Iron pillar of Delhi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Ashoka Pillar (disambiguation).

The iron pillar of Delhi.

Detail showing the inscription.

The iron pillar of Delhi, India is a 7 meter (22 feet) high pillar in the Qutb complex which is notable for the
composition of the metals used in its construction.
The pillar, which weighs more than six tons, is said to have been fashioned at the time of Chandragupta
Vikramaditya (375–413),[1] though other authorities give dates as early as 912 BCE.[2] The pillar initially stood in
the centre of a Jain temple complex housing twenty-seven temples that were destroyed by Qutb-ud-din Aybak,
and their material was used in building the Qutub Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque.[3]The pillar and ruins of
the temple stand all around[clarification needed] the Qutb complex today. The pillar is 98% pure wrought iron, and is a
testament to the high level of skill achieved by ancient Indian blacksmiths. It has attracted the attention of
both archaeologists andmetallurgists, as it has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years in the open air.[4]

The name of the city of Delhi is thought to be based on a legend associated with the pillar (see History of
Delhi).

Contents
 [hide]

1 Description

2 Scientific

analysis

3 See also

4 References

5 Further

reading

6 External links

[edit]Description

The height of the pillar, from the top of its capital to the bottom of its base, is 23 ft 8 in (7.21 m), 3 ft 8 in (1.12
m) of which is below ground. Its bell pattern capital is 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m) in height, and its bulb-shaped base is
2 ft 4 in (0.71 m) high. The base rests on a grid of iron bars soldered with lead into the upper layer of the
dressed stone pavement. The pillar's lower diameter is 16.4 in (420 mm), and its upper diameter 12.05 in (306
mm). The bell pattern capital is 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m) high. It is estimated to weigh more than six tons. [5]

The pillar was erected by Chandragupta Vikramaditya (375 CE–414 CE), (interpretation based on analysis of
archer type Gupta gold coins) of the Gupta dynasty that ruled northern India 320–540.[6] The pillar with the
statue of Chakra at the top was originally located at a place calledVishnupadagiri (meaning “hill with footprint of
Lord Vishnu”).[7] This has been identified as modern Udayagiri, situated in the vicinity of Vidisha,Madhya
Pradesh. There are several aspects to the original site of the pillar at Udayagiri. Vishnupadagiri is located on
the Tropic of Cancer and, therefore, was a centre of astronomical studies during the Gupta period. The Iron
Pillar served as a sundial when it was originally at Vishnupadagiri. The early morning shadow of the Iron Pillar
fell in the direction of the foot of Anantasayin Vishnu (in one of the panels at Udayagiri) only around
the summer solstice (June 21). The Udayagiri site in general, and the Iron Pillar location in particular, are
evidence for the astronomical knowledge that existed in Gupta India.

The pillar bears a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script[8] which states that it was erected as a standard in honour
of Lord Vishnu. It also praises the valor and qualities of a king referred to simply as Chandra, who has been
identified with the Gupta King Chandragupta Vikramaditya(375-413). The inscription reads (in the translation
given in the tablets erected by Pandit Banke Rai in 1903):

He, on whose arm fame was inscribed by the sword, when, in battle in the Vanga countries (Bengal), he
kneaded (and turned) back with (his) breast the enemies who, uniting together, came against (him);-he, by
whom, having crossed in warfare the seven mouths of the (river) Sindhu, the Vahlikas were conquered;-he, by
the breezes of whose prowess the southern ocean is even still perfumed;-

(Line 3.)-He, the remnant of the great zeal of whose energy, which utterly destroyed (his) enemies, like (the
remnant of the great glowing heat) of a burned-out fire in a great forest, even now leaves not the earth; though
he, the king, as if wearied, has quit this earth, and has gone to the other world, moving in (bodily) from to the
land (of paradise) won by (the merit of his) actions, (but) remaining on (this) earth by (the memory of his) fame;-
(L. 5.)-By him, the king,-who attained sole supreme sovereignty in the world, acquired by his own arm and
(enjoyed) for a very long time; (and) who, having the name of Chandra, carried a beauty of countenance like
(the beauty of) the full-moon,-having in faith fixed his mind upon (the god) Vishnu, this lofty standard of the
divine Vishnu was set up on the hill (called) Vishnupada.

It is believed by some that the pillar was installed in its current location by Vigraha Raja, the
ruling Rajput Tomar king.[9] One of the inscriptions on the iron pillar from A.D. 1052 mentions Rajput
king Anangpal II.[10]

Made up of 98% pure wrought iron, it is 7.21m (23 feet 8 inches) high, with 93 cm (36.6 inches) buried below
the present floor level,[11] and has a diameter of 41 cm (16 inches) at the bottom which tapers towards the
upper end. The pillar was manufactured by forge welding. The temperatures required to form such a pillar by
forge welding could only have been achieved by the combustion of coal.[citation needed] The pillar is a testament to
the high level of skill achieved by ancient Indian blacksmiths in the extraction and processing of iron.

