorded (Hussain and Acharya, 1994), including about 95 species of waterfowl (Scott, 1989) and 38 species of raptors (Sarker, 1985b). Among the many which may be readily seen by the visitor are no less than nine species of kingfisher, including brown-winged and stork-billed kingfishers, Pelargopsis amauropterus (NT) and P. capensis, respectively; the magnificent white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus Zeucogaster which, at a density of one individual per 53. lkm of waterways (Sarker, 1985), is quite common; also the much rarer grey-headedfish eagle Zchthyophaga ichthyaetus (NT), Pallass fish-eagle Haliaeetus Zeucoryphus and several other raptors. Herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers,whimbrel, curlew and numerous other waders are to be seenalong the muddy banks and on the chars or sandbankswhich becomeexposedduring the dry season. There are many speciesof gulls and terns, especially along the coast and the larger waterways. Apart from those speciesparticularly associated with the sea and wetlands, there is also a considerable variety of forest birds such as woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongos, mynahs, minivets, babblers and many others (Salter, 1984). Scott (1989) gives further details of the avifauna. Some 53 reptile speciesand eight of amphibianshave been recorded (Hussain and Acharya, 1994). Of thesemugger Crocodyluspalustris (VU) is now extinct, probably as a result of past over-exploitation, although it still occurs in at least one location nearby (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). Estuarinecrocodile C porosus still survives but its numbershave been greatly depleted through hunting and trapping for skins, There are also three species of monitor, Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens and I? salvator, and Indian python Python molurus (NT). Four species of marine turtle have been recorded from the area, olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (EN) being the most abundant. Green turtle Chelonia mydas (EN) is rare due to excessive fishing, while loggerhead Caretta caretta (EN) and hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata (CR) are not common although there have been some reported on the beaches (Hussain and Acharya, 1994). River terrapin Batagur baska (EN) is also present. The eighteenrecorded snakespeciesinclude king cobra Ophiophagus hannah and spectacledcobra Naja naja, three vipers and six sea-snakes (Salter, 1984). Over 120 speciesof fish are reported to be commonly caught by commercial fishermen in the Sundarbans(Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). According to Mukherjee (1975) only brackish water speciesand marine forms are found in the Indian Sundarbans,freshwater speciesbeing totally absent. This may be assumedto apply also to the Bangladesh Sundarbans, except possibly in the easternportion where there is freshwater in Baleswar River. Mention should also be made of mud-skippersor gobys which occur in large numbers and are a characteristic feature of mangrove swamps. Crustaceaaccount for by far the largest proportion of animal biomass, with an estimated 40 million kilograms of fiddler crabs and 100 million kilograms of mud crabs (Hendrichs, 1975). The nutrient-rich waters of the Sundarbansalso yield a considerable harvest of shrimps, prawns and lobsters. The area supportsa varied insect population including large numbers of honey-bees, honey and beeswax being among the economically important products. The insect life of the Sundarbans been little studied. has CULTURAL HERITAGE There is archaeologicalevidenceof earlier human occupation on

