Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
in Language Teaching
Jack C. Richards
Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization
Regional Language Centre, Singapore
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
279'116-
P . 52-235-RSS JLOOl
L Title.
00-033711
Contents
ix
Historical background
2
Vocabulary selection
4
Grammar selection and gradation
9
Assumptions underlying early approaches to syllabus design
15
Discussion questions and activities
16
Appendix 1 Entries from A General Service List of English
Words
17 Appendix 2 Entries from Cambridge English
Lexicon
18 Appendix 3 Part of an early English grammatical
syllabus
20 References
22
2 From syllabus design to curriculum development
23
Needs analysis
51
52
vi
Contents
90
Societal factors
93
Project factors
95
Institutional factors
97
Teacher factors
99
Learner factors
101
Adoption factors
103
Profiting the factors identified in the situation analysis
105
Discussion questions and activities
106
Appendix 1 Situation analysis profile
108
Appendix 2 Matrix for identifying factors in curriculum
renewal process
108
References
111
5 Planning goals and learning outcomes
112
Contents vii
6 Course planning and syllabus design
145
198
The institution
198 The teachers
209 The teaching process
214 The learning process
223 Discussion questions and
activities
225 Appendix 1 Institutional mission statement
227 Appendix 2 Best practice in English language teaching
228 Appendix 3 Assessment criteria for teaching practice
231
Appendix 4 Checklist for evaluating a teacher's lesson
232
Appendix 5 Qualities and competencies of a good English teacher
236 . Appendix 6 Self-evaluation of a teacher's lesson
240
Appendix 7 Student appraisal form
244 Appendix 8 Peer
appraisal form
246 References
249
viii
Contents
251
286
Purposes of evaluation
288
Formative evaluation
288
Illuminative evaluation
289
Summative evaluation
291 Issues in program
evaluation
294 Procedures used in conducting
evaluations
299 Discussion questions and activities
304 Appendix Examples of program evaluations
305 References
309
Author index
311
Subject index
314
The activities of language teaching have often been viewed from a very narrow perspective. This is evident from the fascination with teaching'methods
that has characterized the history of language teaching until relatively recently. Methods have often been regarded as the most important factor in
determining the success of a language program, and advances in language
teaching have sometimes been seen as being dependent on the adoption of
the latest method. A perspective often missing from the method-based view
of teaching is that of how methods interact with other factors in the teaching-learning process. Who are the learners and the teachers? What expectations do they have for the program? What learning and teaching styles do
they bring to the program? For what purposes is the language needed? What
goals does the program have, and how are these goals expressed? In what
settings will teaching take place, and what organizational structure is in
place to support and maintain good teaching? What resources will be used,
and what are their roles? What is the role of textbooks and other materials?
What measures will be used to determine the success of the program?
Choice of teaching mediod cannot therefore be made unless a great deal is
known about the context for the language program and the interactions between the different elements involved. It is this perspective that characterizes a curriculum-based approach to language teaching.
This book presents an approach to the teaching-learning process that sees
successful language as being dependent upon the activities of curriculum
development, that is, the use of a variety of planning and implementation
processes involved in developing or renewing a language program. These
processes include determining learners' needs, analysis of the context for
the program and consideration of die impact of contextual factors, the planning of learning outcomes, the organization of a course or set of teaching
materials, the selection and preparation of teaching materials, provision for
and maintenance of effective teaching, and evaluation of the program. These
elements constitute a set of interrelated elements, and their nature and function form the focus of this book. The book seeks to survey key issues and
practices within language curriculum development in order to provide the
IX
basis for more effective planning and decision making in language program
development, implementation, and review. I hope that teachers and other
language teaching professionals will find that this book helps them better
understand and use the skills involved in developing effective language programs.
Jack C. Richards
Preface
xii Preface
goals and outcomes, course planning, teaching, materials development, and
evaluation. In the earlier chapters, I have provided a historical perspective
on how the field of curriculum development in language teaching has
evolved, since I believe it is important for language teaching professionals
to have some sense of the history of the issues that have shaped the development of language teaching. The subsequent chapters seek to survey key
issues related to curriculum development issues and processes, illustrating
different points of view and providing detailed practical examples by way
of illustration. Discussion questions at the end of each chapter provide opportunities for further reflection and application of some of the issues discussed.
The book reflects my own 30 years of experience as a teacher, teacher
educator, program director, and materials writer in many different parts of
the world. Any expertise I can claim to have in curriculum development is a
result of learning through the practical experience of developing curriculum
and materials and directing language programs. My initial explorations in
language curriculum development took me from New Zealand, where I
received my initial teacher training, to Quebec, where I completed my doctoral research in syllabus design with W. F. Mackey in the 1970s. Subsequently, I have spent periods of time in universities and teacher training centers in Indonesia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Hawaii, and New Zealand,
working in all aspects of language teaching from curriculum and materials
development, to teaching, to program administration. I have also served as
a consultant to a number of curriculum projects and institutions in different
parts of the world. A recent 10-year annual consultancy with the Ministry
of Education of the Sultanate of Oman also provided an invaluable opportunity to provide input to curriculum and materials development projects at
a national level. At the same time, experience as a writer of commercial language teaching materials with a worldwide market has provided opportunities to work regularly with teachers and teacher trainers in more than twenty
countries, an experience that has given additional perspectives on problems
involved in developing and using teaching materials. In recent years I have
been in the pleasant position of being able to divide my time between classroom teaching, teacher training, and writing, from the congenial environment provided by the Regional Language Center in Singapore, whose
unique library resources and materials collection proved invaluable during
the preparation of this book.
Earlier versions of this book have been used in postgraduate and in-service courses at the University of Arizona in the United States; the University
of Auckland, New Zealand; the National Institute of Education, Singapore;
the Regional Language Center, Singapore; and the SEAMEO Regional
Preface
xiit
Training Center, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. I am grateful for the comments and suggestions received from teachers and students at these institutions. I am also grateful for detailed comments on the manuscript from
Dr. Jun Liu, University of Arizona, Dr. Ted Rodgers, University of Hawaii,
Geoffrey Crewes, CEO of the Indonesian-Australian Language Foundation,
Jakarta, Indonesia, and several anonymous reviewers.
Jack C. Richards
Credits
Page 17: Appendix 1 Entries from A General Service List of English Words.
Reproduced by permission of the University of London, Institute of Education. Pages 20 and 21: Appendix 3 Part of an early English grammatical
syllabus. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press. From
Teaching Structural Words and Sentence Patterns by A. S. Hornby
Oxford University Press 1959. Pages 45 and 46: Appendix 1 Example of
scientific writing. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Limited.
Pages 141 and 142: Appendix 3 ESOL standards for grades 4~S. From
TESOL. (1997). ESL Standards for Pre-K-12 Students (p. 71). Alexandria,
VA: Author. Copyright 1997 by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages, Inc. Reprinted with permission. Pages 174 and 175: Appendix
2 Description of performance levels; writing. Reprinted from ESP Journal,
vol. 11, B. Paltridge, EAP placement testing: An integrated approach,
pages 243-268, copyright 1992, with permission from Elsevier Science.
Pages 187 to 194: A unit from Passages 1. Page 187 (top row, left to
right) David Hanover/Tony Stone Images; Pete Saloutos/The Stock
Market; Mikki Ansin/Liaison Agency; (bottom row, lefi to right) Mike
Malyszko/FGP International; Robert E. Daemmrich/Tony Stone Images;
Christophe Lepetit/Liaison Agency. Page 188 Mug Shots/The Stock
Market. Page 189 (fop) Ariel Skelley/The Stock Market; (bottom)
David Young Wolff/Tony Stone Images. Source (top): From Eccentrics by
David Weeks and Jamie James, Copyright 1995 by David Weeks.
Reprinted by permission of Villard Books, a Division of Random House
Inc. Page 191: (bottom lefi) Photo courtesy of 3M Company; Post-it is a
registered trademark of 3M; (all others) Richard Bachmann. Page 192:
Rick Rusing/Leo de Wys. Page 194: (lefi to right) Courtesy of Sony Electronics Inc. Pages 231 to 232: Appendix 3 Assessment criteria for teaching
practice. Reproduced by permission of the University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate.
xiv
2 Chapter 1
Language curriculum development is an aspect of a broader field of educational activity known as curriculum development or curriculum studies. Curriculum development focuses on determining what knowledge, skills, and
values students learn in schools, what experiences should be provided to bring
about intended learning outcomes, and how teaching and learning in schools
or educational systems can be planned, measured, and evaluated. Language
curriculum development refers to the field of applied linguistics that addresses these issues. It describes an interrelated set of processes that focuses
on designing, revising, implementing, and evaluating language programs.
Historical background
The history of curriculum development in language teaching starts with the
notion of syllabus design. Syllabus design is one aspect of curriculum development but is not identical with it. A syllabus is a specification.of the
content of a course of instruction and lists what will be taught and tested.
Thus the syllabus for a speaking course might specify the kinds of oral skills
that will be taught and practiced during the course, the functions, topics, or
other aspects of conversation that will be taught, and the order in which they
will appear in the course. Syllabus design is the process of developing a syllabus. Current approaches to syllabus design will be discussed in Chapter
6. Curriculum development is a more comprehensive process than syllabus
design. It includes the processes that are used to determine the needs of a
group of learners, to develop aims or objectives for a program to address
those needs determine, an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching
methods, and materials, and to carry out an evaluation of the language
program that results from these processes. Curriculum development in language teaching as we know it today really began in the 1960s, though issues of syllabus design emerged as a major factor in language teaching
much earlier. In this chapter we will look at the approaches to syllabus design that emerged in the first part of the twentieth century and that laid the
foundations for more broadly based curriculum approaches that are used in
language teaching today.
If we look back at die history of language teaching throughout the twentieth century, much of the impetus for changes in approaches to language
teaching came about from changes in teaching methods. The method concept in teaching - the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices based
on a particular theory of language and language learning - is a powerful one
and the quest for better methods has been a preoccupation of many teach-
ers and applied linguists since the beginning of the twentieth century. Many
methods have come and gone in the last 100 years in pursuit of the "best
metiiod," as the following chronology illustrates, with dates suggesting periods of greatest dominance:
Grammar Translation Method (1800-1900)
Direct Method (1890-1930) Structural
Method (1930-1960) Reading Method
(1920-1950) Audiolingual Method (19501970) Situational Method (1950-1970)
Communicative Approach (1970-present)
Mackey (1965,151) commented that although there has been a preference for
particular methods at different times,, methods often continue in some form
long after they have fallen out of favor; this observation is still true today, with
grammar translation still alive and well in some parts of the world. Common
to_each method is the_bjuejLthat1the teaching practices it suprjprte^rpvide,.a
more effective and theoretically sound basis"jor teaching manjhe methods
thatprecedH^Tfie^hluttcteristics of many of the methods listed above have
Tjeen described elsewhere and need not concern us further here (e.g., Richards
and Rodgers 1986). But it is important to recognize that although methods
are sr^cificadojisjof^eproc^es.obstruction in language teaching^- that, is,
Questions of how - they_alsojnake_assumptions about what needs to be
^^^^Hi^&e^"---^Q^S-SH^95- For example, the oral-based method"
known as the Direct Method, which developed in opposition to the Grammar
Translation Method in the late nineteenth century, prescribes not only the way a
language should be taught, with an emphasis on the exclusive use of the target
language, intensive question-and-answer teaching techniques, and
demonstration and dramatization to communicate meanings of words; it also
prescribes the vocabulary and grammar to be taught and the order in which it
should be presented. The Direct Method hence assumes a particular type of
syllabus. However, as new methods emerged to replace the Grammar Translation Method, the~initial concern was not with syllabus^questions_but with
approaches to teaching and methodological principles^ that .could be usedjo
support an oral~based..target-language--jdriven methodology. Harold Palmer,
mepfbminent British applied linguist who laid the foundations for the Structural Method in the 1920s, summarized the principles of language teaching
methodology at that time as follows:
1. Initial preparation - orienting the students towards language learning
2. Habit-forming - establishing correct habits
Ti-.,.j".-.?[ r
Chapter 1
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
'-1 -"
> ,
Vocabulary selection
Vocabulary is one of the most obvious components of language and one of
the first things applied linguists turned their attention to. What words should
From these figures it can be seen that a substantial percentage of the corpus
(63.4 percent) consists of words that occurred in only one of the five texts.
These words could not therefore be considered to belong to the essential vocabulary of Cantonese for second language learners and would not be worth
learning. Many are probably items that are specific to the topic of a dialogue or
situation that was used to practice a particular grammatical item or structure..The same could be said of words occurring in only two of the texts,
which constituted a further 17.4 percent of the corpus. Or4y w^rdsjhat_oo-_
curred in three or. more of the texts could reasonably be described as being
important vocabulary,, because .trjree pr ^prejpf "m'e'texlbook 'writers included them in their textbqpks._This list contains 346 worcts^'f some'"20per-""''*"
6 Chapter 1
cent of the corpus._Thecqnclusion.that can be drawn is that a studentstudying from any of the books in this study would spend a large amount of time ~~
trying to understand and use vocabulary that is probably of little importance.""
It was to avoid this kind of problem with regard to English that applied lin-"
guists in the first few decades of the twentieth century turned to the issue of
vocabulary selection.
The goals of early approaches to selection are described in the foreword
to West (1953):
/^K language is so complex that selection from it is always one of the first and
most difficult problems of anyone who wishes to teach it systematically. It has \ come
to be more and more generally realized that random selection is a wasteful \ approach,
and that only a complete system capable of continuous enlargement \ can form a
satisfactory objective for the first stage in any attempt to grasp as \ much as possible of
the entire language as may ultimately be necessary. Roughly j a language system may
be considered as consisting of words entering into / grammatical constructions spoken
with conventional stress and intonation. To find the minimum number of words that
could operate togetherjx^consmctions capable of entering into the greatest variety of
contexts has therefore been the chief aim of those trying to simplify English for the
learner. Various criteria have"-been employed in choosing the words, but the dominant
activity throughout the :x period among all those concerned with systematic teaching
of English has been VX vocabulary selection. (Jeffery, in West 1953, v)
Some of the earliest approaches to vocabulary selection involved counting
large collections of texts to determine the frequency with which words occurred, since it would seem obvious that words of highest frequency should
be taught first But what kinds of material should be analyzed? Obviously,
a frequency count based on children's books might identify a different set
of words than an analysis of words used in Time Magazine. The earliest frequency counts undertaken for language teaching were based on analysis of
popular reading materials and resulted in a word frequency list. (This was
in me days before tape recorders made possible the analysis of words used
in the spoken language and before computers could be used to analyze the
words used, in printed sources.) Word frequency research revealed some interesting facts about vocabulary usage. For example, it was discovered that
a small class of words (around 3,000) accounted for up to 85 percent of the
words used in everyday texts but that it would take an extra 6,000 words to
increase this by 1 percent It was also found that about half the words in a
text occur only once. However, recognizing 85 percent of the words in a text
is not the same as understanding 85 percent of the text One or two words
per line will still not be understood, and these are often the key words in the
text since they reflect the topic of the text and the new information in it Van
-u*^
sections
farmers
worship
earnings
huge
address
conscious
protest
dependent
comfort
exciting
49
8
49
8'
49 "" 849
7
48
11'
48
11
47
14
47
13
47
'07
46
14
46
13
36
24
22
15
39
36
34
33
30
39
37
It was soon realized, however, that frequency and range were not sufficient as a
basis for developing word lists, because words with high frequency and wide
range in written texts are not necessarily the most teachable words in
8 Chapter 1
an introductory language course. Words such as book, pen, desk, dictionary,
for example, are not frequent words yet might be needed early on in a language course. Other criteria were therefore also used in determining word
Usts. These included:
Jeachability: In a course taught following the Direct Method or a
method , such as Total Physical Response, concrete vocabulary is taught
early on because it can easily be illustrated through pictures or by
demonstration.
Similarity_:,Sams items may be selected because they are similar to words
in the native language. For example, English and French have many cognates such. 2s table, page, and nation, and this may justify their inclusion in
a word list for French-speaking learners.
Avai7afei7zry.LS.ome words may not be frequent but are readily "available"
in"tHesense that they come quickly to mind when certain topics are thought
of. For example, classroom calls to mind desk, chair, teacher, and pupil, and
these words might therefore be worth teaching early in a course.
Coverage,;. Words that cover or include the meaning of other words may
also be useful. For example, seat might be taught because it includes the
meanings of stool, bench, and chair.
Defining, power: Some words could be selected because they are useful
in defining other words, even though they are not among the most frequent
words in the language. For example, container might be useful because it
can help define bucket, jar, and carton.
The procedures of vocabulary selection lead to die compilation of a basic vocabulary (or what is now called a lexical syllabus);^^^^}^^.^:
.cabjn^a^J^a_langu_age^course usually grouped_or_graded into levels, such
as the first 500 words, the second 500 words, and so on. Word frequency re^"
search has been an active area of language research since the 1920s and continues to be so because of the ease with which word frequencies and patterns of word distribution can be identified using computers. One of the
most important lexical syllabuses in language teaching was Michael West's
A General Service List of English Words (1953), which contains a list of
some 2,000 "general service words considered suitable as die basis for
learning English as a foreign language" (vii). The list also presents information on the frequencies of different meanings of each word based on a
semantic frequency count (see Appendix 1). The General Service List incorporated die findings of a major study on vocabulary selection by die then
experts in the field: The Interim Report on Vocabulary Selection, published
in 1936 (Faucett, Palmer, West, andThorndike 1936). One objective of this
report was die simplification of teaching, as opposed to the simplification
of the English language. It was based on the findings of almost all of the re-
10 Chapter 1
'Direct-Oral Method' presented the Progressive (or Continuous) Tense first and
postponed the Simple tenses. (Hornby 19597 vivy~.........".......~
The same is sometimes true today particularly for the less commonly taught
languages. For example, in the study of the content of introductory textbooks for teaching Cantonese referred to earlier (Li and Richards 1995), the
grammatical structures included in the five books were analyzed. The five
books were found to introduce a total of 221 different grammatical items,
though they varied greatly in the number of grammatical items introduced,
which no doubt influences learners* perceptions of the ease or difficulty of
each book. The number of different grammatical items in each book is as
follows:
Textbook A
Textbook B
Textbook C
Textbook D
Textbook E
100
148
74
91
84
However, not all of the same grammatical items occurred in each of the five
texts. The distribution of grammatical items was as follows:
Total grammatical items in the five texts
Items occurring in one of the texts =92
Items occurring in two of the texts = 54
Items occurring in three of the texts =36
Items occurring in four of the texts = 17
Items occurring in five of the texts = 22
221
41.6%
24.4%
16.3%
7.7%
10%
(Li and Richards 1995)
As_was fount}, with^yocabulary distribution in the five course books, a substantial portion of the grammatical items occurred in only one of the_texts
(41.6 percent) suggesting mat the authors of the texishave very different intuitions about which grarnmatical items'learners of Cantonese need to know. In
regard to the teaching of English, from the 1930s applied linguists began
applying principles of selection to the design of grammatical syllabuses.