A fence was erected around the pillar in 1997 in response to damage caused by visitors. There is a popular
tradition that it was considered good luck if you could stand with your back to the pillar and make your hands
meet behind it.

[edit]Scientific analysis
Translation of the inscription in English.

In a report published in the journal Current Science, R. Balasubramaniam of the IIT Kanpur explains how the
pillar's resistance to corrosion is due to a passive protective film at the iron-rust interface. The presence of
second phase particles (slag and unreduced iron oxides) in the microstructure of the iron, that of high amounts
of phosphorus in the metal, and the alternate wetting and drying existing under atmospheric conditions, are the
three main factors in the three-stages formation of that protective passive film. [12]

Lepidocrocite and goethite are the first amorphous iron oxyhydroxides that appear upon oxidation of iron. High
corrosion rates are initially observed. Then an essential chemical reaction intervenes: slag and unreduced iron
oxides (second phase particles) in the iron microstructure alter the polarization characteristics and enrich the
metal–scale interface with P, thus indirectly promoting passivation of the iron [13] (cessation of rusting activity).
The second phase particles act as a cathode, and the metal itself serves as anode, for a mini-galvanic
corrosion reactionduring environment exposure. Part of the initial iron oxyhydroxides is also transformed into
magnetite, which somewhat slows down the process of corrosion. But the ongoing reduction of lepidocrocite,
and the diffusion of oxygen and complementary corrosion through the cracks and pores in the rust, still
contribute to the corrosion mechanism from atmospheric conditions.

The next main agent to intervene in protection from oxidation is phosphorus, enhanced at the metal–scale
interface by the same chemical interaction previously described between the slags and the metal. The ancient
Indian smiths did not add lime to their furnaces. The use of limestone as in modern blast furnaces yields pig
iron that is later converted into steel; in the process most phosphorus is carried away by the slag. [14] The
absence of lime in the slag, and the deliberate use of specific quantities of wood with high phosphorus content
(for exampleCassia auriculata) during the smelting, induces a higher P content (> 0.1%, average 0.25%) than
in modern iron produced in blast furnaces (usually less than 0.05 per cent). There is also more phosphorus as
solid solution throughout the metal than in the slags (one analysis gives 0.10% in the slags for 18% in the iron
itself, for a total P content of 0.28% in the metal). This high P content and particular repartition are essential
catalysts in the formation of a passive protective film of “misawite” (d-FeOOH), an amorphous iron
oxyhydroxide that forms a barrier by adhering next to the interface between metal and rust. Misawite, the initial
corrosion-resistance agent, was thus named because of the pioneering studies of Misawa and co-workers on
the effects of P and Cu and those of alternating atmospheric conditions, in rust formation. [15]

The most critical corrosion-resistance agent is iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate (FePO 4-H3PO4-4H2O) under its
crystalline form and building up as a thin layer next to the interface between metal and rust. Rust initially
contains iron oxide/oxyhydroxides in their amorphous forms. Due to the initial corrosion of metal, there is more
P at the metal–scale interface than in the bulk of the metal. Alternate environmental wetting and drying cycles
provide the moisture for phosphoric acid formation. Over time the amorphous phosphate is precipitated into its
crystalline form (the latter being therefore an indicator of old age, as this precipitation is a rather slow
happening). The crystalline phosphate eventually forms a continuous layer next to the metal, which results in
an excellent corrosion resistance layer. [16] In 1,600 years the film has grown just one-twentieth of a millimetre
thick.[17]

Balasubramaniam states that the pillar is "a living testimony to the skill of metallurgists of ancient India". An
interview with Balasubramaniam and his work can be seen in the 2005 article by Veazy. [18]

It was claimed in the 1920s that iron manufactured in Mirjati near Jamshedpur is similar to the iron of the Delhi
pillar.[19] Further work on Adivasi (tribal) iron by the National Metallurgical Laboratory in the 1960s did not verify
this claim.[20]

According to INTACH, further research has been proposed on the Iron Pillar to study the ancient metallurgy of
India. The ASI is reported to have agreed to the proposed studies that would make comparisons by testing
other ancient iron objects like the pillar at Dhar, the iron beams at Konarak, and so forth. The present research
using non-intrusive technique as proposed by Dr.Baldev Raj who is the Director of the Indira Gandhi Centre for
Atomic Research and a member of the panel of architects and scientists. [21]

[edit]See also

 History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent

 Wootz steel

 Heliodorus pillar

 Serpent Column

 Qutb complex
[edit]References

1. ^ Balasubramaniam, R. 2002
2. ^ Arnold Silcock; Maxwell Ayrton (reprinted 2003). Wrought iron and its decorative use: with 241
illustrations. Mineola, N.Y: Dover. pp. 4. ISBN 0-486-42326-3.