the deltaic islands. The human settlementsare indicative of the former presenceof abundant freshwater, both from the Ganges and from non-saline ground water. Human occupation ceasedin the 17th century, reportedly due to pirate attacks(Christensen,1984). LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION Approximately 2.5 million people live in small villages surrounding the Sundarbans.The area provides a livelihood at certain seasons the year for of an estimated300,000 people, working variously as wood-cutters, fishermen, and gatherersof honey, golpatta leaves (Nipa fruticans) and grass. Fishermen come in their boats from as far away as Chittagong and establish temporary encampmentsat various sites along the coast, where they remain until the approachof the monsoon seasonin April before returning to their homes. Apart from the large numbers of people employed by contractors in the commercial exploitation of sundri and other tree species,the local people are themselvesdependenton the forest and waterways for such necessities firewood, timber for boats, poles for house-posts as and rafters, golpatta leaf for roofing, grass for matting, reeds for fencing and fish for their own consumption. The seasonfor collecting honey and wax is limited to two and a half months commencing annually on 1 April. Thousandsof people, having first obtained their permits from the Forest Department, enter the forest in search of bee nests which are collected and then crushedto extract the honey and wax. VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES Few tourists visit the Sundarbansdue to the difficulty and cost of arranging transport and to the lack of suitable accommodationand other facilities. The area has no potential for masstourism but it does offer obvious possibilities for limited special-interesttourism from October to April or May. The use of launchesequipped with catering and sleeping facilities is consideredmore practicable than permanentland-based facilities and would provide greater flexibility. There is, however, a large well-equipped rest house belonging to the Port Authority at Hiron Point, SundarbansSouth Wildlife Sanctuary, and a smaller one belonging to the Forest Department at Katka in SundarbansEast Wildlife Sanctuary(Blower, 1985). SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES Considerableresearchhas been carried out on the Sundarbans ecosystemand its wildlife. Hendrichs (1975) undertook a three-month field study of tiger, concentrating on the problem of man-eating, and other vertebrates and invertebrates, in 1971. Other fauna1surveys include those of Gittins (1981) and Khan (1986) for rhesus macaque, Khan (1986) for spotted deer, Sarker and Sarker (1986) for birds, and Sarker (1985a, 1985b) and Sarker and Sarker (1985) for birds of prey. About 500 foreign tourists visited the area in 1996 plus 5000 domestictourists, the majority at the South Wildlife Sanctuary. CONSERVATION VALUE The mangrove forests of the Sundarbansare among the richest and most extensive in the world. The Bangladeshportion, covering six percent of total land area, represents over half of the countrys remaining natural forest. The forests and waterways support a wide range of fauna, including a number of species threatened with extinction. As one of the most biologically productive of all natural ecosystems,it is of great economic importance as a source of timber, fish and numerous other products (Blower, 1985). CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Three field stations have been established within SundarbansWest. There are no recognisedlocal rights within the reserved forest, entry and collection of forest produce being subject to permits issued by the Forest Department. The Department may issue hunting licences under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, but in practice none is issued and the whole Sundarbansis thus effectively closed to legal hunting. Under the provision of this Act, various activities are prohibited within the wildlife sanctuaries,including inter alia residence, cultivation of land, damageto vegetation, hunting, introduction of domestic animals and setting of fires. Any of these prohibitions may be relaxed, however, for scientific purposes, aestheticenjoyment or improvement of scenery(Blower, 1985).