But in die case of grammar, selection is closely linked to the issue of
gradation. Gradation is concerned with the grouping and sequencing of
teaching items in a syllabus. A grammatical syllabus specifies both the set
of grammatical structures td~be~taught and the order in which they' sho"uld~~~b'eiaught Palmer, a pioneer in work on vocabulary and grammar selection;
explains die principle of gradation in this way ([1922], 196S, 68):
The grammatical material must be graded. Certain moods and tenses are more
useful than others; let us therefore concentrate on the useful ones first. In a
language possessing a number of cases, we will not learn off the whole set of
prepositions, their uses and requirements, but we will select them in accordance
with their degree of importance. As for lists of rules and exceptions, if we leam
them at all we will learn them in strict order of necessity. In most languages we O'
shall probably find certain fundamental laws of grammar and syntax upon which '
the whole structure of the language depends; if our course is to comprise the
\
conscious study of me mechanism of a given language, then, in accordance wim
the principle of gradation, let us first leam these essentials and leave the details to
a later stage.
"*
But whereas those working on vocabulary selection arrived at their word
lists through empirical means starting with word frequency lists, grammat
ical syllabuses have generally been developed from different principles
based not on the frequency of occurrence of grammatical items in texts but
on intuitive critenaj?f simplid
The goal has been to developinist of structures, graded into a logical progression, which would
provide an accessible and gradual introduction to the grammar of English.
TJiejaggroach useci has been analytic. The following principles have been
used or suggested as a basis for developing grammatical syllabuses. .
-J[implicztyMnd centrality: This recommends choosing structures that are
simple and more central to the'blisiVstrucmre
that are complex and peripheral. By these criteria the following would occur in an introductory-level English course:
The train arrived. (Subject Verb)
She is a journalist. (Subject Verb Complement)
The children are in the bedroom. (Subject Verb Adverb)
We ate the fruit. (Subject Verb Object)
I put the book in the bag. (Subject Verb Object Adverb)
The following would be excluded by the same criteria:
Having neither money nor time, we decided buying a ticket to the opera was
out of the question. For her to speak to us like that was something we
had never anticipated
Frequency: Frequency of occurrence has also been proposed in developing
grammatical syllabuses, butrelatively littleprogress was made in this area for
some time because of the difficulty, of decid,mg,,on. appropriate^gram^
malScat'umts to count and the difficulty of coding grammatical^structures for
analysis". It is only recently that computer corpuses have enabled the Bis"-
12
Chapterl
11. wft-questions
12. present continuous
13. directions
14. possessive adjectives
15. comparatives
16. offers
17. simple future
18. simple past
19. infinitives/gerunds 10.
20. first conditional
Although the validity of this acquisition sequence has been questioned (e.g.,
Kwfan'1992, 138), the idea that grammatical structures are acquired iira
natural order and that this order should inform teaching has been proposed
by a number of applied linguists' (e.g., Pienemann 1989). However little reliable information on acquisition sequences has been'produced that could
be of practical benefit in planning a grammar syllabus.
In addition to decisions about which grammatical items to include in a
syllabus, the sequencing or gradation of grammatical items has to be determined. The need to sequence course content in a systematic way is by no
13
means a recent concern. The seventeenth-century scholar Comenius (summarized by Mackey 1965, 205) argued:
Thejwgj^nmg, should. .besl.ow^^
immediately
tested. Unless the first layer is firm, nodiing should be built on it; for the whole(
structure wiir&e "developed from'the foundations. All parts should be "bound"' \
together soThat "one flowf but of the other, and later units include earlier ones.
I
"Whatever precedes forms a step to what follows and the last step should be.^-^
traceable to'the first by a clear chain of connection.
The following approaches to gradation are possible:
Linguistic distance: Lado (1957) proposed that structures that are similar to
those in the native language should be taught first. "Those elements that are
similar to [the learner's] native language will be simple for him and those
elements that are different will be difficult" (Lado 1957,2). This as sumption
underlay the approach to language comparison known as con-trastive analysis.
Intrinsic difficulty: This principle argues that simple structures should be
taugBrbe'foTe'TOmplex ones and is the commonest criterion used to justify the
sequence of grammatical items in a syllabus.
Communicative need:^ Some structures will be needed early on and cannot'be postponed, despite their difficulty, such as the simple past in English,
since it is difficult to avoid making reference to past events for very long in a
course.
Frequency: The frequency of occurrence of structures and grammatical items
in the target language may also affect the order in which they appear in a
syllabus, although as we noted, little information of this sort is available to
syllabus planners. Frequency may also compete with other criteria. The present
continuous is not one of the most frequent verb forms in English, yet it is often
introduced early in a language course because it is relatively easy to
demonstrate and practice in a classroom context
Jxi addition to these factors, in designing a course one is also faced with
a choice ..between. twqapproaches to the sequencing of items in the course,
namely, a linear or a cyclical or spiral gradation. With a linear gradaSon,"'
the items are introduced one. at .a. time.,and practiced intensively bJqre "the'
next items appears. With a cyclical gradation, items are reintroduced
throughout the course.
' ' '*' ' '^'^'^^< ^>-=-
In a course in which the material is ordered cyclically the individual items are not
presented and discussed exhaustively, as in stricdy linear gradation, but only
essentTal'aspects" of the item in question are presented initially. TheseTtems then
keep reining inthe ^course, and every time new aspects will be introduced" which
14 Chapter 1
will be related to and integrated with what has already been learned. (Van Els et
at"T984',"2283" " ' '
...................
Although few would doubt the advantages of cyclical over linear gradation, in
practice such recycling is usually left to die teacher because cyclical gradation
would often result in textbooks that were excessively long.
In the 1940s, beginners' courses in English began to appear in which
principles of vocabulary and grammatical control were evident and in which
grammatical structures were organized into graded sequences. The methods in
use at the time placed a major emphasis on the learning of "structures." The U.S.
linguist Fries outlined the major structures he thought foreign students needed to
learn in his books Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language (1946)
and The Structure of English (1952) and these formed the grammar component
for courses and materials developed at the influential English Language Institute
of the University of Michigan. The Michigan materials with their focus on the
core grammatical structures of English soon came to influence all materials
developed in the United States for teaching ESL students and became the
dominant methodology in the United States for more than 20 years (Darian
1972). In Britain Hornby built on the prewar efforts of Palmer on the grading of
sentence patterns and developed a comprehensive grammatical syllabus (together
with a structural approach to teaching English) in his books Guide to Patterns
and Usage in English (1954) and The Teaching of Structural Words and Sentence
Patterns (1959). These set out me basic grammatical structures needed in
English-language syllabuses and courses at different levels. The resulting
pedagogical grammar of English (or variations on it) formed the basis for the
grammatical syllabus of most teaching materials produced at that time (see
Appendix 3). Since then other language teaching specialists have refined and
further developed grammatical syllabus specifications as a basis for course
design and materials development (e.g., Alexander et al. 1975).
Although both lexical and grammatical syllabuses have provided important
guidelines for the development of language teaching textbooks and materials
since the first such syllabuses appeared in the 1920s, it is grammar syllabuses that
have been regarded as the core of a language course or program. Wilkins notes
(1976,7):
The use of a grammatical syllabus can be regarded as the conventional approach to
language teaching since die majority of syllabuses and published courses have as
their core an ordered list of grammatical structures. The vocabulary content is
secondary in importance and certainly rarely provides the basic structure of a
course. The view is widely held that until the major part of the grammatical system
has been learned, the vocabulary load should be held down to what is
The classroom and the textbook provided the primary input to the language
learning process, hence the goal of syllabus developers was to simplify and
rationalize this input as far as possible through the processes of selection
and gradation.
Changes in the status of English around the world, and in the purposes
for which English was studied from the 1940s on led to the next phase in
the development of language curriculum development These changes and
the approaches to language curriculum development that resulted from
them are the focus of Chapter 2.
The list (from West 1953) identifies a core 2,000-word vocabulary and also the
frequency of different meanings of each word.
FLOWER
flower, n.
605e
(la)
(lb)
Phrase
:
(2)
flower-/
flower, v.
FLY
In flower (= in bloom)
(figurative)
The flower of (- best specimens)
In the flower of his youth (= best
pan)
Flower-garden, etc.
The roses are flowering
4%
1%
0.7
%
4%
805e
fly. v.
CD
flying, adj.
fly. n.
FOLD
fold, v.
39%
3.5%
14%
14%
4.8%
1.3%
1.6%
14%
11%
43%
196e
18 Chapter 1
19
20 Chapter 1
is
That
These
Those
are
is
is
an
my (your)
This
my
left
That
your
right
What is
What's
this?
that?
What are
these?
those?
It is
It's
a
my
your
book.
pen.
pencil.
(-)
my
your
books.
pens.
pencils.
They are
They're
Is
this
that
a pen or a pencil?
a bag or a box?
my book or your book?
Are
diese
those
pens or pencils?
bags or boxes?
my books or your books?
Is
this
that
it
Are
my
your
these
those
they my
your
cow?
bird?
horse?
book?
box?
cows?
birds?
horses?
books?
boxes?
cow.
bird.
horse.
my
your
book.
box.
it isn't
cows.
birds.
horses.
they aren't
my
your
books.
boxes.
22 Chapter 1
References
Alexander, L. G., W. Stannard Allen, R. A. Close, and R. J. O'Neill. 1975. English grammatical structure. London: Longman.
Darian, S. 1972. English as a foreign language: History, development, and
methods of teaching. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Dulay, H., and M. Burt. 1973. Should we teach children syntax? Language
Learning 23: 245-258.
Dulay, H., and M. Burt. 1974. Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning, 24: 37-53.
Faucett, L., H. Palmer, M. West, and E. L. Thorndike. 1936. Interim report on
vocabulary selection. London: P. S. King.
Fries, C. 1946. Teaching and learning English as a foreign language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Fries, C. 1952. The structure of English. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Hindmarsh, R. 1980. Cambridge English lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Homby, A. S. 1954. Guide to patterns and usage in English, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Homby, A. S. 1959. The teaching of structural words and sentence patterns.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press.
Li, D., and J. C. Richards. 1995. Cantonese as a second language: A study of
learner needs and Cantonese course books. Research Monograph 2, English Department, City University of Hong Kong.
Mackey, W. F. 1965. Language teaching analysis. London: Longman.
McCarthy, M. 1990. Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press..
McCarthy, M., and R. Carter. 1995. Spoken grammar. What is it and how can we
teach it? ELT Journal 49(3): 207-218.
Nunan, D, 1992. Research methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Palmer, H. E. 1968 [1922]. The principles of language study. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Pienemann, M. 1989. Is language teachable? Applied Linguistics 6: 186-214.
Richards, J. C, and T. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and methods in language
teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Van Els, T T. Bongaerts, G. Extra, C. Van Os, and A. Janssen-van Dieten. 1984.
Applied linguistics and the learning and teaching of foreign languages.
London: Arnold.
West,M. 1953. A general service list of English words. London: Longman.
Wilkins, D. 1976. Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
24 Chapter 2
Whereas in medieval times English was the language of an island nation and
French was the language of a continental one, in the twentieth century English
has become the language of the world thanks to the linguistic legacy of the British
Empire, the emergence of the USA as an English-speaking superpower and the
fortuitous association of English with the industrial and technological
developments of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
All of these developments supported the need for a practical command of
English for people in many parts of the world rather than an academic mastery of the language as one might acquire in a typical school course.
The initial response of the English-language teaching profession was to
explore new directions in methodology. It was assumed that in order to meet
the changing needs of language learners, more up-to-date teaching methods
were needed that reflected the latest understandings of the nature of language and of language learning. Linguistics was a source of theories about
the organization and structure of language and these were eagerly applied
in the cause of new "scientifically based" teaching methods. The 1950s and
1960s in language teaching were hence times of methodological excitement. In Britain, applied linguists developed a methodology that drew on
the oral approach that had been developed in the twenties and thirties linked
to a carefully graded grammatical and lexical syllabus. The methodology
had the following characteristics:
A structural syllabus with graded vocabulary levels
Meaningful presentation of structures in contexts through the use of situations to contextualize new teaching points
A sequence of classroom activities that went from Presentation, to controlled Practice, to freer Production (the P P P method)
This became known as the situational approach or the structural-situational approach or Situational Language Teaching and was the mainstream teaching method in British language teaching circles from the
1950s. A well-known course-book series based on this method is Robert
O'Neill's Kernel series (Longman 1978). In countries and territories such
as Singapore, under colonial administration "the curriculum of Englishmedium schools in die early 1950s followed the tradition of English teaching in British schools, with the integration of language and literature" (Ho
1994, 222). The same applied in other colonies such as Malaysia, India,
and Hong Kong.
There was no provision for language work specially designed to help the nonnative learner, and school grammars like those of the prolific J. C. Nesfield, which
were originally written to get British youngsters through the Oxford and
26 Chapter 2
immediately apply in the classroom or those that are supported by a particular
"guru." Although concern for method is certainly not a new issue, the current
attraction to "method" stems from the late 1950s, when foreign language teachers
were falsely led to believe that there was a method to remedy the "language
learning and teaching problem."
28 Chapter 2
30 Chapter 2
cause-and-result constructions
words similar in form but with different functions
past participle usage
two-part verbs
(Ewer and Hugbes-Davies 1971, 65-70)
Appendix 1 contains an example of scientific writing from an early ESP course
that exemplifies some of these characteristics. Praninskas (1972) investigated
the core vocabulary of academic reading materials. She carried out a word
frequency count of ten university-level textbooks used in first-year courses at
the American University of Beirut focusing on frequently occurring words that
were not covered in the General Service List (see Appendix 2).
Throughout the 1970s the ESP approach in language teaching drew on
register analysis and discourse analysis to determine the linguistic characteristics of different disciplines such as medicine, engineering, or science. A
register is a variety of language determined according to its use:
Types of linguistic situation differ from one another, broadly speaking, in three
respects: first, as regards to what is actually taking place; secondly, as regards what
part the language is playing; and tiurdly, as regards who is taking pan. These three
variables, taken together, determine the range within which meanings are selected
and the forms which are used for their expression. In odier words, they determine
the 'register1. (Halliday 1978,31)
Register analysis studies the language of such fields as journalism, medicine, or
law for distinctive patterns of occurrence of vocabulary, verb forms, noun
phrases, and tense usage. For example as preparation for designing business
communications courses, Chiu (1975) analyzed the language used in
administrative correspondence and boardroom discussions in Canada and found,
not surprisingly, mat certain verbs, such as attach, enclose, appreciate, refer,
forward, request, advice, and thank, had a much higher frequency of occurrence
in her corpus than in corpuses of general English. She also found distinctive
uses of verb forms and verb phrases. Martin (1976, cited in Jordan 1997, 53)
describes the register of academic vocabulary and groups it into three
categories:
a) the research process: the vocabulary is primarily verbs and nouns and is
"presented in a context which discusses the five steps of research: formulating, investigating, analyzing, drawing conclusions and reporting
results."
b) the vocabulary of analysis: it includes high-frequency and two-word verbs
needed "in order to present information in an organized se-
32
Chapter 2
3. Argument
a) State the major premise. Include any information necessary to make
it clear and acceptable.
b) State the minor premise, again including necessary information.
c) State your conclusion.
d) Show your position is better by pointing out defects in the premise
or inferences of alternative positions. Explain why the alternatives
cannot solve the problem; or if they can, why your solution solves it
better.
4. Conclusion
a) Explain the implications of your argument.
a) Summarize your argument: the problem (2a), your conclusion (3c),
and the reasons for accepting it (3a and 3b).
Both the concepts of register and discourse type were the basis for the first
generation of ESP courses in the 1970s, such as the English in Focus series
(Allen and Widdowson 1974).
Although one of the main directions of the ESP approach through the
1960s and 1970s was the development of language courses and materials
that taught the registers and discourse features of science, business, or medicine, the focus in ESP on the purposes for which learners need a language
prompted the development of approaches to needs analysis, one of the basic processes of curriculum and syllabus design. Needs analysis will be the
focus of Chapter 3, but it will be useful here to review how needs analysis
is related to ESP.
,- li.i\veT3.tV
34 Chapter 2
sions of needs analysis: the procedures used to specify the target-level communicative competence of the"student, and procedures tor tuming-the information so gathered into an ESir' syllabus, ine Munby model describes trie
kind of information needed to develop a profile of the learner's communicative needs and is summarized by Schutz and Derwing (1981,32) as follows:
Profile of Communicative Needs
Culturally significant information about the individual, such as language background
1. Personal
Occupational or educational objective for which
the target language is required Physical and
2. Purpose
psychosocial setting in which the target language
is required
3. Setting
Such as the role relationships to be involved in the
target language use Communicative means
4. Interactional
variables
Information on dialects to be utilized
5. Medium, mode,
Level of competence required in the target
and channel
language
6. Dialects
Micro- and macro-activities
7. Target level
8. Anticipated
communicative
events
9. Key
An example will illustrate how the model could be applied in carrying out
a needs profile. If one were profiling the needs of restaurant staff such as
waiters and waitresses, the following information might be revealed
through applying the Munby model:
1. Personal
2. Purpose
3. Setting
4. Interactional
variables
5. Medium, mode,
channel
6. Dialects
7. Target level
8. Anticipated
communicative
events
9. Key
The needs profile is then translated into a statement of the list of specific
language skills the students will need based on the skills taxonomy Munby >/""
provides. This consists of some 300 subskills grouped into 54 categories.
For example, in relation to the "macroskill" of reading, Munby lists the following skills:
Understanding relations between parts of a text through lexical cohe
sion devices of:
repetition
synonymity
hyponymity
antithesis
apposition
lexical set/collocation
pro-forms/general words
Understanding relations between parts of a text through grammatical
cohesion devices of:
reference (anaphoric and cataphoric)
comparison
substitution
ellipsis
time and place relaters
logical connectors
The skills taxonomy appears to be little more than a compilation of thencurrent opinion about the components of the different language skills. When
it was published, the Munby model was welcomed as a systematic and objective set of processes for arriving at a specification of student needs and
selecting language to match them. However, those who attempted to use the
model soon discovered thar if depended on subjective and Often arbitrary judgments
and dfi *"""*= gr ^rn^t rvrry i^y^i ^ftpr completing a two-day training
session in the use of the Munby model during which they produced profiles
of imaginary students, a group of British Council specialists re-
36 Chapter 2
ported "there was no evidence mat groups would have been better off using
live informants" (cited in Robinson 1980, 30).
...
>___
____....____
In fact, all Wilkins had done with the first two categories was to take traditional items or grammar and restate tnem in terms ot concepts OTTioTftsnST
38 Chapter 2
This semantic sleight of hand did not turn out to be much of an advantage in
syllabus design. The third category of communicative function, however, was
seized on as a useful and practical way of thinking about a language syllabus.