3. ^ World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Google Books. Retrieved 2009-05-27.
4. ^ Waseda, Yoshio; Shigeru Suzuki. Characterization of corrosion products on steel surfaces. Google Books.
Retrieved 2009-05-27.

5. ^ Joshi, M.C. (2007). "The Mehrauli Iron Pillar". Delhi: Ancient History (Berghahn

Books).ISBN 9788187358299.

6. ^ Identity of Chandra and Vishnupadagiri of the Delhi Iron Pillar Inscription: Numismatic, Archaeological and
Literary Evidence, R Balasubramaniam, Bulletin of Metals Museum, 32 (2000) 42–64.

7. ^ On the Astronomical Significance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R Balasubramaniam and Meera I Dass, Current
Science, volume 86 (2004) pp. 1134–1142.[1]

8. ^ Agrawal, Ashvini. Rise and fall of the imperial Guptas. Google Books. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
9. ^ Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam. History Of Ancient India Earliest Times To 1200 A.D.. Google Books.
Retrieved 2009-05-26.

10. ^ Hickey, William. The Tanjore Mahratta Principality in Southern India. Google books. Retrieved 2009-05-
26.

11. ^ Iron Pillar - Qutab Minar - Forts & Monuments - Delhi

12. ^ On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42
(2000) pp. 2103-2129.

13. ^ On the growth kinetics of the protective passive film of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam,
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208 016,

India. Current Science, vol. 82, no. 11, 10 June 2002.

14. ^ On the Origin of High Phosphorus Content in Ancient Indian Iron, Vikas Kumar and R. Balasubramaniam,
International Journal of Metals, Materials and Processes, vol. 14, pp. 1-14. 2002

15. ^ The mechanism of atmospheric rusting and the effect of Cu and P on the rust formation of low alloy steels,
T. Misawa, T. Kyuno, W. Suetaka, S. Shimodaira, Corrosion Science 11 (1971) 35-48.

16. ^ On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42
(2000) pp. 2103-2129.] “Corrosion Science” is a publication specialized in corrosion science and

engineering.

17. ^ On the growth kinetics of the protective passive film of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam,
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208 016,

India. Current Science, vol. 82, no. 11, 10 June 2002.

18. ^ 1600 Years Young, Materials Performance, July, 2005.

19. ^ Andrew McWilliam 1920, cited in Chakrabarti 1992
20. ^ Some Observations on Corrosion-Resistance of Ancient Delhi Iron Pillar and Present-time Adivasi Iron
Made by Primitive Methods, A.K. Lahiri, T. Banerjee and B.R. Nijhawan. NML Tech. J., 5 (1963) 46-5. Cited

in On the corrosion resistance of the Delhi iron pillar, R. Balasubramaniam.

 21. ^ "Progress in Delhi" (pdf). Iron Pillar of Delhi. INTACH. p. 11. Retrieved 2009-04-11.[dead link]
[edit]Further reading

 King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar, M.C. Joshi, S.K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal, Eds., Kusumanjali
Publications, Meerut, 1989.

 The Rustless Wonder – A Study of the Iron Pillar at Delhi, T.R. Anantharaman, Vigyan Prasar New
Delhi, 1996.

 Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights. R. Balasubramaniam, Delhi: Aryan Books International and Shimla:
Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, 2002, Hardbound, ISBN-81-7305-223-9. [2][3]

 The Delhi Iron Pillar  : Its Art, Metallurgy and Inscriptions, M.C. Joshi, S.K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal,
Eds., Kusumanjali Publications, Meerut, 1996.

 The World Heritage Complex of the Qutub, R Balasubramaniam, Aryan Books International, New
Delhi, 2005, Hardbound, ISBN 81-7305-293-X.

 Story of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R Balasubramaniam, Foundation Books, New Delhi, 2005, Paperback,
ISBN-81-7596-278-X.

 Delhi Iron Pillar (in two parts), R. Balasubramaniam, IIM Metal News Volume 7, No. 2, April 2004,
pp. 11–17. and IIM Metal News Volume 7, No. 3, June 2004, pp. 5–13. [4]

 New Insights on the 1600-Year Old Corrosion Resistant Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Indian
Journal of History of Science, 36 (2001) 1-49. [5]

 The Early use of Iron In India. Dilip K. Chakrabarti. 1992. New Delhi: The Oxford University Press.
[edit]External links

Chandragupta II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chandra Gupta II (Vikramaditya)

Gupta Emperor
 Coin of Chandragupta II the Great. British Museum.