The Sundarbansis the only sizeablemangrove forest in the world managedfor commercial timber production and it has been under some sort of management since 1879. Early managementconsistedon revenue collection by enforcing simple felling rules. Subsequently, the progressive enforcement of felling rules reduced the amount of over-cutting of the four speciesfor which felling rules were established.Bangladeshpart of Sundarbansis managedas a continuous block of mangrove forest with no permanenthuman habitation inside. The Sundarbanshas been the subject of a seriesof successively more comprehensiveworking plans since its declaration as reserved forest, the most recent of which points out the importance of the tiger in controlling the spotted deer population, and also mentions the intention of establishing compartments 3-7 as a game sanctuary, a total area of some 52,320ha (Choudhury, 1968). A plan relating specifically to wildlife conservation was prepared under the joint sponsorshipof the World Wildlife Fund and the National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution (Seidenstickerand Hai, 1983). Emphasis is directed towards managing the tiger, together with all wildlife, as an integral part of forest managementthat assuresthe sustainableharvesting of forest products and maintains this coastal zone in a way that meets the needs of the local human population. The SundarbansForest Development Planning Mission, carried out by FAO in conjunction with the BangladeshForest Department in February-May 1984, collected all available data related to the use and managementof forest products, wildlife and fisheries, assessed developmentpotential and prepared proposals for further integrated development and conservation of the natural resources of the area (Christensen, 1984; Salter, 1984). More recently, Blower (1985) reviewed wildlife conservation in the SundarbansReservedForest as part of the SundarbansForest Inventory Project, carried out by the Bangladesh Forest Department and the Land Resources Development Centre of the UK OverseasDevelopment Administration. The main purpose of the project is to provide the necessarydata on which to base future exploitation of the forest for sustainableuse of timber, fuelwood and other forest produce, with due consideration to wildlife conservation and the social amenity value of the area. It has been recommendedthat the Sundarbansbe managedas a single unit with full protection afforded to both wildlife and habitat in the wildlife sanctuaries,and with forest resourcesexploited at sustainablelevels but wildlife protected elsewhere in the reserved forest. The establishmentof intermediate buffer zones, in which disturbance is kept to a minimum through restriction of access, is recommendedin areasperipheral to sanctuaryboundaries. A new managementplan is due to be prepared, basedon data collected in 1995, and is expectedto include detailed prescriptions concerning the conservationand management the sanctuaries. of MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS A long-term ecological change is taking place in the Sundarbans, due to the eastward migration of the Ganges, abandonment of some distributaries, diversion of water and withdrawals for irrigation. (Up to 40% of the dry season flow of the Ganges has been diverted upstream, following the completion of the Farraka Barrage in India in 1974.) Decreased freshwater flushing of the Sundarbans results in increasedsaline intrusion, particularly in the dry season.Concern has been expressedabout recent indications of apparentdeterioration in the flora, including localised die-back of sundri, commercially the most valuable of tree species.Top-dying of sundri is most likely associated with the decreasein freshwater flow, either as a direct effect of increasing salinity or other associated edaphic changes.A gradual replacementof Heritiera with Ekoecaria, therefore, is a likely long-term effect (Christensen, 1984). While deterioration in the vegetation is already well-documented (International Engineering Company, 1977 and 1980) and is the subject of continuing study, no attention has yet been given to the possible effects which these changes might have on the fauna. It is perhaps significant, however, that the stocking of spotted deer appearslower in western areas, where salinity is highest, than in the east where it is lowest. Oil spills are another potential threat and could causeimmensedamage, especially to aquatic fauna and seabirds and probably also to the forest itself (Blower, 1985). There have been several spillages from tanks passingnearby. The most recent incidence due to ship wreckage occurred in August 1994 when a Panamaniancargo ship capsized near Dangmari Forest