Applied linguists reacted eagerly to the idea of expressing a syl labus in terms of
communicative units rather than grammatical ones and the literature of the late
1970s and 1980s contains a variety of proposals for communicative or
functional syllabuses. Yalden (1987, 85-87) describes the goal of syllabus
designers at that time:
This means that if we now wish to make up the deficit in earlier syllabus types,
and ensure that our learners acquire the ability to communicate in a more
appropriate and efficient way, we have to inject a larger number of components into
the make-up of the syllabus. These components could be listed as follows:
1. as detailed a consideration as possible of the purposes for which the learners
wish to acquire the target language;
2. some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the target language
(physical aspects need to be considered, as well as social setting);
3. the socially defined role the learners will assume in the target language, as well
as the role of their interlocutors;
4. the communicative events in which the learners will participate: everyday
situations, vocational or professional situations, academic situations, and so
on;
5. the language functions involved in those events, or what the learner will be able
to do with or through the language;
6. the notions involved, or what the learner will need to be able to talk about;
7. the skills involved in the "knitting together" of discourse: discourse and
rhetorical skills;
8. the variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the
levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need to
reach;
9. the grammatical content that will be needed;
10. the lexical content that will be needed.
This framework is essentially that of the Threshold Level (see Van Ek and
Alexander 1975,5). As various proposals for the implementation of a communicative approach to syllabus design were advanced and debated, applied
linguists began to consider how syllabuses were arrived at in other fields of
study and to apply procedures developed in the field of curriculum development.
Syllabi, which prescribe the content to be covered by a given course, form only a
small part of the total school program. Curriculum is a far broader concept.
Curriculum is alUhage activities in which children engage under the auspices of the
school. This includes not only what pupils learn, but how they learn it.-how l. using
what supporting materials. stvle.s_and methods of
One of the most important statements on the nature and process of curriculum
development was made by Tyler in 1949 in a book that brought about a revival
in curriculum studies throughout the 1950s. His approach is summarized on the
first page:
Four fundamental questions must be answered in developing any curriculum and
plan of instruction. These are:
(i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
^ <\0^(2) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these bu w3*"N**
purposes?
r
rck&/
(3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? \<\ \x>N\vCY* C*
(4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Wou^ to-G^S-w^
(Tyler 1950,1)
This was sometimes'reduced to an even simpler model:
Aims and objectives ^ ujhaV
I
Content -------------=? VC*JL vwWC'VN
Organization-----------;----^ 'i'v us V* cifx **ir-
Fvalnarinn
As Lawton (1973) pointed out, this rather naive view of the curriculum process
was not really intended by Tyler himself, whose book was a re sponse to his
observation that many teachers seemed unable to explain what
40 Chapter 2
the goals of their teaching were, except in the most general way. Tf asked to
explain their objectives, they might say, "We are trying to produce well-educated and well-rounded students." Such a statement, however, does not help
identify the kind of teaching that might contribute to this goal or the kind of
learning that would result from it Tylerargjjedjhat rAicarinnalob-jectives should
describe learner behavior (not teacher behavior) and should ide5Gf?~wriat
changes have come about in learners as a result of teaching. Tyler's model or
variations oTit soon' penetrated wiae areas of educational thought and practice
and curriculum and training manuals were soon full of models such as the
following (Inelis 1975):
1. NEED
Aims
2. PLAN
Objectives
3. rMPUSMENTATION
Methods
Techniques
Strategies
Tactics
4. REVIEW
Evaluation
Consolidation
Critics of the Tyler model (of which there were many) raised a number of
objections, some arguing that the notion of objectives represents a limited view
of knowledge (see Chapter 5) and some criticizing the technical and rationalist
approach of the model, which seemed better suited to business or industry than
education. Others criticized the linear approach implied by the model, which
leaves evaluation as the final stage rather than building it in at every stage. In its
place they proposed a cyclical model.
Nicholls and Nicholls (1972, 4), for example, describe curriculum development as involving^our stages;
(a) The careful examination, drawing on all available sources of knowledge and
informed judgement, of the objectives of teaching, whether in particular
subject courses or over the curriculum as a whole.
(b) The development and trial use in schools of those methods and materials which
are judged most likely to achieve the objectives which teachers agreed upon. '
~"
(c) The assessment of the extent to which the development work has in fact
achieved its objectives. This part of me process may be expected to provoke
new thought about the objectives themselves.
(d) The final element is therefore feedback of all the experience gained, to
provide a starting point for further study.
This view of curriculum development processes has been widely adopted in
language teaching from the 1980s. It has been described as an ends-means
model because it starts with a determination of the kinds of language skills the
learner needs in order to accomplish specific roles and tasks and then sets out to
teach the language needed to get there. In the field of cur-
elements are viewed as forming a network of interacting systems. The notion of system suggests that change in one part of the system has effects on
other parts of the system. For example, whether or not teachers are provided
42 Chapter 2
with textbooks to teach from, itself reflecting a policy decision, may
affect the kinds of classroom discourse and learning input that teachers
are able to provide. Similarly, the amount of attention students give to
learning activities may reflect their judgment of the relevance of the
kinds of learning experiences they encounter, which may depend on the
adequacy of a needs analysis. In this book, no attempt is made to present
the classic systems approach to curriculum development Such an
approach typically depicts teachers as on the receiving end of a process
controlled and directed by others, The approach taken here seeks to place
teachers and language teaching professionals at the center of the
planning and decision-making process. While the products of these
decision-making processes are easy to identify and analyze because they
exist in the form of policy documents, syllabuses, tests, teaching
materials, teaching programs, textbooks, and teaching and learning acts
(Johnson 1989), the processes that lead to them are more difficult to
identify and analyze because they often reflect the contributions of a
variety of people with different roles and goals. Johnson (1989,3) represents these different decision-making roles and products in die
following diagram:
TABLE 1 Stages, decision-making roles and products in
curriculum development (from Johnson 1989)
Developmental suiges
Decision-making roles
Products
1. curriculum planning
policy makers
policy document
1. specification:
needs analyst
syllabus
means
methodologists
3. programme
implementation
materials writers
teaching materials
teacher trainers
teacher-training
programme
teacher
teaching acts
learner
learning acts
implementation
Clark.
(1987)emphasizes
Aaxihese-aceoifiejLrjrocesses
ofjgjeaiaL^a&et' jfian development, since some sort of
curriculurais^h^ady-in-plaeeT^feach-ers and curriculum planners are
engaged in ongoingprocesses of review and
44 Chapter 2
46 Chapter 2
then carried the mercury tube to the top of a mountain and observed
that the column fell steadily as the height increased, while another
mercury column at the bottom of the mountain remained steady (an
example of another of the methods of science, the controlled experiment). This further proof not only established Torricelli's hypothesis more securely, but also demonstrated that, in some aspects, air
behaved like water; this, of course, stimulated further enquiry.
to indicate
an interpre.tation a
misinterpretation a
^interpretation
to interpret
an involvement
to involve
98
interpretive
52
103
methodolkal
methodological
a method
- methodology
primitiveness
144
negative
negatively
63
obvious
obviously
45
prime
primary
primitive
primeval
primarily
135
a procedure proceedings
to proceed
72
a publication
a publisher
to publish
"to publicize
57
a range
to range
a region
a requirement
regional
interregional
regionally
to require
a similarity
a specification
- specificity
70
to specify-
to suffice
91
149
similar
similarly
133
specific
specifiable
specifically
199
sufficiently
56
sufficient
insufficient
48 Chapter 2
References
Allen, P., and H. Widdowson (eds.). 1974. English in focus. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Bloomfield, L. 1942. Outline guidefor the practical study offoreign languages.
Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.
Briggs, L. (ed.). 1977. Instructional design: Principles and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Chiu, R. 1972. Measuring register characteristics: A prerequisite for preparing
advanced level TESOL programs. TESOL Quarterly, 6(2) (1972): 129-141.
Clark, J. 1987. Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Council of Europe. 1969. The work of the Council of Europe in the field of modern languages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Darian, S. 1972. English as a foreign language: History, development, and
methods of teaching. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Ewer, J. R., and G. Latorre. 1969. A course in basic scientific English. London:
Longman.
Ewer, J. R., and G. Hughes-Davies. 1971. Further notes on developing an English programme for students of science and technology. English Language Teaching 26(1): 65-70.
Halliday, M.A. K. 1978. Language as social semiodc. London: Arnold.
Ho, W. K. 1994. The English language curriculum in perspective: Exogeneous
influences and indigenization. In S. Gopinathan, A. Pakir, H. W. Kam, and
V. Saravanan (eds.), Language, society, and education in Singapore (2d
ed.). Singapore: Times Academic Press. 22-244.
Hoey, M. 1979. Signaling in discourse: A functional analysis of a common discourse pattern in written and spoken English. Birmingham: University of
Birmingham, English Language Research Unit
Hoey, M. 1983. On the surface of discourse, London: Allen and Unwin.
Inglis, E 1975. Ideology and the curriculum: The value assumptions of system
builders. In M. Golby, J. Greenwald, and R. West (eds.), Curriculum design. London: Croom Helm.
Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Johnson, R. K. 1989. The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge
University Press. Jordan. R. 1997. English for academic purposes. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Juppv T. C, and S. Hodlin. 1975. Industrial English,
London: Heineraann. Kingsbury, R. 1971. A proposed model for critical
discussion and study of a
50 Chapter 2
Tyler, R. 1949. Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Van Ek, J. L-, and L. G. Alexander. 1975. The threshold level in a European
unit/credit system for modern language learning by adults. Oxford: Pergamon.
Van Els, T., T. Bongaerts, G. Extra, C. Van Os, and A. Janssen-van Dieten. 1984.
Applied linguistics and the learning and teaching of foreign languages.
London: Arnold.
White, R. 1988. The ELTcurriculum. Oxford: Blackwell.
Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yalden, J. 1987. The communicative syllabus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
3 Needs analysis
One of the basic assumptions of curriculum development is that a sound educational program should be based on an analysis of learners' needs. Proceduresjfifri t" mTlect information about learners' needs are known as needs
analysis. Needs analysis as a distinct and necessary phase in planning*
educational programs emerged in the'1960s as part of the systems approach to
curriculum development and was part of the prevalent philosophy of educational
accountablity (Stuffiebeam, McCormick, Brinkerhoff, and Nelson 1985). If
providers of training programs wanted public T PCTT3!? sources of funding in
order to provide different kinds of training programs, they were required to
demonstrate that a proposed program was a responggJcLa, genuJBfi-Jiesd (Pratt
1980). Subsequently needs analysis developed into something of an industry.
Berwick (1989,51) comments:
The need for convincing precision in educational needs assessment was also
reinforced during this period by the "behavioral objectives" movement in
educational planning, particularly in North America, which insisted on specifying in
measurable form all goals of importance within an educational system. The
emphasis on precision and accountability clearly influenced the appearance of
needs assessment as a form of educational technology and its diversification into a
collection of educational research methodologies.
Needs analysis was introduced into language Jeachjn^jhrojigjiJh^ESg
fgjSsment (see Chapter 2). From the l9bUs, the demand for specialized
language programs grew and applied linguists increasingly began to employ
needs analysis procedures in language teaching. By the 1980s, in many parts of
the world a "needs-based philosophy" emerged in language teaching,
particularly in relation to ESP and vocationally oriented program design
(Brindley 1984). In this chapter we will examine approaches to needs analysis
and consider the purposes of needs analysis, the nature of needs, Who needs
analysis is intended for, who the target population is, who collects information,
what procedures can be used, and how the information collected can be used.
(Examples of two different needs analyses are given on pages 68-Z1.)
51
52 Chapter 3
Needs analysis 53
to determine current levels of language proficiency of employees
to determine how many employees are in need of the language training
to identify senior restaurant staff's perception of language problems employees
have on the job
to identify employees' perceptions of language difficulties they face on the job
to ascertain the types of transactions employees typically perform in English
to determine the language characteristics of those transactions
to assess the extent to which employees' needs are met by currently available
programs and textbooks
In many cases, learners' language needs may be relatively easy to determine,
particularly if learners need to leam a language for very specific pur poses, for
example, employment in fields such as tourism, nursing, or the hotel industry. In
this case the tasks employees typically carry out in English can be observed and
the language needs of those tasks determined. The information obtained can
then serve as a basis for planning a training program. In some cases, "needs"
also includes students' rights. Linse comments:
It is the school's responsibility to take into account the cultural, political, and
personal characteristics of students as the curriculum is developed in order to
plan activities and objectives that are realistic and purposeful. It is not the
responsibility of the school to act on political matters, but it is the school's
responsibility to provide equal access to school opportunities and to validate the
experiences of all students, regardless of &eir political and/or cultural
backgrounds. (Linse, in Hudelson 1993,46)
In other cases, learners' needs may not be so immediate - for example, students
learning English as a secondary school subject in an EFL context. Here English
may be a compulsory subject that is considered an important part of a child's
general education. However, even though me students may not have any
immediate perceptions of needs, curriculum planners will generally have
consulted employers, parents, teachers, and o&ers to find out what knowledge of
English they expect high school graduates to achieve. In many countries, die
introduction of English or anotfier foreign language in elementary or secondary
school is based on what curriculum planners consider best for students to study at
school in the same way that math, history, and physical education are included in
the school curriculum.JL^arn^ ers are not consulted as to whether they perceive a
need for such knowledge^_ Jjiejljieeds have been decided for them by those
concerned withtheirlongSrceivedand presterm welfare. NegJiLaxialysis tn^me4ades-tfae-stu-dy ent
needs as well as potential and, unrecognized needs.
54- Chapter 3
) jf Needs analysis may take place prior to, during, or after a
language pro/ gram. Much of the literature on needs analysis is based on die assumption
mat it is part of the planning that takes place as part of the development of
a course. It assumes that time and resources are available to plan, collect,
and analyze relevant information for a planned program of instruction. This
"a priori" approach to needs analysis requires long-term planning and assumes adequate time and resources to devote to needs analysis. Example 1
(pages 68-70) is a needs analysis of this type.
In some cases, however, long-term planning is not an option. Litde may
be known in detail about a group of learners apart from the fact that a group
of forty-five Mexican civil servants will be arriving in 3 weeks' time and want
to work on tfieir language skills. In these circumstances, needs analysis has
to be carried out as part of the delivery of the course. Goals, content, and me
teaching approach are shaped by information collected during the
teaching
1 of the course. Example 2 (pages 70-71) is a needs analysis of this kind. At
other times, the bulk of the information that constitutes the needs analysis
may be collected after the course is finished. The information collected is
then analyzed in order to obtain a more comprehensive view of the
learners' needs as a basis for evaluating and revising the program (see
Chapter 9).
">j^r
Needs analysis 55
linguistic assimilation as quickly as possible and hence may want a needs
analysis to identify the language skills immigrants require in order to survive, and ultimately, assimilate into the dominant culture. The immigrants
themselves, however, may see their goals as concerned with communication for survival and independence, particularly economic survival, but may
have no wish to assimilate into the dominant culture (Burnett 1998). Auerbach (1995, 9) has pointed out that English language teaching has often
been viewed as a "neutral transfer of skills,- knowledge, or competencies"
and that such an approach is based on the needs of social institutions, rather
than language learners, and ignores questions of power:
Pedagogical choices about curriculum development, contend materials, classroom
processes, and language use, although appearing to be informed by apolitical
professional considerations, are in fact inherendy ideological in nature, with
significant implications for learners' socioeconomic roles. (Auerbach 1995, 9)
Needs are often described in terms of language needs, that is, as the language skills needed to survive in an English-dominant society. But as Auerbach (1995) and others have pointed out, in many cases, particularly that of
immigrant minorities in English-dominant societies, such persons also have
other kinds of needs. These relate to housing, health care, access to schooling for their children, access to community agencies and services, and ways
of addressing exploitation and discrimination in the workplace. How can
the curriculum give learners the linguistic and other resources mey need to
understand and access resources they have die right to make use of in the
community and to articulate and defend their own rights and interests? Planning an ESL curriculum in this case not only involves identifying students'
language needs, but seeks "to enable them to critically examine [the existing order] and become active in shaping their own roles in it" (Auerbach
1995,15). This issue will be examined in more detail when we consider alternative curriculum'models and their value, in Chapter 5.
56 Chapter 3
teachers who will teach from the new curriculum
learners, who will be taught from the curriculum
writers, who are preparing new textbooks
testing personnel, who are involved in developing end-of-school assessments
staff of tertiary institutions, who are interested in knowing what the expected level will be of students exiting the schools and what problems
they face
staff
With small-scale needs analysis such as that carried out by a single teacher
on his or her class, the audience might consist of the teacher, other teachers, and the program coordinator. In cases of large-scale needs analysis,
there will be multiple audiences for the results of a needs analysis. Determining the likely audiences is an important first step in planning a needs
analysis in order to ensure that the information they need is obtained and
that the needs analysis will have the impact it is designed to have. Stufflebeam et al. (1985, 25) comment; "It is important to remember that not all
key audiences are likely to be identified at the start of a study. Also, it is entirely possible that the relative importance of various audiences will change
during the study."
Needs analysis can thus have a political dimension. It can be used to support a particular agenda, for example, by giving priority to one group to the
exclusion of others within a population or in order to justify a decision that
has already been made on economic or other grounds. For example, an
employer might want to use information from a needs analysis to justify
replacing certain staff rather than investing in providing for retraining. In
any situation where needs analysis is being undertaken, there are thus different stallholders, that is, those who have a particular interest or involve_ ment in the issues or programslKaTaTe^3e1uig examined^and itlslmporHht
'Sfrttyjpjggt a sense prjgnat^aex&digejemt agendas areTConnellyand Clandinin^l9881_124) define a stakeholder asJVperson or group of persons v/jArr-"
"a right to comment on, and have mpuTintoTthe curriculum process offered
Needs analysis 57
in schools." Different stakeholders will want different things from the curriculum. Connelly and Clandinin (1988, 131-132) suggest that when a
group of persons are working on a curriculum committee or trying to solve
a curriculum problem they should think of the'planning process as a curriculum stakeholder situation and ask the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
58 Chapter 3
analysis of students studying foreign languages at a New Zealand university (Richards and Gravatt 1998), the following categories of students were
included to help determine students' motivations for selecting a language
course, dropping a language course, or choosing not to take a language
course:
* students currently enrolled in a foreign language course
students previously enrolled but no longer studying a language
j students who have never studied a foreign language
In determining the target population, an important issue is that of sampling.
In some cases, the population is small enough for every learner to be included in the sample. In other cases, this approach is not feasible and so
decisions must be made about the size of the sample to be included in a
needs analysis. Sampling involves asking a portion of-the potential population instead of the total population and seekVto create a sample that is representative of the total population. Elley (1984) points out that a number of
factors influence the approach to sampling, such as the homogeneity of the
population in terms of the kinds of skills, attitudes, or knowledge being
sought or the need to study subgroups within the sample - for example,
based on sex, language group, or other factors. Where the target population
is large, specialized advice is often needed to determine what approach to
sampling best suits the purpose of the study and the sources of information
available.