Reign 375 - 415 CE

Predecessor Ramagupta

Successor Kumara Gupta I

Consort Dhruvuswamini

Royal House Gupta dynasty

Mother Datta Devi

Religious beliefs Vedic Hindu

Chandragupta II the Great (very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta

Vikramaditya in Sanskrit; also known to theGreek world as Sandrokottos) was one of the most powerful
emperors of the Gupta empire. His rule spanned 375-413/15 CE, during which the Gupta Empire achieved its
zenith. The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the Golden Age ofIndia.
Chandragupta II the Great was the son of the previous ruler, Samudragupta the Great. He attained success by
pursuing both a favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist policy. In this his father and
grandfather set the precedent.

Contents
  [hide]

1 Biography

2 The Empire

3 His Reign

4 The famous iron pillar

5 Campaigns against foreign

tribes

6 Notes

7 References

8 See also

[edit]Biography

Not much is known about the personal details of the great king. His mother, Datta Devi, was the chief queen of
Samudragupta the Great. After Samudragupta's death, Ramgupta his brother took over the throne and also
married Chandragupta's fiance 'Dhruvaswamini by force. The most widely accepted details have been built
upon the plot of the play 'Devi-Chandraguptam' of Vishakadatta. The play is now lost but fragments have been
preserved in other works (Abhinava-bharati, Sringara-prakasha, Natya-darpana, Nataka-lakshana Ratna-
kosha). There even exists an Arabic work Mujmalu-t-Tawarikh which tells a similar tale of a king whose name
appears to be a corruption of 'Vikramaditya'.He holds a semi-mythical status in India. The most popular native
calendar which happens to be a lunar calendar goes after his name. It is widely believed that the great poet in
Sanskrit, Mahakavi Kalidasa was one of the jewels of his royal court.

Silver coin of Chandragupta II the Great, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western Satraps.
Obv: Bust of king".[1]
Rev: "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu" in Brahmi, around a peacock.
15mm, 2.1 grams. Mitchiner 4821-4823.

The fragment from Natya-darpana mentions the king Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta,
surrendering his queen Dhruvaswamini to the Saka king of the Western Kshatrapas Rudrasimha III, after a
defeat at the Saka king's hands. To avoid the ignominy the Guptas decide to send Madhavasena, a courtesan
and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. Chandragupta changes the plan and himself goes to
the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then kills Rudrasimha and later his brother Ramagupta.
Dhruvaswamini is then married to Chandragupta.

We do not know what liberties Vishakadatta took with the incidents, but Dhruvadevi was indeed the king's chief
queen as seen in the Vaisaliterracotta seal that calls her 'Mahadevi' Dhruvasvamini. The Bilsad pillar inscription
of their son Kumara Gupta I also refers to her as Mahadevi Dhruvadevi. A Ramagupta too is mentioned in
inscriptions on Jain figures in the District Archaeological Museum, Vidisha and some copper coins found at
Vidisha. The fact that the king and Dhruvadevi are the protagonists of Vishakadatta's play indicates that
marrying his widowed sister-in-law was not given any significance by the playwright. Later Hindus did not view
such a marriage with favour and some censure of the act is found in the Sanjan copperplate
inscription of Amoghavarsha I and in the Sangali and Cambay plates of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda IV.

The Allahabad pillar inscription mentions the marriage of Chandragupta II the Great with a Naga princess
Kuberanaga. A pillar from Mathurareferring to Chandragupta (Candragupta) has recently been dated to 388
CE.[2]

Chandragupta's daughter Prabhavati, by his other queen Kuberanaga, a Naga princess, was married to the
powerful Vakataka king Rudrasena II.

[edit]The Empire

Gold coins of Chandragupta II the Great. The one on the left is the obverse of a so-called "Chhatra" type of Chandragupta II,
while the one on the right is the obverse of a so-called "Archer" type of Chandragupta II.

His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom
in Gujarat, by defeating their last ruler Rudrasimha III.

His son-in-law Rudrasena II died fortuitously after a very short reign in 390 AD, following which
Prabhavatigupta ruled as a regent on behalf of his two sons. During this twenty-year period the Vakataka realm
was practically a part of the Gupta empire. The geographical location of the Vakataka kingdom allowed
Chandragupta to take the opportunity to defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all. Many historians refer to
this period as the Vakataka-Gupta age.