Station. Oil from the fuel tank spread about 15km downstream from the ship and affected a considerablepart of the Sundarbans mangrove area. It was found to causeinstant mortality of seedlingsof Heritiera and Excoecaria while patchesof grass which were covered by oil also died. Mortality of fishes, shrimps and other aquatic animals from the Sundarbanshas been reported to due the incidence (Hussainand Acharya, 1994). Cyclones and tidal waves cause some damage to the forest along the sea-face, and are reported to result occasionally in considerable mortality among spotted deer. The most immediate threat is over-exploitation, both of timber resources,which may have already taken place, and also of the fauna. Agricultural encroachmenthas already occurred to a limited extent on the eastern and western boundaries and, with increasing population pressure in surrounding settled areas,could reach seriousproportions unlesschecked. Fishermenscamps are a major source of disturbance.There is extensiveillegal hunting and trapping, not only by fishermen and woodcutters but also reportedly by naval and military personnel from Hiron Point in SundarbansSouth Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1985). A total of 118 offences was recorded and over 3,300m of deer nets removed between 1981/82 and 1986/87 (Habib, 1989) but this poaching is now rare. The capture of adult marine turtles and Batagur in fishing nets and their subsequentkilling and marketing for food is a potentially serious problem (R.E. Salter, pers. corm-n., 1987). Smugglersmoving to and from India with contrabandgoods also use the area. The Sundarbanshas been notorious for its man-eatingtigers since the 17th century. Numbers of reported deaths has varied from 0 to 47 (mean = 22.1) per annum during the period 1947-1983(R.E. Salter, pers. con-m., 1987). In 1988, 65 deathswere reported during a fourmonth period (The Guardian, 28 December 1988). Noting that tigers that hunt man like any other prey occurred only in the south and west, Hendrichs (1975) hypothesisedon a possible linkage between high salinity levels, due to the absenceof freshwater, and man-killing. This is not substantiatedby more recent analyses,which suggestthat man-killing may be at least partly correlated with the availability of easy prey (humans) and the frequency of man-tiger interactions (Salter, 1984; Siddiqi and Choudhury, 1987). STAFF There is 3 field stationsin Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaryeach with 95 staff (2 officers and 7 forest guards). There are respectively2 station in South Wildlife Sanctuaryand 3 in South East Wildlife Sanctuary. BUDGET No information available LOCAL ADDRESSES Bangladesh Forest Department, Bana Bhaban, Gulshan Road, Mohakhaldi, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh REFERENCES Blower, J. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, Bangladesh. Wildlife conservation in the Sundarbans. Project Report 151. Overseas Development Administration, Land ResourcesDevelopment Centre, Surbiton, UK. 39 pp. Chaffey, D. R. and Sadom, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forestry Inventory Project. A glossary of vernacular plant names and a jield key to trees. OverseasDevelopment Administration, Land ResourcesDevelopmentCentre, Surbiton, UK. 23 pp. Champion, H. G. (1936). A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian Forest Record (New Series) 1: l-286. Choudhury, A. M. (1968). Working plan of the Sundarban Forest Division for the period from 1960-61 to 1979-80. Vol. I. Governmentof East Pakistan, Forest Department, Dacca. 82 PP. Christensen, B. (1984). Ecological aspects of the Sundarbans. FO: TCP/BGD/2309 (Mf!. FAO, Rome. 42 pp.

Gittins, S. P. (1981). A survey of the primates of Bangladesh.Unpublished report. Fauna PreservationSociety, London. 64 pp. Habib, M. G. (1989). Wildlife managementof the Sundarban - a case study. In: Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh. German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of Bangladesh/Unesco, Dhaka. Pp. 161-168. Hendrichs, H. (1975). The statusof the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans mangrove forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mtteilungen 23 : 161- 199. Hussain, K. Z. and Acharya, G. (eds.) (1994). Mangroves of the Sundarbans. Volume two: Bangladesh. IUCN , Bangkok, Thailand. Husain, K. Z. Sarker, S. U. and Rahman, M. M. (1983). Summerbirds of the Sundarbans Nilkamal Sanctuary, Bangladesh.Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 1l( 1): 48-51. International Engineering Company (1980). Southwest regional plan. Bangladesh Water Development Board, Dacca. Khan, M. A. R. (1986). Wildlife in Bangladeshmangrove ecosystem.Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society 83 : 32-48.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1975). The Sundarbansof India and its biota. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72: l-20. Nazrul Islam, A. K. M. N. (1973). The algal flora of the Sundarbansmangrove forests, Bangladesh.Bangladesh Journal of Botany 2(2): 1l-36. Olivier, R. C. D. (1979). Wildlife and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project No. BGD/72/005. Forest ResearchInstitute, Chittagong. 121 pp. Salter, R. E. (1984). Integrated development of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh: status and utilization of wildlife. FO: TCP/BGD/2309(MF). Report No. W/ROO34.FAO, Rome. 59 Sarker, S. U, (1985a). Ecological observation on the endangered whitebellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin) in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. In: Symposium on endangered marine animals and marine parks. Vol. 4. Endangered and/or vulnerable other marine invertebrates and vertebrates. Paper No. 58. Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin. Sarker, S. U. (1985b). Density, productivity and biomass of raptorial birds of the Sundarbans,Bangladesh.Proceedings of SAARC Seminar on Biomass Production, 15 April 1985, Dhaka. Pp. 84-92. Sarker, S. U. and Sarker, N. J. (1985). Birds of prey and their conservation in the Sundarbansmangrove forests, Khulna, Bangladesh.ICBP Technical Publication No. 5.
Pp. 205-209. PP.