Needs analysis 59
academic staff of the university who administered some of the question-
naires
secretarial support involved in preparing questionnaires and tabulating
data
In some language programs, informal needs analysis is part of a teacher's
ongoing responsibilities. Shaw and Dowsett (1986) describe this approach
in the Australian Adult Migrant Education Program:
Informal needs assessment deals with the informal negotiations that take place
between class teachers and students in the form of chats with either individual
students, groups of students, or the whole class in order to select a focus for the
class and create group cohesion by establishing a coincidence of learning needs. ...
Informal needs assessment is normally the main task of the classroom teacher
during week one of the course--- -[It] is a necessary component of information
retrieval on students' learning needs and should be recorded. It can subsequently be
used as an input for aims and objectives setting and for devising course outlines.
(Shaw and Dowsett 1986,47-49)
Information collected in this way may complement information collected
through more formal means.
60 Chapter 3
Procedures for collecting information during a needs analysis can be selected from among the following:
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are one of the most common instruments used. They are relatively easy to prepare, they can be used with large numbers of subjects, and
they obtain information that is relatively easy to tabulate and analyze. They
can also be used to elicit information about many different kinds of-issues,
such as language use, communication difficulties, preferred learning styles,
preferred classroom activities, and attitudes and beliefs,
Questionnaires are either based on a set of structured items (in which the
respondent chooses from a limited number of responses) or unstructured (in
which open-ended questions are given that the respondent can answer as he
or she chooses). Structured items are much easier to analyze and are hence
normally preferred. Appendix 2 illustrates a questionnaire designed as a basis for planning courses in Cantonese for non-Chinese residents of Hong
Kong. It seeks information on, the following:
situations in which Cantonese could be used
self-assessment of current proficiency level in Cantonese
previous experience of Cantonese courses
- views on textbooks for learning Cantonese
views on approaches to teaching Cantonese
learning-style preferences
- views on Cantonese as a language
fA disadvantage of questionnaires, however, is that the information obtained
'may be fairly superficial or imprecise and will often need follow-up to gain
ja fuller understanding of what respondents intend. It should also be recognized that there are many badly designed questionnaires in educational research, and it is advisable to become familiar with the principles of good
questionnaire design to ensure that the information obtained is reliable. Piloting of questionnaires is essential to identify ambiguities and other problems before the questionnaire is administered. Some issues involved in the
design of questionnaires are given in Appendix 1.
Self-ratings
These consist of scales that students or others use to rate their knowledge
or abilities. (Self-ratings might also be included as part of a questionnaire.)
For example, a student might rate how well he or she can handle a job in-
Needs analysis 61
terview in English. The disadvantage of such an instrument is that it
provides only impressionistic information and information that is not very
precise.
Interviews
Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible
with a questionnaire, though they take longer to administer and are only feasible for smaller groups. An interview may often be useful at the preliminary stage of designing a questionnaire, since it will help the designer get a
sense of what topics and issues can be focused on in the questionnaire. A
structured interview in which a set series of questions is used allows more
consistency across responses to be obtained. Interviews can be conducted
face-to-face or over the telephone.
Meetings
A meeting allows a large amount of information to be collected in a fairly
short time. For example, a meeting of teachers on the topic "students' problems with listening comprehension" might generate a wide range of ideas.
However, information obtained in this way may be impressionistic and subjective and reflect the ideas of more outspoken members of a group.
Observation
Observations of learners' behavior in a target situation is another way of assessing their needs. For example, observing clerks performing their jobs in
a bank will enable the observer to arrive at certain conclusions about their
language needs.
However, people"often do not perform well when they are being observed, so this has to be taken into account. In addition, observation is a specialized skill. Knowing how to observe, what to look for, and how to make
use of the information obtained generally requires specialized training.
Collecting learner language samples
Collecting data on how well learners perform on different language tasks
(e.g., business letters, interviews, telephone calls) and documenting the typical problems'they have is a useful and direct source of information about
learners' language needs. Language samples may be collected through the
following means:
62
Chapter?
written or oral tasks: Examples of students written or oral work are col-
lected.
simulations or role plays: Students are given simulations to carry out and
Task analysis
This refers to analysis of the kinds of tasks the learners will have to carry
out in English in a future occupational or educational setting and assessment of the linguistic characteristics and demands of the tasks. For example, a hotel employee might have to perform the following tasks in English:
greet hotel guests
inquire about their accommodation needs
inform them of accommodation available at the hotel
help mem make a suitable choice of accommodation
handle check-in procedures
Berwick (1989,57) observes: 'The emphasis of target situation analysis is
on the nature and effect of target language communications in particular situations (in offices, on assembly lines, in meeting rooms, in content-area
classrooms, for example). Expert analysis of communication establishes
standards against which current performance can be gauged." Once target
tasks have been identified, their linguistic characteristics are determined as
a basis for designing a language course or training materials.
Case studies
With a case study, a single student or a selected group of students is followed through a relevant work or educational experience in order to determine the characteristics of that situation. For example, a newly arrived immigrant might be studied for three months, during which time the student
keeps a log' of his or her daily language experiences in English, the situations in which the language is used, and the problems he or she encounters.
Although'it is generally not possible to generalize from a case study, it provides a very rich source of information that may complement information
obtained from other sources.
Needs analysis 63
Analysis of available information
In any situation where a needs analysis is needed, a large amount of relevant information is generally available in various sources. These include:
books
journal articles
reports and surveys
records and files
Utentorejurvey_
analysis of a wide range of survey questionnaires
contact with others who had conducted similar surveys
interviews with teachers to determine goals
identification of participating departments
presentation of project proposal to participating departments and identification of liaison person in each department
development of a pilot student and staff questionnaire
.review of die questionnaires by colleagues
piloting of die questionnaires
selection of staff and student subjects
developing a schedule for collecting data
administration of questionnaires
64
13.
14.
15.
16.
Chapter 3
In smaller-scale needs analysis such as that of a teacher or group of teachers assessing the needs of'new groups of students in a language program,
needs analysis procedures may consist of:
initial questionnaire
follow-up individual and group interviews
meetings with students
meetings with other teachers
ongoing classroom observation
tests
One of the findings of a needs analysis of problems of ESL students attending university lectures was a list of the frequency with which students
experienced difficulties with speaking and listening skills (Gravett et al.
1997,36). The most common difficulties reported were (by rank):
1. large-group discussions
2. class discussions
Needs analysis 65
4.
5.
6.
7.
out-of-class projects
small-group work
demonstrator interactions
class participation
However, such a listing provides little useful information about the precise
'type of problems the learners experience in relation to each event. Even if
more detailed information had been provided, the results would grin b^ im-_
pressionistia For example, in relation to event 1 (large-group discussions),
more detailed information could have been sought, from which a further
listing might have resulted - the most difficult aspects of taking part in
group discussions. Johns and Johns (1977) provide such a list based on a
needs analysis of problems students have with discussions. The most frequent difficulties were:
1.comprehension of spoken English ('they speak too fast'; 'they mumble';
'vocabulary is idiomatic')
2.the pressing need to formulate a contribution quickly ('I can't think what to
say')
3.shyness about the value of a contribution ('I might say sometiiing
wrong*)
4.inability to formulate an idea in English ('I don't know how to say it in
English')
5.awareness that a given function may be realized in different ways ('I
don't know the best way to say it')
6.frustration about being unable to enter the discussion ('some students
speak too much*) (Johns and Johns 1977)
Yet even with this more detailed breakdown no direct application to program design is possible. In order to develop aims and objectives that addressed each problem, more analysis and research would be needed to further understand what is implied by "comprehension of spoken English" and
before the information obtained could be used in course planning^T^point^
here is that there is no direct application of the information obtained from
jieeds analysis. Although the im^rmaadrigathered is useful, it still hasjo be^
Subjected to a great deal of interpretation before it can be usefully applied
in program_DlannJng.
In the course of carrying out a needs analysis, a large number of potential needs may be identified. However, these needs will have to be prioritized because not all of them may be practical to address in a language program, or perhaps the time frame available in the program is suitable for
addressing only a portion of them. And die mere fact that needs have been
66
Chapter 3
identified does not automatically imply that changes will have to be made
in the curriculum. First, the existing curriculum (when there is one) has to
be examined to see to what extent the needs mat have been identified are
being met. Decisions will therefore have to be made concerning which of
the needs are critical, which are important, and which are merely desirable.
In addition, some needs will be immediate and others longer-term. For
some, solutions will be feasible; for others, they may be impractical.
Jx is also important to remember rha^ because needs are not objective facts_
but subjective interpretations of information from a large variety of sources,
1 great rigai Ot consultation k nflfiriftti wifh rhp-j^rimi^aak^n1deTS_tn^ensurethat the conclusions^i^wn fron^r^
appropriate and
relevant. It often happens that some of the information may be. contradictory^ Stufflebeam et al. (1985, 1X1) remind us:
The process of analysis [of the results of a needs analysis] involves efforts that are
thoughtful, investigatory, systematic, and carefully recorded so that they can be
replicated and reviewed. The primary goal of analysis is to bring meaning to the
obtained information and to do so in the context of some philosophy, relevant
perspectives, and value positions dmt may be in conflict.
Thus, for example, in a needs analysis as part of curriculum renewal in a
state education system, different views of problems in the curriculum
emerged. A number of different points of view emerged as to what should
be changed:
learners' view: more support for learning needed and reduction of the
Needs analysis 67
a full written document
a short summary document
a meeting
gram..
"
gram.
It may provide the basis for developing a syllabus and teaching materials
for a course.
It may provide information that can be used as part of a course or pro-
68 Chapter 3
4. If you were designing a needs analysis for secretaries working in business offices, what target population would you include in the needs
analysis? What kind of information would you need from each member of the target population?
5. Suggest four different needs analysis procedures that could be used to
collect information about the language needs of hotel telephone operators. What are the advantages and limitations of each procedure?
6. Suggest situations in which a case study would provide useful information during a needs analysis.
7. Design a short questionnaire designed to investigate the language needs
of tour guides. What issues will the questionnaire address? What type
of items will you include in the questionnaire?
8. Critique the questionnaires in Appendixes 2 and 3 and suggest any improvements you think could be made to them.
9. Prepare a set of questions to be used in a structured interview for use
in a needs analysis of the language needs of immigration officers at an
airport.
10. Choose an occupation that you are familiar with or that you would be
able to observe and prepare a task analysis of the tasks typically carried out by people in that occupation. Suggest the language requirements of each task.
Examples of needs analyses
Example 1: Needs analysis of non-English-background students
and their English language needs at the University of Auckland
This is an example of needs analysis conducted in order to evaluate whether
currently available language courses meet the needs of non-English-background learners at the university.
CONTEXT
'
The number of students for whom English is a second language has increased steadily since 1990, and continues to do so. In some faculties as
many as 30 percent of the students are ESL students.
Needs analysis
69
Staff questionnaire ' This included some questions from similar instruments developed in other institutions, as well as others specific to issues at
the university. The questions were organized into the following sections.
background information concerning the course or paper the lecturer was
describing
overview of problems experienced by ESL students in the course/paper
linguistic demands of the course/paper in the areas of listening, speaking,
reading, writing, as well as the difficulties experienced by the students in
these areas
suggestions as to which language skills should be focused on in courses
for ESL students
modifications made in teaching or in examinations as a result of the difficulties experienced by ESL students
The questionnaire was piloted and revised before it was distributed. Respondents were identified by the heads of all fifty-one departments at the
university. The results were analyzed overall and by faculty.
Student questionnaire (see Appendix 3) The student questionnaire was a
modified version of the staff quesdonnaire. The structure was similar but
with less emphasis on language expectations and greater emphasis on problems being encountered. The questionnaire was piloted before distribution.
The questionnaire was distributed to students enrolled in all courses that
were identified in die staff questionnaire as having a high'proportion of ESL
students. In all, 302 student questionnaires were completed.
PRODUCT
A fifty-seven page report was produced that described the results of the two
survey questionnaires together with a series of recommendations.
70 Chapter 3
Example 2: A curriculum guide and teaching kit for tutors of
English as a second language teaching Vietnamese refugees in
London
This is an example of needs analysis "on the run," that is, conducted as part
of the process of teaching and developing a course.
CONTEXT
As a result of the arrival of large number of Vietnamese refugees in London, the Kensington Institute in conjunction with the Inner London Education Authority Language and Literacy Unit planned an ESL program for the
refugees. Six teachers and a tutor in charge were appointed to manage the
program,- with time budgeted to plan a syllabus, develop materials, and coordinate the program.
METHOD
Work
Services
Education
Social
Food and drink
This was a starting point for the program to be revised in the light of ongoing information about the students' needs identified during the teaching of
the program. Situations were then selected from the topic areas and the language needs of each situation predicted. This resulted in provisional syllabus frameworks organized by topic.
Student profiles In, order to develop the program, records were kept of information garnered during teaching, resulting in the building up of student
and class profiles. The class profiles documented previous learning experience, strengths and weakness of each student, common areas of interest, individual and group needs, and reflected areas that would'be useful to focus
on in that class.
Cultural comparisons Information was also collected through observation, discussions, and interviews on cultural differences between Vietnamese and British people with regard to such things as family relation-
Needs analysis
71
ships, old age, work, and leisure to help identify differences between the social norms in the two cultures. This information then fed into the course content.
PRODUCT
The project resulted in the preparation of a 156-page tutors' kit that contained the following elements:
a) description of the planning process
b) syllabus frameworks
c) discussion of teaching techniques and activities
d) literacy guidelines
e) worksheets
/) aids and materials
g) discussion of problem areas in English for speakers of Vietnamese
72 Chapter 3
Appendix 1
Designing a questionnaire
Needs analysis 73
g) Would a more personalized (or less personalized) version of the question be better?
k) Is the answer to the question likely to be influenced by the content of
preceding questions?
4. The type of items in the questionnaire
a) Open question: one that can be answered freely and where no kind of
choice is required in the answer
b) Closed question: one that is answered by choosing alternatives provided
c) Checklist: a set of terms that describe different attributes or values
d) Rating scale: a value is given on a scale (e.g., between "strongly agree"
and "strongly disagree")
e) Ranking: items are ranked (e.g., from 1 to 9) according to some criteria
f) Inventory: a list that the respondents mark or check in some way
Very
useful
Not
Useful useful
74 Chapter 3
All.
A12.
A13.
A14.
A15.
A16.
A17.
A18.
A19.
A20.
A21.
A22.
A23.
A24.
A25.
A26.
A27.
A28.
A29.
Talking to children.
Talking to friends.
Having casual conversations with people.
Talking to students.
Talking to a (Cantonese-speaking)
domestic helper.
Talking to workers in my place of residence.
Talking to electricians, plumbers, etc.
Receiving telephone calls.
Making telephone calls.
Joining hobby or interest group.
Playing sports and participating in social clubs.
Watching TV or movies.
Listening to the radio.
Listening to Cantonese music.
Visiting friends' homes.
Visiting different parts of the territory.
Visiting Guangdong province.
Making travel arrangements.
Using Cantonese in situations related to
my work..
Please explain:
_______________________________________
Very
useful
Not
Useful useful
n D
n . [J Lj
n f 1 LI
n N U
u U
n
n
a
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
D
D
i...i LI
[j
U
N
N
N
N
A
N
N
D
LI
U
U
I..I
D
U
LI
LI
U
L1
LI
U
Othen
PartB
From the list above please choose five that are the most important for you. Write
the numbers below.
Needs analysis 75
PartC
If you already speak some Cantonese, please indicate your present level of ability
in Cantonese:
CI. Baste (lower): know a few words and fixed expressions; cannot manage conversational exchanges; respond to question and answer exchanges on a few
topics; very limited vocabulary, grammar, and knowledge of idioms; pronunciation heavily influenced by motfier tongue.
C2. Basic (upper): know a limited number of common words and expressions;
able to manage limited, short conversations on a few predictable topics; survival level' knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, and idioms; pronunciation
heavily influenced by mother tongue.
C3. Intermediate (lower): reasonable fluency on a restricted range of topics but
difficulty outside a limited range of topics; many problems with words, idioms, grammar, and pronunciation.
C4. Intermediate (upper): can manage comfortably in familiar situations and with '
familiar topics, though still some difficulty with vocabulary, idioms, grammar,
and pronunciation.
C5. Advanced: able to converse fluently and naturally on most topics; little difficulty with vocabulary, idioms, grammar, and pronunciation.
C6. If you have studied Cantonese, please indicate under what circumstances.
(a) I took a course.
(b) I studied with a private tutor.
(c) I picked up Cantonese informally.
Other:
...._____.----------------------------------------------------------__
C7. If you attended a formal course, please indicate the length and frequency of the
course (e.g., 6 weeks, 3 hours per week).
C8. How useful was the course? (Please circle your choice.)
Very useful
Somewhat useful
Not useful
76
Chapt
er 3
C9. If you have used one or more textbooks, please indicate the name of each
text and how useful or otherwise it was:
Name of text
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d
)
Very
useful Useful
Not
useful
n N n
n
n CJn L"J
U
U u
CIO. To what would you attribute your present level of ability in Cantonese?
Very Somewhat Not
true
true
true
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(a)
n
iJ
ri
n n
n u
D u
ri ij
a
D
n
n
n
n
n
n
Other
Needs analysis
77
PartD
If you have studied Cantonese before, but have since stopped studying Cantonese
please complete Part D below by checking the appropriate box.
I have studied Cantonese before, but I stopped because of the following reason(s):
Very Somewhat Not
u n
"u u
n
u u
n n
n
D
n
u
true
n n
n
u
true
true
n
[J LI n
D n
U U
78 Chapter 3
PartE
Have you ever used the following activities in studying Cantonese? If you indicate
yes, how useful were they?
Very
useful
Useful
useful
Not
n n D
n
D n n
D n
n n n
n
n n n
n
n n
n D
D
D
n
p
D
n
n
Needs analysis 79
Other:
PartF
In class or with a tutor, I would like my teacher to:
Fl.
No
A little
Good
Best
No
A little
Good
Best
No
A little
Good
Best
No
A little
Good
Best
No
No
A little
A link
Good
Good
Best
Best
No
A Utile
Good
Best
PartG
What are your feelings about Cantonese as a language?
Gl. Cantonese is a language with a rich
vocabulary.. G2. Cantonese is made up of
many colloquial
expressions. G3. Cantonese is made up
of many idioms. G4. Cantonese is a very
difficult language. G5. Cantonese is a
language with a lot of
grammar. G6. Cantonese is a language where
pronunciation is very important. G7.
Cantonese is a language where rhythm
and intonation are important. G8.
Cantonese is a very useful language in
Hong Kong. G9. Cantonese is a
fascinating language. GIO. Cantonese is a beautiful
sounding language. Gil. Cantonese is a polite
language. G12. The rhythm and intonation of
Cantonese
are pleasing to my ears. G13. Cantonese is a
harsh sounding language. G14. Cantonese is a
vulgar sounding language.
Other:
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
Very true
True
True
Not true
Not true
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
True
Not true
Very true
Very true
Very true
True
True
True
Not true
Not true
Not true
Very
true Very
true
True
True
Not tree
Not true
80 Chapter 3
Appendix 3 Needs analysis questionnaire for nonEnglish-background students
Student questionnaire used at the University of Auckland, New Zealand (from
Gravatt, Richards, and Lewis 1997).