Chandragupta II the Great controlled a vast empire, from the mouth of the Ganges to the mouth of the Indus
River and from what is now North Pakistan down to the mouth of the Narmada. Pataliputra continued to be the
capital of his huge empire but Ujjaintoo became a sort of second capital. The large number of beautiful gold
coins issued by the Gupta dynasty are a testament to the imperial grandeur of that age. Chandragupta II also
started producing silver coins in the Shaka tradition.

[edit]His Reign

Faxian (Wade-Giles Fa-hsien) was the first of three great Chinese pilgrims who visited India from the fifth to the
seventh centuries AD, in search of knowledge, manuscripts and relics. He arrived during the reign of
Chandragupta II and gave a general description of North India at that time. Among the other things, he reported
about the absence of capital punishment, the lack of a poll-tax and land tax. Most citizens did not consume
onions, garlic, meat, and wine.[citation needed]

Culturally, the reign of Chandragupta II marked a Golden Age. This is evidenced by later reports of the
presence of a circle of poets known as the Nine Gems in his court. The greatest among them was Kalidasa,
who authored numerous immortal pieces of literature including The Recognition of Shakuntala. One other
was Varahamihira who was a famous astronomer and mathematician. [citation needed]

The next day after the Hindu festival Diwali is called Padwa or Varshapratipada, which marks the coronation of
King Vikramaditya. The Hindu Vikram-Samvat calendar was apparently started on this day and this day is
celebrated as New Year's Day in some places.

Shak-Samvat is synchronised with the Shak-Samvat calendar, which starts around April. This calendar was
initiated by Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Saka king Vikramaditya, thus starting the Shalivahana
era or Shaka Calendar[citation needed]

[edit]The famous iron pillar

Main article:  Iron pillar of Delhi

The iron pillar of Delhi, erected by Chandragupta II the Great.

Close to the Qutub Minar is one of Delhi's most curious structures, an iron pillar, dating back to 4th century CE.
The pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu,
and in the memory of Chandragupta II. The pillar also highlights ancient India's achievements in metallurgy.
The pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1,600 years without rusting or decomposing.
This iron pillar is similar to the Pillars of Ashoka found mostly in northern India. From Chandragupta II kings
were known as Parama Bhagavatas, or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana entails the fully
developed tenets and philosophy of the Bhagavata tradition wherein Krishna gets fused with Vasudeva and
transcends Vedic Vishnu and cosmic Hari to be turned into the ultimate object of bhakti.[3]

India, have many interesting stories about King Vikramaditya, his guru named 'Manva-Patwa' and his queen(s).

[edit]Campaigns against foreign tribes

 Fourth century AD Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya (aka Raghu) with

having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the
East, South and West India, Raghu aka Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated
the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and
east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the glorious king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced
the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper[4].

 According to the Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kashmiri Pandit Kshmendra, king Vikramaditya

(Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the  Barbarians  like
 the  Shakas,  Mlecchas, Kambojas,  Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these
sinfulMlecchas completely".
[edit]Notes

1. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurashtra during the reign of Chandragupta II the Great is to be seen in his
rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some

traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a

peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British

Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli

2. ^ Falk, Harry. (2004) "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta Records." Silk Road Art and Archaeology 10. Kamakura:
The Institute of Silk Road Studies, pp. 167-176.

3. ^ Kalyan Kumar Ganguli: (1988). Sraddh njali, Studies in Ancient Indian History: D.C. Sircar
Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna. Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 8185067104.p.36

4. ^ (Raghu Vamsa v 4.60-75.

Chandragupta II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chandra Gupta II (Vikramaditya)

Gupta Emperor

Coin of Chandragupta II the Great. British Museum.

Reign 375 - 415 CE

Predecessor Ramagupta

Successor Kumara Gupta I

Consort Dhruvuswamini

Royal House Gupta dynasty

Mother Datta Devi

Religious beliefs Vedic Hindu

Chandragupta II the Great (very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta

Vikramaditya in Sanskrit; also known to theGreek world as Sandrokottos) was one of the most powerful
emperors of the Gupta empire. His rule spanned 375-413/15 CE, during which the Gupta Empire achieved its
zenith. The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the Golden Age ofIndia.
Chandragupta II the Great was the son of the previous ruler, Samudragupta the Great. He attained success by
pursuing both a favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist policy. In this his father and
grandfather set the precedent.