Sarker, S. U. and Sarker, N. J. (1986). Status and distribution of birds of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh.The Journal of Noami 3: 19-33. Scott, D. A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. Seidensticker, J. and Hai, M. A. (1983). The Sundarbans Wildlife Management Plan: conservation in the Bangladesh coastal zone. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 120 pp. Siddiqi, N. A. and Choudhury, J. H. (1987). Man-eating behaviour of tigers (Panthera tigris Linn) of the Sundarbans twenty-eight years record analysis. Tigerpaper 14(3): 26-32. DATE January 1997, reviewed May 1997 and October 1997

SANCTUAIRES DE FAUNE DES SUNDARBANS BANGLADESH

Les Sundarbans (Bangladesh)

25

TECHNIQUE

UICN

SANCTUAIRES DE FAUNE DES SUNDARBANS (BANGLADESH)

1.

DOCUMENTATION

(i)

FichestechniquesUICNWCMC (25 references)

(ii) Litteratureconsultte: Dugan. P. ed. 1993. Wetlands in Danger, MacKinnon J. 1997. Protected Area Systems Review of the Indomalayan Realm. World Bank Report; Alcom, J.B. and Johnson, N. 1989. Conservation of Biodiversity in Bangladesh.WRI/USAID Report; Nazrul-Islam, A.K.M. 1993. Environment and Vegetation of Sunderban Mangrove Forest in Lieth, H. ed. Towards the Rational Use of High Salinity Tolerant Plants Kluwer, Pemetta, J. ed. 1993. Marine Protected Area Needs in the South Asian Seas Region Vol. IBangladesh. IUCN; Global Statusof Mangrove Ecosystems. IUCN. 1983; Handbook for Mangrove Area Management. IUCN. 1984. (iii) Consultations: 6 examinateurs independants, fonctionnaires du ministire de IEnvironnement et des For&s, personnelde luniversite de Dhaka et I&ulna, ONG de conservationdela nature (Wildlife Society,CARDMA). (iv) Visite du site: Jim Thorsell, fevrier, 1997. 2.
RhUMIj: DES CARACThUSTIQUES NATURELLES

La for& de mangroves des Sundarbansqui est une des plus grandes for&s mondiales de ce type couvre le delta du Gange, du Brahmapoutre et de la Meghna, dans la baie du Bengale. La superficie totale des Sundarbansest denviron 1 million dhectares dont on trouve 60 pour cent au Bangladesh et le reste en Inde. La region designee a Iorigine etait le Sanctuaire de faune de Iouest des Sundarbans, une region de 71 500 hectares, limitrophe du Bien du patrimoine mondial des Sundarbans,en Inde. Le fleuve Raimangal sert de front&e entre les deux pays. En reponse a la recommandation du Bureau, le gouvemement du Bangladesh a accept6 dinclure, dans le site design& le Sanctuairedu sud des Sundarbans(37 000 ha) et le Sanctuairede Iest des Sundarbans(3 1 000 ha). La superficie totale des trois sanctuairesest de 139 700 hectares.Les trois sanctuairessont entrecoupis par un reseaucomplexe de voies deau sous influence des marees,de vasiires et dilots de for&s de mangroves halophiles. A marie haute, la zone est inondee deau saumatrequi se mi?le aux eaux deucesprovenant des rivitres. En raison des conditions salines qui prtdominent, la flore forestitre de Iouest des Sundarbansnest pas aussi varied que celle de Iest. La for& est dominee par quelques esp&ces seulement, essentiellementdes Sundri et Gewu, ainsi que par des massifs de palmiers Npu et quelques-unes des 27 esptces de paletuviers que Ion trouve dans les Sundarbans.La faune, elle, est beaucoup plus diverse avec environ 40 espices de mammiferes, 260 esp&cesdoiseaux et 35 esp&es de reptiles. Lesptce ccpharebb le tigre royal du Bengale dont on estime quil reste 350 individus dans les est Sundarbansdu Bangladesh.Parmi les autres grands mammiferes on trouve le sanglier, le chevrotain tachete, la loutre indienne et le macaque; il y a deux esp&ces reptiles menacies dextinction - le de crocodile marin et le python de IInde - et cinq esptces de tortues marines qui frequentent la zone cot&e. Les crustacis (crabes de boue et crabes violonistes) constituent la plus forte portion de
Les Sundarbans (Bangladesh)
27