This questionnaire is part of a project being carried out by the Institute of Language
Teaching and Learning to determine what the language needs of students whose first
or dominant language is not English (ESL students) attending die University are,
whether these are being adequately met and, if not, what can be done better. For this
purpose the opinions of both staff and students in a variety of departments are being surveyed. It would be appreciated if you could complete this questionnaire,
which should take approximately 20 minutes.
The terra 'N/A' is used in this questionnaire. It means 'Not applicable' and is the
appropriate response if a question does not apply to you.
With which of the following groups do you identify? (please tick the appropriate box):
Q Pacific Island-which? |
I J Asian - which country? 1
LJ Other (please specify): |
1
1
J
How many years have you been studying at Auckland University ._______.
(including 1997)?
I______I
What is your current course of study? |
Please complete this questionnaire with regard to the course you have specified
here.
Very often
1
12
12
1-2
Often
2
3
3
3
Sometimes
"3
4
4
4
Rarely
4
Never
5
5
5
5
Needs analysis
81
How often do you have difficulty with each of these skills? (please circle):
Reading
Writing
Speaking
Listening
Very often
1
1
1
1
Often
2
2
2
2
Sometimes
3
3
3
3
Rarely
4
4
4
4
Never
5
5
5
5
B. Genera! Statements
Please circle the appropriate response:
How important to success in your course of study are the following abilities?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Listening to English
Speaking English
Writing English
Reading English
High 1
111
3
42
2
Moderate 2
42
3
3
4
3
4
Low
555
5
How important to success in your field after graduation are the following abilities?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Listening to English
Speaking English
Writing English
Reading English
High 1 Moderate
1 1 1- 2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
Low 5
55
5
4
4
4
4
Often
Sometimes
Never 4
N/A
5
4-
82
Chapter 3
Often 2
Sometimes
Never 4
N/A
5
D. Speaking Skills
How often do the following happen to you?
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never 4
N/A
5
2
2
3 3
3 3
E. Listening Skills
How often do the following happen to you?
Always
1. Have trouble under
standing lectures.
12
Often
Sometimes
Never
N/A
Needs analysis
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
N/A
5
83
Sometimes
Never
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
84 Chapter 3
Importai ne
e F Writing Skills
o,
L->
G.
a
CJ
k-i
>
1234
G. Reading Skills
The following questions concern the reading tasks required of you during die
course. Please indicate:
a) which of the following types of material you are expected to read, and
b) how often you have difficulty doing so (please circle):
Expected
to read?
1.Journal articles
2.Newspaper articles
Yes/No
Yes/No
Frequency of difficulties
Often
Sometimes Never
1
1
2
2
3
3
Needs analysis 85
3. Works of fiction
4. Entire reference or text
books
5. Selected chapters of
books
6. Photocopied notes
7. Workbook or laboratory
instructions
8. Computer-presented
reading materials
9. Other (please specify):
Expected
to read?
Yes/No
Yes / No
Frequency of difficulties
Often
Sometimes
Ne\
1
2
3
1
2
3
Yes/No
Yes /No
Yes/No
1
1
2
2
3
3
Yes/No
Yes/No
Indicate how often you have difficulty with each of the following:
Very often
10.Understanding the main points of text.
11. Reading a text quickly in order to
establish a general idea of the content
(skimming).
12.' Reading a text slowly and carefully in
order to understand the details of the text.
13. Looking through a text quickly in order
to locate specific information (scanning).
14. Guessing unknown words in a text.
15. Understanding text organisation.
16. Understanding specialist vocabulary
in a text.
17. Reading speed.
18. Reading in order to respond critically.
19. Understanding a writer's attitude and
purpose.
20. General comprehension.
21. Other (please specify): _______________
Sometimes
Never
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
86 Chapter 3
H. Skills You Would Like to Improve
If you were to take a course to improve your English skills, which of the following
would be useful to you? Rate the importance of each (please circle):
High
1. Listening to pronunciation/intonation/
stress patterns of New Zealand English.
2. Lecture notetaking.
3. General listening comprehension.
4. Giving formal speeches/presentations.
5. Participating effectively in discussions.
6. Communicating effectively with peers in
small group discussions, collaborative
projects, or out-of-class study groups.
7. Communicating effectively with staff in
or out of class.
8. Library skills.
9. Essay writing.
10. Lab report writing.
11. Creative writing.
12. Writing case studies.
13. Describing objects or procedures.
14. Writing introductions and conclusions.
15. Writing references and quotations.
16. Formulating coherent arguments.
17. Summarising factual information.'
18. Synthesizing information from more than
one source.
19. Analysing written materials.
20. Knowledge of vocabulary.
21. Reading quickly.
22. Reading critically.
23. Reading for author's viewpoint,
24. Summarizing material.
25. General reading comprehension.
26. Other (please specify and rate): ________
Low
Moderate
2
2
2
2
2
3
3*4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
2
3
2-345
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
2
2
2
2
2.
2
2
2
3
4
3
4
3
4
.3
'4
3
4
3-4-5
3
4
3 ' 4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Needs analysis
87
/. Assistance Available
Are you aware of the course available at the Student Leamicg Centre for students
for whom English is a second language? (please circle):
Yes / No
If you have taken any of these courses, please state which you have taken and how
useful they were:
Course ,
Very useful
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12
12
12
No use at all
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
K. Additional Comments
Do you have any other comments which might be helpful in assessing what English skills are expected of you by the University, what specific difficulties you encountered in this paper, how English courses could better prepare students such as
yourself for this paper, or anything else relating to your English language skills and
needs? If so, please write them here:
88
Chapter 3
L. Additional Information
If we would like more information from you, would you be prepared to be interviewed?
Yes / No
If so, please give youn
Name:__________,________,_______________________________,____
Contact telephone number: _____________________________________THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE
Needs analysis 89
References
Auerbach, E. R. 1995. The politics of the ESL classroom: Issues of power in
pedagogical choices. In Tollefson 1995. 9-33. Berwick, R. 1989. Needs
assessment in language programming: From theory to practice. In R. K. Johnson
(ed.), The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brindley, G. 1984. Needs analysis and objective setting in the adult migrant education program. Sydney: N.S.W. Adult Migrant Education Service. Brindley,
G. 1989. The role of needs analysis in adult ESL programme design. In R. K.
Johnson (ed.). The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge
University Press. Burnett/L. 1998. Issues in immigrant settlement inAustralia.
Sydney: National
Centre for English Language Teaching and Research. Connelly, E. M., and
D. J. Clandinin. 1988. Teachers as curriculum planners.
New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Elley, W*. 1984. Tailoring the
evaluation to fit the context. In R. K. Johnson (ed.), The second language
curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press. 270-285. Gravatt, B., J.
Richards, and M.Lewis. 1997'. Language needs in tertiary studies. Auckland:
Occasional Paper Number 10, University of Auckland Institute of Language
Teaching and Learning. Hudelson, S. (ed.). 1993. English as a second language
curriculum resource
handbook. New York: Krause International. Johns, A. M., and T. F. Johns. 1977.
Seminar discussion strategies. In A. P. Cowie and J. B. Heaton (eds.), English for
academic purposes. Reading: University of Reading, BAAL/SELMOUS. Li, D.,
and J. Richards. 1995. Cantonese as a second language: A study of learner needs
and Cantonese course books. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong. Linse,
C. T. 1993. Assessing student needs. In Hudelson 1993. 35-48. Porcher, L. 1977.
Une notion ambigue: les 'besoins Iangagiers'. Les cahiers du
CRELEF3. Pratt, D. 1980. Curriculum: Design and development. New York:
Harcourt Brace. Richards, J. C, and B. Gravatt. 1998. Students'beliefs about
foreign languages. Auckland: Occasional Paper Number 11, University of
Auckland Institute of Language Teaching and Learning. Shaw, J., and G. DowsetL
1986. The evaluation process in the adult migrant education program. Adelaide:
Adult Migrant Education Program. Stufflebeam, D., C. McCormick, R.
Brinkerhoff, and C. Nelson. 1985. Conducting 'educational needs, assessment.
Hingham, MA: Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing. Tollefson, J. W. (ed.). 1995. Power
and inequality in language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4 Situation analysis
C The goal of needs analysis is to collect information that can be used to dep velop a profile offfie^airgrrage-Tie^ds-of-ar^
in order~to~be
C aBTe" to make' decisions about the goals anoTc^7ftenr"ofTTalig^^
However, other factors apart from learner needs are reTevanTto-th-e--design
and implementation of successful language programs. Language programs are
carried out in particular contexts or situations. Clark (1987, xii) comments:
A language curriculum is a function of the interrelationships that hold between
subject-specific concerns and other broader factors embracing socio-political and
philosophical matters, educational value systems, theory and practice in curriculum
design, teacher experiential wisdom and learner motivation. In order to understand
the foreign language curriculum in any particular context it is therefore necessary
to attempt to understand bow all the various influences interrelate to give a
particular shape to the planning and execution of the teaching/learning process.'
The contexts .for language programs are diverse and mejiart^ljxjauiab-Ies
that come into play in a speciflclituation are often the key determinants of
thTsu'ccess:"6f afffbgranTSome language cumcufa'areplanned foTceHtrally
organized state school systems where a great deal of direction and support
for teaching is provided. Others take place in settings where there are lim
ited human and physical resources. Some proposals for curriculum change
are well received by teachers, but others may be resisted. In some situations,
teachers are well trained and have time available to plan their own lesson
materials'. In other situations, teachers may have little time for lesson plan
ning and materials production and simply teach from their textbooks. Each_
context for a curriculum change or innovation thus contains factors that can
potentially facilitate the change or hinder its successful implementation
(MaTK"eeT9V I). It islmportant, therefore, tolde^tifjTv^iat tfiesePfactors are
a^d'whaT theirpotejitijaTeffects might be when planning a^curricuTurh
change (Bean 1993). Pra^U19l$(UTTjoD^en^----------------------------'----The designer should estimate both the direct and indirect effects a proposed
curriculum will have on the students, on other programs, and on other people in
90
Situation analysis
91
and outside the institution. These effects must be taken into account in the design
and made clear to decision-makers when die curriculum proposal is submitted.
This is the focus of situation analysis. Situation analysis is an analysis of
factors in the context of a planned or present curriculum project that is made""
Tnj5n3^
be political, social, economic, or institutional. Situation analysis comple^"
memSTfaeinftormadoTTgatnerea during n^edTanalysis. It is sometimes'cljrP
sidered as a dimension of needs analysis, and can_als.o3e_regarded as an aspect of evaluation (seePUhapter y).
Some exaTrfpfes of language teaching changes that were attempted without an adequate analysis of the context of the innovation will clarify the importance" of situation analysis in curriculum planning.
Example 1: A team of foreign experts under contract to an international
funding body is given a contract to write a new series of English textbooks
for the state school system in an EFL country. They base themselves in an
attractive small town in a rural setting and set up their writing project. They
do a series of interviews with educational officials and teachers to deter
mine students' language needs and make use of the latest thinking on lan
guage teaching and textbook design to produce an oral-based language
course that reflects me recommended language teaching methodology of
the time - Audiolingualism. Textbooks are developed and provided to sec
ondary schools at no cost and teachers are given the choice of using the new
books or their old outdated government textbooks. After a period of initial
enthusiasm, however, very few teachers end up using the new course and
,
:
92 Chapter 4
and few people have an opportunity to review the materials before they are
published. When the books are published, they receive many complaints
from teachers. They are found to be difficult to teach, they contain too much
material, and they are prepared to poor standards of design and production.
Comment: Several factors had not been addressed in planning the project.
None of the members of the writing team had experience or training in
writing elementary language teaching materials. More consultation with
classroom teachers should have been provided, as well as pilot testing of the'
materials. In addition, there was an unrealistic budget for design and production. And the time framework the writers were working with did not allow for adequate development and review of the materials.
Example 3: A large private university of an EFL country decides that, rather
than use commercial materials in its language institute, it will produce its
own materials and publish them. It is hoped that they will compete on the
market with materials produced by commercial publishers. A large amount
of money is invested in setting up a materials writing team and the books
are prepared. When they are finally published, however, it is found that few
other institutes or schools want to use them.
Comment: Private universities in this country are highly competitive, and
the fact that the materials were produced by one institution meant that other
institutions did not want to use them. Some basic market research should
have been carried out at the initial stages of the project to determine if there
would be a commercial market for the materials.
These examples illustrate the kinds of factors that can have an impact on the success
cTacurriculum project and emphasize the importarJcTof detenfltcr-ing the potential
influence of sucElactorsonthelmplementation ofa~cur- V i Jiculum[chj^
Xy*,
X fectorejjnstia^jaal^^
4
<X. '' fetors. (Some of these factors will be considered further in later chapters S*
Aa re*at*on t0 *ssues of teaching, methodology, and materials design.) Analy,. V)\ \P sis and appraisal of the potential impact of these factors at the initial stages
of a curriculum project can help determine the kinds of difficulties that
might be encountered in implementing a curriculum change. Procedures
used in situation analysis are similar to those mvolvedJn_negds analysis,
namely, (a) consultation witETepresentatives of as many relevant groups as
possibTe7~suebras^are"ntsrs^
govemrnmtoHcialsT7^), stodyanS"an^ysi?oFrelOTant documents, s^^_as_course~
appraisal documents, government reports, minis^_of_eJucatign guidelines^
and' irolicy'plip^rSjjjeac^^
Situation analysis
93
Second or foreign language teaching is a fact of life in almost every country in the world. Yet countries differ greatly in terms of the role of foreign
languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational traditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that members of the community have for language teaching and learning. Van Els, T.
Bongaerts, G. Extra, C. Van Os, and A. Janssen-van Dieten (1984,156), for
example, comparing foreign language teaching experience in Holland and
the United States, point out that the circu_mstan.cg.s_. of foreign language
teaching are completely different in both countries. InJHolIand, a command
oTohTor more foreign languages has long been accepted as a necessity.
Schools are expected to offer a range of foreign languages, and there is both
a strong tradition and considerable expertise in foreign language teaching.
New proposals are therefore met with informed skepticism. In the United
States, by comparison, there is much less collective wisdom or experience
in foreign language teaching. The position of foreign languages in the
school curriculum is neither strong nor secure. More promotion of foreign
language teaching is consequently needed, and there is a greater interest in
novel teaching methods. Inexamjning the impact of soctgtal factors on languagete^chmg^thereforejjhe aim is to determine the impact of groups,in
the community or society at large oruheprogtam/These groups include:
/ policy makers in government
\ educational and other government officials
\ employers ) the business
community
") politicians
/ - tertiary education specialists /
educational organizations I
parents \ ' citizens
\ students
In the case of projects of community or national scope, questions such as the
following may be relevant:
94
Chapter 4
What current language teaching policies exist and how are they viewed?
What are the underlying reasons for the project and who supports it?
What impact will it have on different sectors of society?
What language teaching experience and traditions exist in the country?
How do members of the public view second languages and second language teaching?
What are the views of relevant professionals such as academics and
teacher trainers?
What do professional organizations such as teachers' unions think of the
project?
What are the views of parents and students?
What are the views of employers and the business community?
What community resources are available to support the innovations, such
as radio, television, and the media?
The following examples illustrate die impact of societal factors on language
curriculum projects.
Example 2: A new English curriculum has been prepared for English at secondary level in an EFL context. The new curriculum is described as a communicative curriculum and downplays the importance of grammar, which
traditionally received a strong focus in the English curriculum. When textbooks to support the new curriculum are published, concerns are expressed
by parents and parents' groups because they feel that their children "are not
being taught the basics" and the textbooks will not provide sufficient preparation for school exams.
Comment: Mechanisms should have been established for communicating the intentions of the new curriculum to parents and other interested parties and to identify and address their concerns. Perhaps parents misunderstood the way grammar was addressed in the new cumculum and would be
satisfied once they understood better how the program worked. In addition,
the textbooks should be reviewed to ensure that they address the skills covered in me exams.
Example 2: In an EFL country, a new 6-year English course is developed for
secondary schools. The course seeks to prepare students both for employment and for entry to English-medium universities. The course is based on
an integrated-skills syllabus that was prepared by a group of consultants and
materials writers and is carefully reviewed by teachers before it is published.
After the course has been in use for two years, however, employers complain
that school leavers have insufficient language skills for work purposes.
Situation analysis 95
Comment: The course was largely planned around the needs of students going on to university studies. The needs of learners going to vocational schools or into the employment sector should also have been
considered. Employers should have been consulted during the planning
stage to find out what language skills they felt school leavers should
have. The course could then have been examined to see if these skills were
adequately covered.
.Project factors
Curriculum projects are typically produced by a team of people. Members
of the team may be specialists who are hired specifically for the purpose,
they may be classroom teachers who are seconded to the project for a fixed
period of time, or the project may be carried out by teachers and other staff
of a teaching institution as part of their regular duties. Projects are comDieted under-djfferenLconstraints of time, resources, and personnel, and
each of these variables can have a significant impact on a project.. There
should be sufficient i^ember^^
do the job and they
should represent a balance p.fjkills.an.d.expextise.JSome projects are gener
ously resourced while others operate on a shoestring budget. The time frame
for a project needs to be carefully planned. If a curriculum development
team takes on too ambitious a task for die time available, the quality of their
efforts may be compromised. The working dynamics of the team are also
essential to the smooch progress of the project. If the team members are
hj.gMY-^comrratted-toJhe..project and., share a common vision, it is likely to
encounter fewer difficulties than one where the project team experiences mtenwife^^d^p^^r^truggle.s._
'
96 Chapter 4
The following examples illustrate how these kinds of'factors can affect
curriculum planning;
Example 2: A private institute decides to develop a set of course materials
for some of its major courses. A group of teachers is assigned to the task
and given release time to work on the project as materials writers. One of
the senior teachers is put in charge. However, the team members cannot
agree on the goals of the project or the best approach to take in writing the
materials. There is constant tension within the team and a rapid turnover of
writers. Consequently, the project takes much longer to accomplish than
planned.
Comment: A person who is a good teacher may not make a good materials developer or project leader. Better direction of the project was needed
through recruitment of someone with appropriate qualifications and experience. In addition, better communication was needed so that different perceptions of the project could be aired and differences resolved before they
became problems. Clearer specifications of roles might also have led to
fewer problems.
Example 2: A full-time textbook writer needs help in developing a textbook
series. She hires three graduate students who appear to have the necessary
skills and experience. A contract is signed and the project commences. It
soon emerges, however, that the graduate students do not have the skills
needed to write independently and are able to undertake little more than secretarial roles within the project. The experienced writer finds it necessary
to take on the major part of the writing, leading to tension and bad feeling
because the contract is already signed.
Comment: The graduate students should have been given a trial period
to prove their worth before they were offered a contract. Problems that
emerged early on in the project should have been aired so that replacement
writers could have been recruited if necessary.