Contents
 [hide]

1 Biography

2 The Empire

3 His Reign

4 The famous iron pillar

5 Campaigns against foreign

tribes

6 Notes

7 References

8 See also

[edit]Biography

Not much is known about the personal details of the great king. His mother, Datta Devi, was the chief queen of
Samudragupta the Great. After Samudragupta's death, Ramgupta his brother took over the throne and also
married Chandragupta's fiance 'Dhruvaswamini by force. The most widely accepted details have been built
upon the plot of the play 'Devi-Chandraguptam' of Vishakadatta. The play is now lost but fragments have been
preserved in other works (Abhinava-bharati, Sringara-prakasha, Natya-darpana, Nataka-lakshana Ratna-
kosha). There even exists an Arabic work Mujmalu-t-Tawarikh which tells a similar tale of a king whose name
appears to be a corruption of 'Vikramaditya'.He holds a semi-mythical status in India. The most popular native
calendar which happens to be a lunar calendar goes after his name. It is widely believed that the great poet in
Sanskrit, Mahakavi Kalidasa was one of the jewels of his royal court.

Silver coin of Chandragupta II the Great, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western Satraps.
Obv: Bust of king".[1]
Rev: "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu" in Brahmi, around a peacock.
15mm, 2.1 grams. Mitchiner 4821-4823.

The fragment from Natya-darpana mentions the king Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta,
surrendering his queen Dhruvaswamini to the Saka king of the Western Kshatrapas Rudrasimha III, after a
defeat at the Saka king's hands. To avoid the ignominy the Guptas decide to send Madhavasena, a courtesan
and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. Chandragupta changes the plan and himself goes to
the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then kills Rudrasimha and later his brother Ramagupta.
Dhruvaswamini is then married to Chandragupta.

We do not know what liberties Vishakadatta took with the incidents, but Dhruvadevi was indeed the king's chief
queen as seen in the Vaisaliterracotta seal that calls her 'Mahadevi' Dhruvasvamini. The Bilsad pillar inscription
of their son Kumara Gupta I also refers to her as Mahadevi Dhruvadevi. A Ramagupta too is mentioned in
inscriptions on Jain figures in the District Archaeological Museum, Vidisha and some copper coins found at
Vidisha. The fact that the king and Dhruvadevi are the protagonists of Vishakadatta's play indicates that
marrying his widowed sister-in-law was not given any significance by the playwright. Later Hindus did not view
such a marriage with favour and some censure of the act is found in the Sanjan copperplate
inscription of Amoghavarsha I and in the Sangali and Cambay plates of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda IV.

The Allahabad pillar inscription mentions the marriage of Chandragupta II the Great with a Naga princess
Kuberanaga. A pillar from Mathurareferring to Chandragupta (Candragupta) has recently been dated to 388
CE.[2]

Chandragupta's daughter Prabhavati, by his other queen Kuberanaga, a Naga princess, was married to the
powerful Vakataka king Rudrasena II.

[edit]The Empire

Gold coins of Chandragupta II the Great. The one on the left is the obverse of a so-called "Chhatra" type of Chandragupta II,
while the one on the right is the obverse of a so-called "Archer" type of Chandragupta II.
His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom
in Gujarat, by defeating their last ruler Rudrasimha III.

His son-in-law Rudrasena II died fortuitously after a very short reign in 390 AD, following which
Prabhavatigupta ruled as a regent on behalf of his two sons. During this twenty-year period the Vakataka realm
was practically a part of the Gupta empire. The geographical location of the Vakataka kingdom allowed
Chandragupta to take the opportunity to defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all. Many historians refer to
this period as the Vakataka-Gupta age.

Chandragupta II the Great controlled a vast empire, from the mouth of the Ganges to the mouth of the Indus
River and from what is now North Pakistan down to the mouth of the Narmada. Pataliputra continued to be the
capital of his huge empire but Ujjaintoo became a sort of second capital. The large number of beautiful gold
coins issued by the Gupta dynasty are a testament to the imperial grandeur of that age. Chandragupta II also
started producing silver coins in the Shaka tradition.

[edit]His Reign

Faxian (Wade-Giles Fa-hsien) was the first of three great Chinese pilgrims who visited India from the fifth to the
seventh centuries AD, in search of knowledge, manuscripts and relics. He arrived during the reign of
Chandragupta II and gave a general description of North India at that time. Among the other things, he reported
about the absence of capital punishment, the lack of a poll-tax and land tax. Most citizens did not consume
onions, garlic, meat, and wine.[citation needed]

Culturally, the reign of Chandragupta II marked a Golden Age. This is evidenced by later reports of the
presence of a circle of poets known as the Nine Gems in his court. The greatest among them was Kalidasa,
who authored numerous immortal pieces of literature including The Recognition of Shakuntala. One other
was Varahamihira who was a famous astronomer and mathematician. [citation needed]

The next day after the Hindu festival Diwali is called Padwa or Varshapratipada, which marks the coronation of
King Vikramaditya. The Hindu Vikram-Samvat calendar was apparently started on this day and this day is
celebrated as New Year's Day in some places.