biomasseanimate. Le long de la tote. les precipitations atteignent 2800 mm et la saison seche qui dure six mois est suivie dune mousson.de juin a octobre. Les ouragans. les cyclones et les raz-demaree(atteignant parfois 7.5 m de haut) sent des caracteristiquesde la region. Les critires specifiques de designation des Sanctuairesde faune des Sundarbans(SFS) nont pas ete indiquts mais on peut considerer quil sagit des criteres (ii) et (iv) (comme pour le Bien du patrimoine mondial limitrophe des Sundarbans.en Inde).
3. COMPARAISON AVEC DAUTRES AIRES PROTkGkES

Les mangroves sent des formations vigetales littorales caracttristiques que Ion trouve sur les totes abritees de toutes les regions tropicales et subtropicales. Les pays qui possident les plus vastesfor&s de mangroves sont le Bresil, IIndonesie, IAustralie et le Nigeria. La region des mangroves des Sundarbans,en lnde et au Bangladesh,forrne, si on la considire dans son ensemble, Iune des plus grandes &endues mondiales dun seul tenant: environ 1 million dhectares. Du point de vue de la richesse en especes, les mangroves du domaine indo-malais sent les plus diverses mais les Sundarbanssont les seulesmangrovesau monde oti Ion trouve des t&es. Environ I8 pays ont crCCdes aires protegees dans les for&s de mangroves: dans la plupart de ces pays, les zones protegees ne couvrent, individuellement, pas plus de 1000 hectares. Toutefois. la protection est assurle a plus de 11 000 hectares repartis en quatre reserves au Venezuela et 26 reserves comprenant plus de 80 000 hectares au total ont Cti etablies en Australie. Le Bien du patrimoine mondial des Everglades compte pres de 100 000 hectaresde mangroves ce qui en fait la deuxieme aire protegeede mangrovesdu monde, apres les Sundarbans.On trouve aussi des quantites importantes de mangroves darts le Part national du Kakadu et dans les Tropiques humides en Australie ainsi que de petites quantites dans les Biens du patrimoine mondial dAldabra et du RecifBarriere du Belize. Dans les Sundarbans,il y a quatre aires protegees, Iune delle &ant - le Part national et Bien du patrimoine mondial des Sundarbansen Inde (133 000 hectares). Trois dentre elles sent contiguhs. Etant donne que le gradient de salinite est oriente ouest-est. les regions les plus riches des Sundarbans.du point de vue biologique se trouvent a Iest ou Iinfluence de Ieau deuce se fait le plus sentir. Le bien existant des Sundarbans,en Inde et le Sanctuaire de faune de Iouest des Sundarbans au Bangladeshsont contigus et situ& darts la zone la plus saline et la moins diverse et oti les arbres sont rabougris et dtformb. Les quatre aires protegeesdes Sundarbansprotegent, collectivement, le demier habitat darts le bassin inferieur du Bengale pour des especesde la faune diverses et, darts bien des cas, menacees.
4. INTkGRITt