Example 3: A project team within a ministry of education is assigned to develop a national textbook project in an EFL country. Team members are recruited by a professional recruitment agency. There is little difficulty
recruiting writers, but there are few appropriate applicants for the role of
project director. As a consequence, a succession of inexperienced or unsuitable appointees fill the post of project director, leading to serious problems within the team and to disruption of the project deadlines.
Comment: The role of project director might have to be reconsidered and
the responsibilities assigned to members of the team. Alternatively, terms
Situation analysis 97
of employment for the project director might need to be reconsidered to enable
a suitable candidate to be found. In addition, members of the project team
should be consulted on how to resolve communication difficulties and other
problems within the team.
Institutional factors
Ajanguage teaching progra.misjypjc.allv delivered in an institution such as
ajmiyersity, school, or language institute. Differenjtypes of institutions createjheir;o^^^ture," ithjitjsLjgJrings where peopjeinteract and where patterns emerge for communication, decision making, role relations, and con-"
duct Morris (1994, 109) observes:
~~"
~--------------Schools are organizations and they develop a culture, ethos or environment which
might be favorable or unfavorable to encouraging change and the implementation
of innovations. A school with a relatively open climate, where'' the teachers
collaborate widi each other and where the principal and [senior teachers] are
supportive of teachers, is more likely to try to implement a change. In contrast, a
school where the principle focuses on administrative matters, the teachers work in
isolation or in narrow subject-based groups and where there is no mechanism to
discuss and try to solve problems is less likely to change.
A teaching institution is a collection of teachers, groups, and departments,
sometimes functioning in unison, sometimes with different components
functioning independently, or sometimes with components in a confrontational
relationship. Within an institution there may be a Strong and positive climate to
support innovation, one where there is effective and positive leadership and
where change is received positively. On the otiier hand, there may be a climate
where teachers distrust one another and the administration and have no firm
commitment to the school.,
iiwtitutions-alsoJiaaffijh^ua^^
things. In some institutions, textbooks are the core of the curriculum and alfteacEers must use the
prescribed texts. In other institutions, teachers work from course guidelines and
supplement them as they see fit. Institutions also cJiffergreatW in their
ley^J^fpiofession^Jisjn. In some institutions, there is a strong sense ofprr>
fessional commitment and a culture of quality that influences every aspect of
the institution's operations. In others, the driving force of die school may be
monetary. As a cost-saving measure, heavy reliance is made on part-time
teachers or teachers with little .training and experience. They are not paid for
lesson preparation time and consequently teach their classes and then depart for
their next teaching assignment, perhaps in another school.
98 Chapter 4
In_addiuon to the human side of the institution, the physical aspects need
tobe cojisidered^^WMtToiids of resources are"available for XeacrieTsTIs'there
a~good teachers' reference room? What access do teachers have to the photocopier? Who chooses textbooks and materials? Institutional factors thus
relate to the following kinds of questions:
What leadership is available within the school to support change and to
language programs?
How committed is the institution to attaining excellence?
Situation analysis 99
senior teachers in order to enable them to successfully carry out their teaching and materials development responsibilities.
Comment: The institute should review its staff structure and consider creating special roles for key senior teachers with appropriate remuneration.
These could be mentor teachers, teacher trainers, or teacher researchers.
Teacher factors
Teachers are a key factor in the successful implementation of curriculum
^h^oHTExceptlonat teachers can often compensate for the poor-qiialityTre^"
sources" and materials they have to work from. But inadequately trained
teachers may not be able to make effective use of teaching materials no matter how well they are designed. In any institution, teachers may vary according to the following dimensions:
language proficiency """\
teaching experience
j
skill and expertise
-j
training and qualifications \
morale and motivation
\
teaching style
\
beliefs and principles
/
,
^vYi^d id CJL-CJ
^"-^
!:,
J^X\^J:~-*'iX
p^'"' '""L>'
100 Chapter 4
How proficient are they in English?
What kinds of beliefs do the teachers typically hold concerning key is-
sues in teaching?
What teaching loads do teachers have and what resources do they make
use of?
What are the typical teaching methods teachers use and believe in?
To what extent are teachers open to change?
What opportunities do they have for retraining through in-service or other
kinds of opportunities?
What benefits are the proposed new syllabus, curriculum, or materials
JLejanej^mj.v^
of a project in unexpected ways^ For example, a textbook or~set of materials may "be engagingTafaTsuitable level,
and provide a lot of useful practice but not be appreciated by students becausejhey fail to see any links between the book and an examination they
jLre^orJdng-tQiV-aKUA language program that is dependent on students'
bringing to school a student book, a workbook, and a dictionary may encounter difficulties because students' schoolbags are not big enough to provide space for three English books in addition to books required for other
subjects. Or a program in business English for company employees sensibly predicated on the assumption that the students really want to be able to
discuss business topics in English may turn out to be off target because what
the employees really want is an hour's escape from the pressures of their
jobs and the chance to practice social and conversational English. Among
relevant learner factors therefore are the following:
What are the learners' past language learning experiences?
* How motivated are the learners to learn English?
102 Chapter 4
What are their expectations for the program?
Do the learners' views on language teaching reflect any culturally specific
factors?
Are they a homogeneous or a heterogeneous group?
What type of learning approach do they favor (e.g., teacher-led, student-
Adoption factors
Any attempt to introduce a new curriculum, syllabus, or set of'materials
must take into account the relative ease or difficulty of introducing change
into the system. Curriculum changes are of many different kinds. They may
affect teachers' pedagogical values and beliefs, their understanding of the
nature of language or second language learning, or their classroom practices
and use of teaching materials. S_ome changes maybe readily accepted while
others might be resisted. The following questions therefore need to be asked
~~of any proposed^mculum innovation:
What advantages does the curriculum change offer? Is the innovation per-
104 Chapter 4
How clear and practical is it? Are the expectations of the innovation stated
in ways which clearly show how it can be used in the classroom?
(Morris 1994,109)
Although curriculum planners might provide many compelling reasons for
adopting a communicative teaching methodology, teachers might feel that it
makes testing more difficult compared with a more traditional grammar-based
approach. Hence it is perceived as offering few relative advantages for teachers.
A language teaching approach that requires teachers to adopt new roles in the
classroom, such as needs analyst, resource person, and language tutor, might not
be compatible with learners' expectations for the role of teachers. The
complexity and clarity of a curriculum change might also be crucial in its
successful adoption. Compare the following pairs of items, for example, and
consider which would be easier to explain to a group of teachers:
106
Chapter 4
Situation analysis
107
project and whether project factors had an impact on the dynamics and
outcome of the project.
7. What can be done in circumstances where teachers and learners have
different expectations and beliefs about the nature of a language
course?
8. What support is provided for teachers in your teaching situation? How
effective is the support provided? What other forms of support would
you recommend?
9. Imagine that a new technology-based learning program is to be introduced into schools in your country or the country in which you work.
The program employs print materials but also makes extensive use of
CALL software, CD-ROMS, videos, and other electronic media. What
factors might affect the reception of die program and how could any
negative factors be addressed?
10. Examine the situation analysis profile in Appendix 1 and adapt it to
make it applicable to a context for curriculum change (e.g., introduction of a new curriculum, new teaching methods, new textbooks, a new
language program) that you are familiar with. Identify positive and negative factors in the situation that will affect the curriculum change.
108 Chapter 4
Appendix 1
Societal factors
Positives: _______________
Negatives: _______________
Project factors
Positives: _______________
Negatives: _______________
Institutional factors
Positives: _______________
Negatives: _______________
Teacher factors
Positives: _______________
Negatives: _______________
Learner factors
Positives: ______________
Negatives: _______________
Adoption factors
Positives: _______________
Negatives: ________________
High
difficulty
Situation analysis
Low
difficulty
109
High
difficulty
High
difficulty
____
___
__
__
______
____
______
___
____
______
______.
110
Chapter 4
113
114 Chapter 5
We do not find a monolithic supremacy exercised by one interest group; rather we
find different interest groups competing for dominance over the curriculum and, at
different times, achieving some measure of control depending on local as well as
general social conditions, Each of diese interest groups, then, represents a force
for a different selection of knowledge and values from the culture and hence a
kind of lobby for a different curriculum. (Kliebard, 1986, 8)
Each of the five curriculum perspectives examined here emphasizes a different
approach to the role of language in the curriculum.
Academic rationalism
This justification for die aims of curriculum stresses the intrinsic value of the
subject matter and its role in developing the learner's intellect, humanistic values,
and rationality. The content matter of different subjects is viewed as the basis for
a curriculum and mastery of content is an end in itself ratiier than a means to
solving social problems or providing efficient means to achieve the goals of
policy makers. The role of schools is to provide access to the major achievements
of a particular cultural tradition and to know the insights gained from studying
enduring fields of knowledge. Greek and Latin have traditionally appeared in
many high school curricula in the West because they were believed to develop
"mental discipline" in students. Also known as "classical humanism," this view
"is characterized above all by the desire to promote broad intellectual capacities
such as memorization and the ability to analyze, classify, and reconstruct
elements of knowledge so that these capacities can be brought to bear on the
various challenges likely to be encountered in life" (Clark 1987,5). Academic
rationalism is sometimes used to justify the inclusion of certain foreign languages
in school curricula, where they are taught not as tools for communication but as
an aspect of social studies, Ozolins (1993) documents the debate over foreign
language teaching in Australian schools and the reasons why French has
gradually replaced Latin and other foreign languages. In discussing the role of
foreign languages, the education minister for the state of "Victoria in 1964,
Bloomfield, argued that me issue was not one of languages alone. Ozolins
comments:
The intellectual justification for teaching French was, in Bloomfield's view, 'the
understanding of otfier nations, so that foreign language teaching is an intensive
and specialized form of social studies*. The purely linguistic and communicative
aspects of languages were not the primary objective, at least not for Victorian
schools. (Ozolins 1993: 87)
This ideology is also sometimes used as a justification for including courses on
literature, or American or British culture, in a language program. In some
116 Chapters
philosophy leads to an emphasis on practical and functional skills in a for eign or
second language.
Socioeconomic ideology stresses the economic needs of society as a jus
tification for the teaching of English. Successful economies in the twentyfirst century are increasingly knowledge-based, and the bulk of the world's
knowledge is in the English language. In a recent debate over standards of
English in Japan, poor standards of English were cited as one reason for
Japan's economic malaise in the late 1990s. "The learning of English, now
a global language, is essential for Japan to have a bright future-----------the lin
guistic handicap of the Japanese could hold them back in an increasingly
Internet-oriented world, where the bulk, of information is written in En
glish" (Kin 1999).
In foreign language teaching, the debate over skills-based versus academically based instruction in language teaching has-a long history, as is seen in
discussions over the relative merits of classical languages versus modern
languages, literature versus language, and even grammar versus conversation in
a language program. In many countries where English is a foreign language,
over the past two decades there has been a move away from academic
rationalism as the underpinnings of the English curriculum toward one based
more on a socioeconomic efficiency model. The Threshold Level, the notionalfunctional syllabus, and outcomes-based approaches such as the use of graded
objectives and competency-based outcomes in foreign language learning reflect
this move toward an efficiency model in curriculum planning, one thai Clark
(1987) suggests often also reflects a Research, Development, and Diffusion
model.
It generally involves the setting up of a central committee of selected 'experts' to
develop a new curriculum product. The committee conducts initial research into
what is required, produces draft materials, obtains feedback from classroom
teachers who use the draft material in a number of designated pilot areas chosen to
be representative of a range of contexts, and finally revises the materials for
publication. (Clark 1987, 33)
Auerbach cites an example of this approach - the Texas Adult Performance
Level Study - in which "university-based researchers surveyed literacy usage in
a wide variety of contexts and identified sixty-five competencies that they
claimed were characteristic of successful functioning in society" (Auerbach
1995, 13).
Critics of this view of the curriculum have argued that such a view is
reductionist and presupposes that learners' needs can be identified with a
predetermined set of skills and objectives. Knowledge is seen as something
external to"'the learner that is transmitted in pieces. Freire describes this as
interests of children
118 Chapter 5
/"\ * creative self-expression by students
practically oriented activities directed toward the needs of society
a collective term that refers to the rejection of teaching-directed learning
j In language teaching, Clark sees this educational philosophy as leading to j an
emphasis on process rather than product, a focus on learner differences, learner
strategies, and learner self-direction and autonomy.
Social raconstructionism
This curriculum perspective emphasizes the roles schools and learners can and
should play in addressing social injustices and inequality. Curriculum
development is not seen as a neutral process. Schools likewise do not present
equal opportunities for all (Freire 1972; Apple 1986) but reflect the general
inequalities in society. Schools must engage teachers and students in an
examination of important social and personal problems and seek ways to address
them. .This process is known as "empowerment." Teachers must empower their
students so that they can recognize unjust systems of class, race, or gender, and
challenge them. Morris (1995,10) observes:
The curriculum derived from this perspective focuses on developing knowledge,
skills and attitudes which would create a world where people care about each
omen the environment, and the distribution of wealth. Tolerance, the acceptance of
diversity and peace would be encouraged. Social injustices and inequality would
be central issues in the curriculum.
The most persuasive and currently popular representatives of this viewpoint
are associated with the movement known as critical theory and critical
pedagogy. The assumptions of "criticalists" are summarized by Kinch-eloe and
McLaren (1994,139):
that all thought is fundamentally mediated by power relations that are socially and
historically constituted; that facts can never be isolated from the domain of value
or removed from some form of ideological inscription; that the relationship
between concept and object and between signifier and signified is never stable or
fixed and is often mediated by the social relations of capitalist production and
consumption; diat language is central to me formation of subjectivity (conscious
and unconscious awareness); that certain groups in any society are privileged over
others... the oppression that characterizes contemporary societies is most
forcefully reproduced when subordinates accept their social status as natural,
necessary, or inevitable; that oppression has many faces and that focusing on only
one at the expense of the others ... often elides the interconnections between them;
and, finally, that mainstream research practices are generally ... implicated in the
reproduction of systems of class, race, and gender oppression.
120 Chapter 5
mented on the "lack of migrant participation - which could have been forthcoming if the medium of instruction had not been English alone, if bilingual teachers had been employed and if ethnic communities had been involved" (1978, 68).
The extent to which one or other of the curriculum ideologies discussed
in this section serves as the ideological underpinning of the curriculum and
the relative emphasis they receive in the curriculum will reflect the particular context in which the curriculum occurs. The philosophy of the curriculum is the result of political judgment in that it reflects a particular set
of choices about curriculum options. It reflects what the participants in the
planning process believe to be worthwhile goals to attain and the changes
they feel the curriculum should bring about. Because these judgments and
values are often not stated explicitly, identifying them, making them explicit, and reflecting on the unstated values and assumptions driving the curriculum are an essential part of the process of curriculum planning.
Aims statements reflect the ideology of the curriculum and show how the
curriculum will seek to realize it. The following statements describe the
aims of teaching English at the primary level in Singapore:
Our pupils learn English in order to:
communicate effectively, in both speech and writing, in everyday situa-
121
hotel
to deal with guest inquiries and complaints
to explain and clarify charges on a guest's bill
Aim statements are generally derived from information gathered during
a needs analysis. For-example, the following areas of difficulty were some
of tiiose identified for non-English-background students studying in English-medium universities:
understanding lectures
participating in seminars
taking notes during lectures
reading at adequate speed to be able to complete reading assignments
presenting ideas and information in an organized way in a written assignment
In developing course aims and objectives from this information, each area
of difficulty will have to be examined and researched in order to understand
122 Chapter 5
what is involved in understanding lectures, participating in seminars, and so
on. What knowledge and skills does each activity imply? Normally the overall aims of a short course can be described in two or three aim statements;
however, in a course spanning a longer time period, such as the primary
school course referred to earlier, a greater number of aim statements will be
needed.
In developing aim statements, it is important to describe more than simply the activities that students will take part in. The following, for example,
are not aims:
Students will learn about business-letter writing in English.
Students will study listening skills. Students will practice
composition skills in English. Students will learn English
for tourism.
For these to become aims, they need to focus on the changes in the learners
that will result. For example:
Students will learn how to write effective business letters for use in the
hotel and tourism industries.
Students will learn how to listen effectively in conversational interactions
and how to develop better listening strategies.
Students will leam how to communicate information and ideas creatively
and effectively through writing.
Students will be able to communicate in English at a basic level for purposes of tourism.
Objectives
Aims are very general statements of the goals of a program. They can be interpreted in many different ways. For example, consider the following aim
statement:
Students will learn how to write effective business letters for use in the
hotel and tourism industries.
Although this provides a clear description of the focus of a program, it does
not describe the kinds of business letters students will learn or clarify what
is meant by effective business letters. In order to give a more precise focus
to program goals, aims are often accompanied by statements of more specific purposes. These are known as objectives. (They are also sometimes referred to as instructional objectives or teaching objectives.) An objective
refers to a statement of specific changes a program seeks to bring about and
123
results from an analysis of the aim into its different components. Objectives
generally have the following characteristics:
They describe what the aim seeks to achieve in terms of smaller units of
learning.
They provide a basis for the organization of teaching activities.
They describe learning in terms of observable behavior or performance.
cause-and-ejfect relationships
comparisons and contrasts
premises used in persuasive arguments
supporting details, used in persuasive arguments "
Statements of objectives have the following characteristics:
Objectives describe a leamingj>utcQ_me-Jin ^tingj)bjectives,_expressions
like will study, will lean^aboirt.jyjllpiepare^stt^^
cause they^FnctTdescribe the result of learning but rather what students
wift~36Tlunng aj^uj^..OJ)jetiiiy^^
_;
7ujvX^iLleam.kow^o^wM.be^ble-to.-(lrO-ex^^
tion7''Npdangu^ejC^Ltcomes.aad .process objectives" Qn"page~t33T)
Objectives should be consistent with the curriculum aimpnly objectives
thai clearlyserve to reaUze~an aim should be included. For example, the ob-
124
Chapters
jective below is unrelated to the curriculum aim Students will learn how to
write effective business tetters for use in the hotel and tourism industries.
Objective
The student can understand and respond to simple questions over the telephone.
Because the aim relates to writing business letters, an objective in the domain of telephone skills is not consistent with this aim. Either the aim statement should be revised to allow for this objective or the objective should
not be included.
Qki^^^^^ML4-be^pecis,e^jQh}&cti.wcs that are vague and ambiguous
are not useful. This is seen in the following objective for a conversation
course:
Students will know how to use useful conversation expressions.
A more precise objective would be:
Students will use conversation expressions for greeting people, opening and
closing conversations.
Objectives shouldbe feasible,. Objectives should describe outcomes that are
attainable in the time available during a course. The following objective is
probably not attainable in a 60-hour English course:
Students will be able to follow conversations spoken by native speakers.
The following is a more feasible objective:
Students will be able to get the gist of short conversations in simple English
on topics related to daily life and leisure.
The following objectives (adapted from Pratt 1980) from a short course on
English for travel and tourism designed to prepare students for travel in English-speaking countries illustrate the relationship between aims and objectives:
Course aim
To prepare students to communicate in English at a basic level for purposes
of travel and tourism.