Shak-Samvat is synchronised with the Shak-Samvat calendar, which starts around April. This calendar was
initiated by Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Saka king Vikramaditya, thus starting the Shalivahana
era or Shaka Calendar[citation needed]

[edit]The famous iron pillar

Main article:  Iron pillar of Delhi

The iron pillar of Delhi, erected by Chandragupta II the Great.

Close to the Qutub Minar is one of Delhi's most curious structures, an iron pillar, dating back to 4th century CE.
The pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu,
and in the memory of Chandragupta II. The pillar also highlights ancient India's achievements in metallurgy.
The pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1,600 years without rusting or decomposing.
This iron pillar is similar to the Pillars of Ashoka found mostly in northern India. From Chandragupta II kings
were known as Parama Bhagavatas, or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana entails the fully
developed tenets and philosophy of the Bhagavata tradition wherein Krishna gets fused with Vasudeva and
transcends Vedic Vishnu and cosmic Hari to be turned into the ultimate object of bhakti.[3]

India, have many interesting stories about King Vikramaditya, his guru named 'Manva-Patwa' and his queen(s).

[edit]Campaigns against foreign tribes

 Fourth century AD Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya (aka Raghu) with

having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the
East, South and West India, Raghu aka Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated
the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and
east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the glorious king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced
the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper[4].

 According to the Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kashmiri Pandit Kshmendra, king Vikramaditya

(Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the  Barbarians  like
 the  Shakas,  Mlecchas, Kambojas,  Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these
sinfulMlecchas completely".
[edit]Notes

1. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurashtra during the reign of Chandragupta II the Great is to be seen in his
rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some

traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a

peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British

Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli

2. ^ Falk, Harry. (2004) "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta Records." Silk Road Art and Archaeology 10. Kamakura:
The Institute of Silk Road Studies, pp. 167-176.

3. ^ Kalyan Kumar Ganguli: (1988). Sraddh njali, Studies in Ancient Indian History: D.C. Sircar
Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna. Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 8185067104.p.36

4. ^ (Raghu Vamsa v 4.60-75.

Around 350 AD – Gupta Empire, Ancient India

An iron pillar weighing over 6 tonnes, more than 7 metres tall is constructed in a single forge and is
erected on top of the Vishnupada hill (somewhere in modern central India) with sanskrit inscriptions on
it in the brahmi script about the great gupta ruler Chandragupta Vikramaditya. 

Later the founder of delhi, Tomar king Anangapala brings it to delhi and installs it in its current place
(See above pic)
The mughal emperor Akbar makes every effort to have the inscriptions read, but at that time nobody
knows about the script in which the inscriptions have been written, so the effort fails.

Much later, in the modern days, historians discover Ashoka’s pillars (The great Mauryan ruler of ancient
India) and learn about the Brahmi script in which Ashoka’s  inscriptions have been written. The script
on the delhi’s iron pillar is then identified to be written in the same Brahmi script.

What’s so wonderful about it? Well, one should ask ‘what’s so mysterious about it?’

More than 1600 years back, to build an iron pillar of this huge size in a single forge itself is an
indication of the advanced metallurgy of the ancient Indians. Even in today’s modern technological
world it is a great achievement to forge such a huge pillar in a single forge!!!
But there’s more, this pillar which contains more than 98% of pure iron, even after 1600 years has not
caught rust!!! It is 100% corrosion resistant inspite of the fact that it is 98% iron!! This indicates one of
the great technological achievements of the ancient Indians. Even today it is next to impossible to
construct such a huge corrossion resistant iron pillar. Corrosion resistant technologists from all over the
world have studied this pillar.

Modern day technology uses limestone in the blast furnaces which carries away most of the phosphrous
content in the ore in the form of slag. Ancient Indians instead by solid state reduction (used charcoal as
a reducing agent) to extract pure iron with low carbon content from the ore.

One of the research opinions about the iron pillar’s corrosion resistant nature is that the high amount
of phosphorous (which is 1% of the pillar as opposed to modern day proportions which is 0.05%) has
formed a thin protective layer on the surface of the pillar thereby making it corrosion proof. Since
other ancient iron works of the same period do not contain such a high quantity of phosphorous, it
indicates that the extra phosphorous was intentionally added to the iron pillar.