La region des Sundarbans, au Bangladesh et en Inde, a profondement change. Elle couvre aujourdhui la moitit de sa superficie dorigine, le reste ayant CtC defricht et transformi pour Iagriculture depuis I50 arts. De grands changements ont itC induits par la quantiti reduite des apports deau deuce (40 pour cent de Ieau de saison s&he &ant detoumes par le barrage de Farraka) et par une diminution de la qualiti de Ieau. Six grandesesp&ces animales ont Cti tliminies au tours du siecle ecoule: le rhinociros de Java, le buffle sauvage,le barasingha, le cerf-cochon, le gaur et le crocodile des marais. Aujourdhui, il est evident que la rkgion des Sundarbansest plus riduite et beaucoupmoins diverse quelle ne letait autrefois. II ny a aucun village darts les sanctuairesdes Sundarbansmais la region entiere assurela subsistance denviron 300 000 personnes qui occupent des emplois saisonniers: coupe de bois, ramassagedes feuilles de palmiers, p&he et rtcolte du miel. Environ 2 millions dhabitants vivent dans les villages voisins des Sundarbanset dependent, pour une grande partie de leur subsistance,des produits des
Les Sundarbans (Bangladesh) 28

Sundarbans.Les SFS couvrent 24 pour cent de la superficie totale des Sundarbans.au Bangladeshet. dans les sanctuaires.les activites sont strictement reglementees. Lensemble de la Reserveforestiere des Sundarbans disposedun plan de mise en valeur integree des ressourcesqui comprend un chapitre sur les espices sauvages.Des plans de gestion specifiques sent en preparation pour les trois sanctuaires de faune. Le gouvemement du Bangladesh a recemment ameliord la gestion des trois sanctuaires.Chacun dispose actuellement de trois stations de terrain avec neuf employ& par station et des bateauxde patrouille. Ces employis nont aucun contact avec leurs colleguesdu Part national des Sundarbansen Inde.
5. AUTRES COMMENTAIRES

Le Sanctuairede faune de Iouest des Sundarbansest contigu au Part national indien qui a Cd inscrit sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial en 1987. Les Sundarbansforment une unite Ccologiquequi etait giree en tant que bloc forestier avant la partition de 1947. Comme IUICN le recommandait darts son evaluation de 1987 pour la partie indienne, la creation dun site transfrontitre serait souhaitable.Cela correspond a la rtalite Ccologique de la region, a Iesprit de la Convention et a la Directive oplrationnelle 16. II conviendra de contacter les gouvemementsde IInde et du Bangladesh.par voie diplomatique, afin de leur demander si, aux fins du patrimoine mondial, une aire protegee transfrontiere des Sundarbans serait acceptable a leurs yeux. Si Ion en juge par Iaccord de cooperation recent sign6 par les deux pays en matiere de partage equitable des ressourcesdeau. un tel gestede cooperation pourrait venir a point nommi. Le nom du secteurdes Sundarbansse trouvant au Bangladeshdevrait @tre:ccsanctuaires faune des de Sundarbanwjusqua ce quun accord bilateral intervienne sur la creation dun site transfrontiere. 6.
CHAMP DAPPLICATION DES CRlTkRES NATURELS DU PATRIMOINE MONDIAL

Les SFS comprennent trois aires protegeesde Iune des demitkes grandes regions de mangroves du monde. Le site est contigu au Bien du patrimoine mondial des Sundarbans,en lnde et entretient une faune tres diverse. dont le tigre du Bengale. et dautres especesmenacies. Les SFS satisfont aussi au critire (ii) en tant quexemples importants dun processus tcologique en tours avec la gamme exceptionnelle des effets des pluies de la mousson, des inondations, de la formation dun delta, de I-influence des makes et de la colonisation vegttale. Ils satisfont aussi au critere (iv) pour leur diversite biologique exceptionnelle et en tant que refuge de nombreuses especes menacees, en particulier le tigre du Bengale.
7. RECOMMANDATIONS

Inscrire les Sanctuaires de faune des Sundarbanssur la Liste du patrimoine mondial au titre des criteres ii et iv. Le gouvemement du Bangladeshdevrait etre felicitt pour avoir accedea la demande du Bureau concemant Iextension des limites du site pour inclure les trois sanctuairesdu tote du Bangladesh.Le part national indien des Sundarbansqui est contigu &ant deja inscrit sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial, les autorites des deux pays devraient itre encouragies a envisager Iinscription conjointe dun bien transfrontiere du patrimoine mondial.

Les Sundarbans (Bangladesh)

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