Course objectives 1. The student will have a reading vocabulary of 300
common words and abbreviations.
125
2. The student will have a listening vocabulary of 300 common words plus
numbers up to 100.
3. The student can understand simple written notices, signs, and menus.
4. The student can understand simple questions, statements, greetings,
and directions.
5. The student can get the gist of simple conversations in spoken English.
6. The student can pick out unfamiliar phrases from conversations and repeat them for clarification.
7. The student can use in speech 200 common words plus numbers up to
100 for time, quantity, and price.
8. The student can use about 50 useful survival phrases, questions, requests, greetings, statements, and responses.
9. The student can hold a bilingual conversation, speaking English slowly
and clearly in simple words.
10.The student can use and understand appropriate gestures.
10.The student will have the confidence to initiate conversations in English, be unafraid of making mistakes, and attempt utterances outside
his or her competence.
11. The student will be willing to leam from a native speaker's correction
of his or her errors.
12.The student will have a "success experience" of making himself or herself understood in, and understand, a foreign language.
Frankel (1983, 124) gives the example of aims and objectives for a course
in foundation reading skills for first-year university students in a Thai university:
Aim
To read authentic, nonspecialist, nonfiction texts in English with comprehension and at a reasonable speed.
Objectives
1. To use linguistic information in the text as clues to meaning, including:
deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items through an
postmodification, complex embedding, and clause relations in com' pound and complex sentences
recognizing and interpreting formal cohesive devices for linking different parts of a text
recognizing and interpreting discourse markers
126 Chapter 5
128
Chapters
is that the only worthwhile goal in teaching is to bring about changes in student behavior.
Comment: Objectives need not be limited to observable outcomes. They
can also describe processes and experiences that are seen as an important
focus of the curriculum.
Objectives are unsuited to many aspects of language use. Objectives may
be suitable for describing the mastery of skills, but less suited to such things
as critical thinking, literary appreciation, or negotiation of meaning.
Comment: Objectives can be written in domains such as critical thinking
and literary thinking but will focus on the experiences the curriculum will
provide rather than specific learning outcomes.
Competency-based program outcomes
An alternative to the use of objectives in program planning is to describe
learning outcomes in terms of competencies, an approach associated widi
Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT). CBLT seeks to make a focus on the outcomes of learning a central planning stage in the development
of language programs (Schneck 1978; Grognet and Crandall 1982). Traditionally, in language teaching planners have focused to a large extent on the
content of teaching (as reflected in a concern for different types of syllabuses) or on the process of teaching (as reflected in a concern for different types of teaching methods). Critics of this approach argue that this concern with content or process focuses on the means of learning rather than
its ends. CBLT shifts the focus to the ends of learning rather than the means.
As a general educational and training approach, CBLT seeks to improve accountability in teaching through Unking instruction to measurable outcomes
and performance standards.
CBLT first emerged in the United States in the 1970s and was widely
adopted in vocationally oriented education and in adult ESL programs. By
the end of the 1980s, CBLT had come to be accepted as "the state-of-theart approach to adult ESL by national policymakers and leaders in curriculum development as well" (Auerbach 1986, 411). In 1986, any refugee in .
the United States who wished to receive federal assistance had to be enrolled in a competency-based program (Auerbach 1986,412). CBLT has recently reemerged in some parts of the world (e.g., Australia) as the major
approach to the planning of language programs. The characteristics of
CBLT are described by Schneck (1978, vi):
Competency-based education has much in common with such approaches to
learning as performance-based instruction, mastery learning and individualized
129
"")
instruction. It is outcome-based and is adaptive to the changing needs of students, C
teachers and the community.... Competencies differ from other student goals ; i
and objectives in that they describe the student's ability to apply basic and other \
skills in situations that are commonly encountered in everyday life. Thus CBEjis
\
based on a set of outcomes that are derived from an analysis of tasks typically V^--^'
required of students in life role situations.
Cojrrpejencie^r^fer^
cessful completion of real-world activities. These activities may be related to
ariTdolnaTrroTTife, tHough they~have typically been linked to the field of
work and to social survival in anew environment. Docking (1994,11) points out
the relationship between competencies and job performance:
A qualification or a job cart be described as a collection of units of competency,
each of which is composed of a number of elements of competency. A unit of
competency might be a task, a role, a function, or a learning module. These will
change over time, and will vary from context to context. An element of
competency can be defined as any attribute of an individual that contributes to
the successful performance of a task, job, function, or activity in an academic
setting and/or a work setting. This includes specific knowledge, thinking
processes, attitudes; and perceptual and physical skills. Nothing is excluded that
can be shown to contribute to performance. An element of competency has
meaning independent of context and time. It is the building block for
competency specifications for education, training, assessment, qualifications,
tasks, and jobs.
Tollefson (1986) observes that the analysis of jobs into their constituent functional
competencies in order to develop teaching objectives goes back to" the midnineteenth century. In the 1860s, Spencer "outlined the major areas of human
activity he believed should be the basis for curricuiar objectives." Similarly, in
1926 Bobbitt developed curricuiar objectives according to his analysis of the
functional competencies required for adults living in America. This approach has
been picked up and refined as the basis for the development of competency-based
programs since the 1960s. Northrup (1977) reports on a study commissioned by
the U.S. Office of Education in which a wide variety of tasks performed by adults
in American society were . analyzed and the behaviors needed to carry out the
tasks classified into five knowledge areas and four basic skill areas. From this
analysis sixty-five competencies were identified. Docking (1994) describes how
he was part of a project in Australia in 196S that involved specifying the
competencies of more than one hundred trades.
130
Chapter 5
Mrowicki (1986) describes the process of developing a competencybased curriculum for a refugee program designed to develop language skills
for employment. The process included:
131
achieve a competency
range of variables mat sets limits for the performance of the competency
sample texts and assessment tasks that provide examples of texts and as-
Chapter 5
ajce . . . and mat men and women have equal access to employment
opportunities"
To discourage attending school while receiving welfare
To develop the attitude that the purchasing and use of secondhand items
is appropriate
To identify common entry-level jobs that can be held by those with .limited English ability
To respond appropriately to supervisors' comments about quality of work
on the job, including mistakes, working too slowly, and incomplete work
(Tollefson 1986, 655-656)
^>ir, UmverWV
134 Chapter 5
' confidence
motivation
cultural understanding
knowledge of the Australian community context
learning about learning
clarification of goals
access and entry into employment, further study, and community life
Objectives in these domains relate to the personal, social, cultural, and political
needs and rights of learners. If these are not identified, they tend to get forgotten
or overlooked in the curriculum planning process. Jackson (1993, 8) comments:
Non-language outcomes represent more than desirable or optional by-products of
the language learning process. They are essential prerequisites for on-going and
meaningful involvement with the process of language learning and learning in
general. Non-language outcomes are thus teaching and learning issues strongly
related to issues of access and equity for non-English-speaking background
learners and workers. It is important that the development of knowledge and
learning skills represent a significant component of the adult ESL curriculum.
Jackson gives the following examples of objectives in on-arrival programs for
immigrants that relate to understanding the context of local service institutions
(1993,45):
to assist students to identify major local providers of services for:
1. the unemployed
2. employment
3. education and training
to assist students to identify the main functions of the above
to situate main functions of above services in context of educational provision
as a first step in the process of ongoing adult"education
to assist students to identify major services, including private/public for
1.
2.
3.
4.
.migrants
children
women
sport and recreation
135
1. eligibility
2. accessibility
Another category of outcomes is sometimes referred to as process objectives.
In general education these are associated with the ideas of Bruner (1966) and
Stenhouse (1975). Bj^er-arg^ed^atjhej^umculum should focus less on the
outcomes of learning and more on the knowledge and skills ielufaers'^te'dj^
marchitdfeffshould acquire through the processes of inquiry and deliberation.
Stenhouse argued that the curriculum should focus on activities that engage
learners in such processes as investigation, decision making, reflection,
discussion, interpretation, making choices, cooperation with others, and so on.
Thus Hanley, Whitla, Moss, and Walter identified the aims of a course titled
"Man: A Course of Study" as:
To initiate and develop in youngsters a process of question posing
To teach a research methodology where children can look for information
To help youngsters developthe ability to use a variety of firsthand sources as
evidence from which to develop hypotheses and draw conclusions
To conduct classroom discussions in which youngsters learn to listen to others
as well as to express their own view
To legitimize the search, that is, to give sanction and support to open-ended
discussions where definitive answers to many questions are not found
To encourage children to reflect on their own experiences
To create a new role for the teacher, who becomes a resource radier than an
authority
(Hanley, et al. 1970,5)
With this approach it is suggested that detailed specification of objectives is not
needed. The curriculum specifies instead the content students will study and the
activities and processes they are expected to engage in while studying the
content. Stenhouse (1975) explains:
[The curriculum] is not designed on a pre-specification of behavioral objectives. Of
course there are changes in students as a result of the course, but many of the most
valued are not co be anticipated in detail. The power and the possibilities of the
curriculum cannot be contained within objectives because it is founded on the idea
that knowledge must be speculative and thus indeterminate as to student outcomes if
it is to be worthwhile.
Objectives in the category of learning how to learn refer to learning strategies,
Learning strategy theory suggests that effective learning involves:
136 Chapter 5
developing an integrated set of procedures and operations that can be ap-
them if necessary
Many different kinds of learning strategies may be relevant to particular
groups of learners. For example, a description of objectives for a national
secondary school curriculum in an EFL country includes the following:
The course should develop students' awareness of the learning process and
their role as learners by developing the following knowledge and skills:
1. ways of organizing learning and dividing learning tasks into smaller subtasks
2. familiarity with how to use reference words designed to assist them in independent learning (e.g., dictionaries, reference grammars, study guides)
1. awareness of their own learning styles and strengths and weaknesses
3. familiarity with various techniques of vocabulary learning and identification of techniques that are particularly useful to themselves
4. awareness of the nature of learning strategies and the difference between
effective and ineffective strategies
5. ability to monitor their own learning progress and ways of setting personal goals for language improvement
Jackson (1993,41) gives examples of objectives designed to help develop
different types of learning strategies. The following relate to developing
strategies for effective organization and management of time:
to explicitly introduce students to the concept of time allocation in relation to study
to assist students to identify realistic times and time spans for home study
and individual study in the learning center
to assist students to prioritize study time allocation in relation- to other
everyday activities and family commitments
to assist students to create a daily/weekly timetable of study
The English Language Syllabus for the Teaching of English at Primary
Level (1991) in Singapore includes a number of categories of process objectives. These are described as follows:
Thinking skills
At the end of the course, pupils should be able to:
ues reflected in spoken and written texts of local and foreign origin
The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages in its National
Standards for Foreign Language learning (1996) (part of the standards
movement referred to earlier) identifies a number of objectives for language
programs that relate to the philosophy of cultural pluralism. For example:
Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture tiirough
that are only available through the foreign language and its cultures.
The planning of learning outcomes for a language course is closely related
to the course planning process. Issues involved in developing and organizing course content are the focus of Chapter 6.
Discussion questions and activities
1. Choose a language teaching context you are familiar with and characterize the ideology underlying the curriculum. Are there any limitations
of the ideology you have identified?
138
Chapter 5
Behavioral objectives
140 Chapter 5
that an interviewer may write down the data with 100% accuracy [level
of performance]. Given oral directions for a 4-step physical action, the
learner will follow the directions with 100% accuracy.
Behavioral objectives of this kind are even more difficult to write than the
simpler objectives illustrated above and perhaps for this reason have not
been widely used in language teaching. In most circumstances, objectives
in the more general form illustrated earlier provide sufficient guidance for
program planning and instruction.
142
Chapter 5
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Teaching ESL to adults. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Clark, J. L. 1987. Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Collingham, M. 1988. Making use of students' linguistic resources. In S.
NichoIIs and E. Hoadley-Maidment (eds.). Current issues in teaching English as a second language to adults. London: Arnold.
Crozet, C, and A. J. Liddicoat. 1999. Turning promises into practices. Australian Language Matters 7(1): 4-12.
143
144
Chapter 5
146 Chapter 6
and teaching a course and that serves to provide the justification for the type
of teaching and learning that will take place in the course. It provides a succinct statement of the course philosophy for anyone who may need such information, including students, teachers, and potential clients. Developing a
rationale also helps provide focus and direction to some of the deliberations
involved in course planning. The rationale thus serves the purposes of:
- guiding the planning of the various components of the course
emphasizing the kinds of teaching and learning the course should exemplify
providing a check on the consistency of the various course components
in terms of the course values and goals
(Posner and Rudnitsky 1986)
The following is an example of a course rationale:
This course is designed for working adults who wish to improve their
communication skills in English in order to improve their employment prospects. It
teaches the basic communication skills needed to communicate in a variety of
different work settings. The course seeks to enable participants to 'recognize their
strengths and needs in language learning and to give them the confidence to use
English more effectively to achieve their own goals. It also seeks to develop the
participants' skills in independent learning outside of the classroom.
In order to develop a course rationale, the course planners need to give careful consideration to the goals of the course, the kind of teaching and learning they want the course to exemplify, the roles of teachers and learners in
the course, and the beliefs and principles the course will reflect
148 Chapter 6
needs and to cover a given set of objectives, what will the content of the
course look like? Decisions about course content reflect the planners* assumptions about the nature of language, language use, and language learning, what the most essential elements or units of language are, and how these
can be organized as an efficient basis for second language learning. For example, a writing course could potentially be planned around any of die following types of content:
The choice of a particular approach to content selection will depend on subject-matter knowledge, the learners' proficiency levels, current views on
second language learning and teaching, conventional wisdom, and convenience. Information gathered during needs analysis contributes to the planning of course content, as do additional ideas from the following sources:
available literature on the topic
published materials on the topic
review of similar courses offered elsewhere
review of tests or exams in the area "
analysis of students* problems
consultation with teachers familiar witfi the topic.. __
consultation with specialists in the area
Rough initial ideas are noted down as a basis for further planning and added
to through group brainstorming. A list of possible topics, units, skills, and
other units of course organization is then generated. One person suggests
something that should go into the course, others add their ideas, and these
are compared with other sources of information until clearer ideas about the
content of the course are agreed on. Throughout this process the statements
of aims and objectives are continually referred to and both course content
suggestions and the aims and objectives themselves are revised and finetuned as the course content is planned. For example, a group of teachers
* expressing opinions
dealing with misunderstandings
describing experiences
social talk
* telephone skills
* situation-specific language, such as at a bank
describing daily routines
* recognizing sound contrasts
* using communication strategies
These topics then have to be carefully reviewed and refined and die following questions asked about them:
Are all the suggested topics necessary?
Have any important topics been omitted?
Is there sufficient time to cover them?
Has sufficient priority been given to the most important areas? Has enough
emphasis been put on the different aspects of the areas identified? Will die
areas covered enable students to attain the learning outcomes?
Developing initial ideas for course content often takes place simultaneously
with syllabus planning, because the content of a course will often depend on
the type of syllabus framework that will be used as the basis for the course
(discussed later in this chapter).
Determining the scope and sequence
Decisions about course content also need to address the distribution of content throughout the course. This is known as planning the scope and sequence of die course. Scope is concerned with the breadth and deptii of coverage of items in the course, that is, with the following questions:
What range of content will be covered?
To what extent should each topic be studied?
For example, in relation to the course on listening and speaking skills referred to in the preceding section, one area of potential content identified
150 Chapters
was "describing experiences." But how much will be included in relation to
this topic? And should two, four, or six class periods be devoted to it? The
sequencing of content in.the course also needs to be determined. This involves deciding which content is needed early in the course and which provides a basis for things that will be learned later. Sequencing may be based
on the following criteria.
Simple to complex
One of the commonest ways of sequencing material is by difficulty level.
Content presented earlier is thought to be simpler than later items. This is
typically seen in relation to grammar content, but any type of course content can be graded in terms of difficulty. For example, in a reading course
reading texts may be simplified at the beginning of the course and unsimplified at later levels. Or simple skills such as "literal comprehension" may
be required early on, and more complex skills such as "inferencing" taught
at a later stage.
Chronology
Content may be sequenced according to the order in which events occur in
the real world. For example, in a writing course the organization might be
based on the sequence writers are assumed to employ when composing: (1)
brainstorming; (2) drafting; (3) revising; (4) editing. In a proficiency course,
skills might be sequenced according to the sequence in which they are normally acquired: (1) listening; (2) speaking; (3) reading; (4) writing.
Need
Content may be sequenced according to when learners are most likely to
need it outside of the classroom. For example, the rationale for the sequencing of content in a social survival curriculum is given as follows:
The topics and cross-topics in the curriculum are sequenced "in order of
importance to students* lives, ease of contextualization and their relationship to
other topics and cross-topics." The sequence is:
i. basic literacy skills
ii. personal identification iii.
money iv. shopping
v. time and dates
vi. telephone
152
Chapter 6
for course content were being generated. Two aspects of this process, however, require more detailed planning: selecting a syllabus framework and
developing instructional blocks. These issues are closely related and sometimes inseparable but also involve different kinds of decisions.
153
preaches are available in developing "communicative" courses, many different syllabus frameworks can make a claim to be versions of a communicative syllabus: for example, competency-based, text-based, and taskbased syllabuses. Other approaches to syllabus design are also possible and
we will consider now the nature of these different syllabus options.
Grammatical (or structural) syllabus: one that is organized around
grammatical items. Traditionally, grammatical syllabuses have been used as
the basis for planning general courses, particularly for beginning-level
learners. In developing a grammatical syllabus, the syllabus planner seeks
to solve the following problems:
to select sufficient patterns to support the amount of teaching time avail-
able
language acquisition.
They focus on the sentence rather than on longer units of discourse.
They focus on form'rather than meaning.
They do not address communicative skills.
These objections are true for traditional grammar-based courses and few
language courses today are planned solely around grammatical criteria. Indeed, it is doubtful if they ever were. However, grammar remains a core
component of many language courses. There are several reasons for this:
Teaching a language through its grammar represents a familiar approach
to teaching for many people. In many parts of the world, teachers and stu
dents expect to see a grammar strand in a course and react negatively to
its absence.
154
Chapters
155
labuses and focus on the use of the language rather than linguistic form.
They can readily be linked to other types of syllabus content (e.g., topics,
grammar, vocabulary).
They provide a convenient framework for the design of teaching materi-
156 Chapter 6
sumes that language ability can be broken down into discrete components
that can be taught separately.
They often lead to a phrase-book approach to teaching that concentrates
on teaching expressions and idioms used for different functions.
Students learning from a functional course may have considerable gaps in
their grammatical competence because some important grammatical structures may not be elicited by the functions that are taught in the syllabus.
These objections can be regarded as issues that need to be resolved in implementing a functional syllabus. Since their inception and enthusiastic reception in the 1980s, functional syllabuses are now generally regarded as
only a partial component of a communicative syllabus. Alternative proposals for communicative syllabus design include task-based and text-based
syllabuses (discussed later in this section).