Another theory suggests that the relative low humidity of Delhi ensures that the Iron pillar does not
corrode. But I strongly disagree with this theory and want to stress on the fact that it is not the climate
of Delhi but the composition of the pillar which is responsible for the corrosion resistant nature of the
pillar. This is because of a simple reason that I observed a similar ancient corrosion resistant Iron pillar
when I had been on a trek to the Kodachadri hills in the west coast of South India. Also I have heard
about a similar corrosion resistant Iron pillar in the konark temple of Orissa. Both the above mentioned
places have a highly humid climate throughout the year and yet the iron pillars here are corrosion
resistant! The spreadout of these pillars across the geographical landscape of India indicates that the
Iron pillar of delhi was not a single isolated incident of an ancient genius but was a common technical
knowledge of the ancient civilization in this country.

The inscriptions on the pillar identify the king as ‘Chandra’ (which most historians have related to the
great Gupta ruler Chandragupta Vikramaditya) reads as follows (Source Wikipedia)
‘He, on whose arm fame was inscribed by the sword, when, in battle in the Vanga countries, he
kneaded (and turned) back with (his) breast the enemies who, uniting together, came against (him);-
he, by whom, having crossed in warfare the seven mouths of the (river) Sindhu, the Vâhlikas were
conquered;-he, by the breezes of whose prowess the southern ocean is even still perfumed;-

(Line 3.)-He, the remnant of the great zeal of whose energy, which utterly destroyed (his) enemies,
like (the remnant of the great glowing heat) of a burned-out fire in a great forest, even now leaves
not the earth; though he, the king, as if wearied, has quitted this earth, and has gone to the other
world, moving in (bodily) form to the land (of paradise) won by (the merit of has) actions, (but)
remaining on (this) earth by (the memory of his) fame;-

(L. 5.)-By him, the king,-who attained sole supreme sovereignty in the world, acquired by his own arm
and (enjoyed) for a very long time; (and) who, having the name of Chandra, carried a beauty of
countenance like (the beauty of) the full-moon,-having in faith fixed his mind upon (the god) Vishnu,
this lofty standard of the divine Vishnu was set up on the hill (called) Vishnupada.’

This pillar was erected in the honour of the hindu god Vishnu who is one of the trimurthi (Three gods
who represent the life cycle of the Universe: Brahma-The Creator, Vishnu-The Maintainer, Shiva-The
Destroyer)

By the way it is interesting to note that more than 2300 years back, ancient Indians knew about the
process of iron rusting!  Buddha is cited in the ancient buddhist book Dharmapada saying “As rust,
sprung from iron, eats itself away when arisen, even so his own deeds lead the transgressor to states
of woe….”

Possibly related posts: (automatically generated)

 Delhi’s Iron Pillar that Won’t Rust

 Major Dynasties.
 gfgfg

The Iron pillar, amazing as it is, may be overshadowed by ancient Indian nanotechnology, as describe here in:
1. The Hindu
Indian craftsmen, artisans used nanotech 2000 yrs ago’

Visakhapatnam (PTI): Indian craftsmen and artisans used nanotechnology extensively about 2000 years ago to make
weapons and long lasting cave paintings, a Nobel laureate of Chemistry said here.

However, the craftsmen were completely unaware that they were practising carbon nano-techniques that are the most
sought after in the current age.

Citing examples of the famous Damascus blades used in the famous sword of Tipu Sultan and Ajanta Paintings, Nobel
laureate Robert Curl Jr. said studies have found existence of carbon nano particles in both.

On the sword scientists found carbon nanotubes, cylindrical arrangements of carbon atoms first discovered in 1991 and now
made in laboratories all over the world.
“Our ancestors have been unwittingly using the technology for over 2,000 years and carbon nano for about 500 years.
Carbon nanotechnology is much older than carbon nanoscience,” Curl said at the ongoing 95th Indian Science Congress
here.

The 74-year-old scientist from the US shared the 1996 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with Richard Smalley and Harold Kroto for
the discovery of the carbon cage compounds, known as fullerenes.

Indian craftsmen used unique smelting techniques to manufacture the Damascus blades which led to nanotisation giving
them a unique long-lasting edge.

They had the technology to make wootz steel, a ‘high-grade’ steel that was highly prized and much sought after across several
regions of the world over nearly two millennia.

Wootz also had a high percentage of carbon, which was introduced by incorporating wood and other organic matter during
fabrication.

India, for ages, was a leading exporter of this steel which was used to make Persian daggers which were quite popular in
Europe centuries ago.

The technique to manufacture wootz declined steadily and has not been in use since the 17th century, Curl said.
Source: http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/001200801061523.htm
and
2: The Persian/Iranian Cultural Heritage News Agency (CHN):
Iranians Enjoyed Nanotechnology 3000 Years Ago:
Source: http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=7096
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