Situational syllabus: one that is organized around the language needed
for different situations such as at the airport or at a hotel A situation is a
setting in which particular communicative acts typically occur. A situational
syllabus identifies the situations in which the learner will use the language '
and the typical communicative acts and language used in that setting. Situational syllabuses have been a familiar feature of language teaching textbooks for centuries (Kelly 1969) and are often used in travel books and
books that focus on mastering expressions frequently encountered in particular situations. An example of a recent situationally organized textbook
on English for travel is Passport (Buckingham and Whitney 1995), which
contains the following situational syllabus:
1. On an airplane
10. In a restaurant
2. At an immigration counter
11. In a cafe
3. At a bank
12. In a bar
4. On the telephone
13. On a bus
5. On the street
14. In a store
6. In the city
15. At the post office
7. At home
16. At the cinema
8. At the doctors'
17. In a hotel
9. In an office
18. At the airport
Situational syllabuses have the advantage of presenting language in context and teaching language of immediate practical use. However, they are
also subject to the following criticisms:
* Little is known about the language used in different situations, so selection of teaching items is typically based on intuition.
157
Competency-based language teaching (see Chapter 5 and later in this section) is an approach to teaching that focuses on transactions that occur in
particular'situations and their related skills and behaviors. Text-bas.-d
syllabus design (discussed later in this section) focuses on transactions, the
texts that occur within transactions, and the linguistic features of the texts.
The notion of situation has thus been incorporated as an element of more
comprehensive approaches to syllabus design.
Topical or content-based syllabus: one that is organized around themes,,
topics, or other units of content. With a topical syllabus, content rather than/
grammar, functions, or situations is the starting point in syllabus design. \
Content may provide the sole criterion for organizing die syllabus or a t
framework for linking a variety of different syllabus strands togemer. "It is
the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with
little or no direct effort to teach the language separately from the content
being taught" (Krahnke 1987, 65). All language courses, no matter what
kind of syllabus they are based on, must include some form of content. But.
with omer approaches to syllabus design, content is incidental and serves
merely as the vehicle for practicing language structures, functions, or skills.
In a typical lesson in a grammar-based course, for example, a structure is
selected and then content is chosen to show how the item is used and to provide a context for practicing the structure. In a topic-based syllabus, in con- )
trast, content provides the vehicle for the presentation of language rather
158 Chapters
than the other way around. Maximum use is made of content to provide links
and continuity across the skill areas. Claims made for the advantages of courses
based on content-based syllabuses are:
facilitate comprehension.
t They
Content makes linguistic form more meaningful.
Content serves as the best basis for teaching the skill areas.
They address students' needs.
They motivate learners.
They allow for integration of the four skills.
They allow for use of authentic materials.
(Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989; Mohan 1986)
Topic-based syllabuses have often been a feature of ESL programs in elementary or secondary schools where the teaching of English is integrated with
science, mathematics, and social sciences, as well as of ESL programs for
students at the university level. Brinton et al. (1989, 27) give the following
example of how a content-based course can be organized:
[In a theme-based course, a high-interest topic such as "culture shock" could '
serve as the organizing principle for a 2-week integrated skills course, with the
linguistic focus of the instruction determined by the students' needs, their
proficiency level, and (last but not least) the degreeto which the content "maps"
onto the course objectives.
This approach was used in a German university program described in Brinton et
al. (1989) that was built around the following themes:
television '
religious persuasion
advertising
drugs
racism
Native Americans
modern architecture
microchip technology
ecology
alternative energy
nuclear energy
Dracula in myth, novel, and films
159
course leaves other questions unresolved because decisions must still be made
concerning the selection of grammar, functions, or skills. It may also be difficult
to develop a logical or learnable sequence for other syllabus components if
topics are the sole framework. Different topics may require language of differing
levels of complexity and, as a consequence, it may not j always be possible to
reconcile the different strands of the syllabus. Appendix.3 in Chapter 8 describes
how a topical syllabus was used in developing speaking materials.
Competency-based syllabus; one based on a specification of the competencies learners are expected to master in relation to specific situations and
activities (see Chapter 5 for an extended discussion). Competencies are a
description of the essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for effective
performance of particular tasks and activities. For example, the work-skills
curriculum in Mrowicki (1986) is organized according to topics and
competencies.
The curriculum's language competencies are divided into topic and cross-topic
areas. A topic refers to the context in which language is used. For example, the
competency "Report basic household problems" is found in the topic "Housing." A
cross-topic is a topic which can occur in other topic areas. For example, the
competency "Read and write dates" from the cross-topic "Time and Dates" also
occurs in the topics "Shopping" (reading expiration dates of food), "Health"
(reading appointment times), "Banking and Bills" (reading the date due on bills),
etc. (Mrowicki 19S6. ix)
Examples of competencies related to the topic of "telephoning" are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Competency-based syllabuses are widely used in social survival and workoriented language programs. Advantages and disadvantages of a competencybased approach are discussed in Chapter 5.
Skills syllabus: one that is organized around the different underlying abilities
mat are involved in using a language for purposes such as reading, writ ing,
listening, or speaking. Approaching a language through skills is based on the
belief that learning a complex activity such as "listening to a lecture" involves
mastery of a number of individual skills or microskills that together make up the
activity. Examples of skills that relate to different types of language use are:
160 Chapter 6
writing:
161
deletions
use of diagrams
Appendix 6 contains a skills syllabus for listening and speaking from a
national curriculum document in an EEL country. Claims made in support
of skills-based syllabuses are:
They focus on behavior or performance.
. * They teach skills that can transfer to many other situations.
They identify teachable and learnable units.
Skills-based syllabuses have the advantage of focusing on performance in
relation to specific tasks and therefore provide a practical framework for designing courses and teaching materials. They may be more relevant to situations in which students have very specific and identifiable needs (such as
preparing for university-level studies in English). Skills syllabuses have
been criticized, however, on the following grounds:
There is no serious basis for determining skills.
They focus on discrete aspects of performance rather than on developing
more global and integrated communicative abilities.
Task-based syllabus: one that is organized around tasks that students will
complete in the target language. A task is an activity or goal that is carried
out using language such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and
giving directions, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy.
'Tasks are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in
tasks is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use" (Skehan 1996,20).
All teaching makes use of tasks of different kinds. A task-based syllabus,
however, is one based on tasks that have been specially designed to facilitate second language learning and one in which tasks or activities are the
basic units of syllabus design. While carrying out these tasks, learners are
said to receive comprehensible input and modified output, processes believed central to second language acquisition. A number of second language
acquisition theorists have proposed tasks as a basis for syllabus planning.
Long and Crookes (1991, 43) claim that tasks: "provide a vehicle for the
presentation of appropriate target language samples to learners - input
which they will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive processing capacities - and for the delivery of comprehension and production
opportunities of negotiable difficulty."
The basic claims made for a task-based syllabus are:
Tasks are activities that drive the second language acquisition process.
162 Chapter 6
Grammar teaching is not central with this approach because learners will
acquire grammar as a by-product of carrying out tasks.
Tasks are motivating for learners and engage them in meaningful communication.
Two kinds of tasks have been proposed as a basis for syllabus design:
pedagogical tasks and real-world tasks. Pedagogical tasks are based on
SLA theory and are designed to trigger second language learning processes
and strategies. The following are tasks of this kind:
jigsaw tasks: These tasks involve learners in combining different pieces
of information to form a whole (e.g., three individuals or groups may have
three different parts of a story and have to piece the story together).
information-gap tasks: Tasks in which one student or group of students
has one set of information and another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must negotiate and find out what the
other party's information is in order to complete an activity.
problem solving tasks: Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally
a single resolution of the outcome.
decision-making tasks: Students are given a problem for which there a
number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of
ideas. They do not need to reach agreement.
Although communicative activities of the type just described have long
been a feature of communicative language teaching, advocates of taskbased syllabuses propose mem as the central feature of a syllabus rather than
playing an incidental role. Real-world tasks are designed to practice or rehearse those activities that are found to be important in a needs analysis and
that turn out to be important and useful in the real world. There is little difference between these kinds of tasks and those made use of in other situationaHy based approaches to syllabus design, such as Competency-Based
Language Teaching.
At present, however, task-based syllabuses have not been widely implemented in language teaching. Among the concerns they raise are:
definition of task: Definitions of tasks are sometimes so broad as to include almost anything that involves learners doing something. .
design and selection of tasks: Procedures for the design and selection of
tasks remain unclear.
163
development of accuracy: Excessive use of communicative tasks may encourage fluency at the expense of accuracy.
Although the notion of task appears useful as a component of methodology,
it has yet to be widely adopted as a unit of syllabus design.
Text-based syllabus: one that is built around texts and samples of extended
discourse. As already noted, this can be regarded as a type of situa-. tional
approach because the starting point in planning a syllabus is analysis of the
contexts in which the learners will use the language.
[This approach] starts with the texts which are identified for a specific context or
which have been identified by students. This approach is often used when an
overall context for language learning has been defined, such as in a specific
workplace or a university or other further study context. Units of work are then
developed in relation to the texts. For example, the spoken texts identified for a
group of engineers in a workplace were: spoken instructions to field staff,
presentations of report findings at meetings and telephone negotiations with
contractors. (Burns and Joyce 1997,17)
A text-based syllabus is a type of integrated syllabus because it combines
elements of different types of syllabuses. Appendix 7 gives an example of the
processes involved in developing a text-based syllabus. The following are
examples of text types that can be used in planning a text-based syllabus (Feez
1998, 85-86):
exchanges
forms
procedures
information texts
story texts
persuasive texts
164 Chapter 6
ciency.
It may be impractical in many situations.
An integrated syllabus: Decisions about a suitable syllabus framework for
a course reflect different priorities in teaching rather than absolute choices.
The issue is, which foci will be central in planning the syllabus and which
will be secondary? In most courses there will generally be a number of different syllabus strands, such as grammar linked to skills and texts, tasks
linked to topics and functions, or skills linked to topics and texts. In arriving
at a decision about which approach to syllabus planning to take, the course
planners need to decide between macrolevel and microlevel planning units
in the course. For example, a reading course might first be planned in terms
of reading skills (the macrolevel planning category) and then further planned
in terms of text types, vocabulary, and grammar (the microlevel planning category). A syllabus might be organized grammatically at the first level and
then the grammar presented functionally. Or the first level of organization
might be functional with grammar items selected according to the grammatical demands of different functions. In practical terms, therefore, all syllabuses reflect some degree of integration. Krahnke (1987,75) concludes:
166 Chapter 6
a single instructional focus. (Sometimes units are referred to as a scheme
of work.) A unit seeks to provide a structured sequence of activities that
lead toward a learning outcome. The factors that account for a successful
unit include:
Length: Sufficient but not too much material is included.
Development: One activity leads effectively into the next; the unit'does
not consist of a random sequence of activities.
Coherence: The unit has an overall sense of coherence.
Pacing: Each activity within the unit moves at a reasonable pace. For example, if there are five activities in the unit, one does not require four
times as much time to complete as the others.
- Outcome: At the end of the unit, students should be able to know or do a
series of things that are related.
168 Chapter 6
' tne kinds of oral and written texts that are produced
the linguistic features of the texts
8. How is a situational syllabus related to other syllabus options discussed
in this chapter?
8. Plan a topic-based 4-hour unit of work in a course for a group of leam-
169
ers you are familiar with (or for intermediate-level ESL students in a
general English class). Describe how the unit would do the following:
integrate different language skills
develop grammar from content
10. Compare two units from two course books that are designed for the
same area and level. What unit structure does each book employ? How
effective is the unit structure for each book?
11. Examine the skills listed in Appendix 6. How would you define "skills"
based on the examples given in the syllabus?
12. Give an example of pedagogical tasks and real-world tasks that could
be used in designing the following:
a reading course
a listening course
13. Examine the textbook unit in Appendix 8 and find examples of hori
zontal and vertical coherence as discussed on page 167.
170 Chapter 6
Appendix 1
of speaking
Proficiency descriptions for the domain of speaking from the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages). The guidelines describe proficiency levels for speaking, listening,
reading, and writing according to the levels of Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, and Superior. They are intended as guides for program planning and
the development of objectives.
Generic descriptions - speaking
Novice The Novice level is characterized by the ability to
communicate minimally with learned material.
Novice-Low Oral production consists of isolated words and perhaps a few high-frequency phrases. Essentially no
functional communicative ability.
Novice-Mid Oral production continues to consist of isolated words
and learned phrases within very predictable areas of need, although
quality is increased. Vocabulary is sufficient only for handling simple,
elementary needs and ' expressing basic courtesies. Utterances rarely
consist of more than two or three words and show frequent long
pauses and repetition of interlocutor's words. Speaker may have
some difficulty producing even the simplest utterances. Some
Novice-Mid speakers will be understood only with great difficulty.
Novice-High Able to satisfy partially the requirements of basic
communicative exchanges by relying heavily on learned utterances
but occasionally expanding these through simple recombinations of.
their elements. Can ask questions or make statements involving
learned material. Shows signs of spontaneity although this falls
short of real autonomy of expression. Speech continues to consist of
learned utterances ratiier than of personalized, situationally adapted
ones. Vocabulary centers on areas such as basic objects, places, and
most common kinship terms. Pronunciation may still be strongly
influenced by first language. Errors are frequent and, in spite of
repetition, some Novice-High speakers will have difficulty being
understood even by sympathetic interlocutors.
171
172
Chapter 6
173
pothesize. The Advanced-Plus speaker often shows a welldeveloped ability to compensate for an imperfect grasp of some
forms with confident use of communicative strategies, such as
paraphrasing and circumlocution. Differentiated vocabulary and
intonation are effectively used to communicate fine shades of
meaning. The Advanced-Plus speaker often shows remarkable
fluency and ease of speech but under the demands of Superiorlevel, complex tasks, language may break down or prove
inadequate. Superior The Superior level is characterized by the
speaker's ability to: ""'- participate effectively in most formal and
informal conversations on practical, social, professional, and
abstract topics; and ~ support opinions and hypothesize using
native-like discourse strategies. Superior Able to speak the
language with sufficient accuracy to participate effectively in
most formal and informal conversations on practical, social,
professional, and abstract topics. Can discuss special fields of
competence and interest with ease. Can support opinions and
hypothesize, but may not be able to tailor language to audience or
discuss in depth highly abstract or unfamiliar topics. Usually die
Superior-level speaker is only partially familiar with regional or
other dialectical variants. The Superior-level speaker commands
a wide variety of interactive strategies and shows good awareness
of discourse strategies. The latter involves "the ability to
distinguish main ideas from supporting information through
syntactic, lexical, and supraseg-mental features (pitch, stress,
intonation). Sporadic errors may occur, particularly in lowfrequency structures and some complex high-frequency
structures more common to formal writing, but no patterns of error
are evident Errors do not disturb the native speaker or interfere
with communication.
Appendix 2 Description of performance levels; writing (adapted by Pallridge from the IELTS test [Pallridge 19
Levels
Overall
Beginner
Elementary
Intermediate
Upper-ln
tennediate
Ideas &
argument
Accuracy
Fluency
Appropriateness
Nonwriter. Cannot
write in English at all.
Intermittent writer.
Very difficult to
follow.
Evidence of few
ideas with no
apparent development. Little
apparent coherence to the text.
Limited writer.
Rather difficult
to follow.
Limited range of
ideas expressed.
Development may
be restricted and
often incomplete
or unclear.
Information is not
arranged"
coherently.
Moderate writer.
Fairly easy to read
and understand.
Texts generally well
organised.
Moderate range of
ideas expressed.
Topic development is present,
but may stitl lack
Isolated words or
short stock phrases
only. Very short text.
Useoftanguage
(including layout)
minimally
appropriate to text
type, function, and
communicative
goal.
Limited grasp of
lexical, grammatical,
and relational
patterns and use of
cohesive devices.
Weaknesses in
punctuation and/ or
spelling.
Texts may be
Use of language
generally appropriate to function,
text type, and
communicative
goal within a
limited range of
text types. Layout
generally appropriate to text type.
Moderate grasp of
lexical, grammatical,
and relational patterns and use of cohesive devices
simple, showing
little development.
Limited structures
and vocabulary.
Little subtlety and
flexibility.
Useoflanguage
generally appropriate to function,
text type, and
communicative
Advanced
Special Purpose
01
Moderate level of
subtlety and
flexibility.
goal within a
moderate rang
of text types.
Textual organi
sation and layo
generally appr
priate to text t
Competent writer i
Easy to read from
start to finish. Texts
generally well
organised.
Competent grasp of
lexical and
grammatical patterns, although
problems may stilt
occur with punctuation and spelling.
Relationships within
and between propositions generally
well managed.
Use of langua
generally appr
priate to funct
text typo, and
communicativ
goal within a
range of text t
Textual organ
sation and lay
appropriate to
type.
Good range of
relevant ideas are
coherently expressed. Evidence
is presented and
discussed! Where
appropriate, a point
of view is
presented and
developed.
Writes well on
general topics and
on matters relevant
to own special
purpose interests.
Good range of
grammatical structures and vocabulary, subtlety, and
flexibility.
Use of langua
mainly appro
ate to functio
text type, and
communicativ
goal within a
good range of
types. Textua
organisation a
layout approp
to text type.
176 Chapters
Appendix 3
skills
Level 1
Accuracy
Level 2
Pronunciation must be clearly
intelligible even if still obviously influenced by LI. Grammatical/lexical accuracy is generally high, though some errors
that do not destroy communication are acceptable. The use of
language must be generally
appropriate to function. The
overall intention of the speaker
must be generally clear.
A fair range of language must
be available to the candidate.
Only in complex utterances is
there a need to search for
words.
There must be some evidence of
the ability to initiate and
concede a conversation and to
adapt to new topics or changes
of direction.-
(continued)
Size
Accuracy
Appropriacy
Range
Flexibility
Size
177
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
178 Chapter 6
Expressions with go
too + adjective/ntx + adjective enough
When clauses
want + infinitive
Imperatives
countable/uncountable nouns with
many/few, much/little Comparative
adjectives Superlative adjectives
Prepositions of place Articles:
definite/indefinite/zero Present continuous
for fixed plans Verbs + prepositions
Expressions with get going to for
intentions wouldyou like + noun/infinitive
can for permission cannot/can't for
prohibition should/shouldn't for advice
about
polite behavior Possessive pronouns
Present perfect Indefinite pronouns
should/shouldn't for giving opinions
will/won't for promises of help
promise/remember/forget + infinitive have
to for obligation Adverbs of manner
Prepositions
will/won't for predictions
think so/hope so
180 Chapter 6
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.49
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
181
182 Chapter 6
5.21 telephone opening
5.22 asking for [someone]
5.23 asking someone to wait
5.24 asking whether you are heard and understood
5.25 giving signals that you are hearing and understanding -.
5.26 announcing new call
5.27 opening [letter]
5.28 closing [letter]
6" Communication repair
6.1 signalling non-understanding
6.2 asking for repetition of sentence
6.3 asking for repetition of a word or phrase
6.4 asking for confirmation of text
6.5 asking for confirmation or understanding
6.6 asking for clarification
6.7 asking someone to spell something
6.3 asking for something to be written down 6.9
expressing ignorance of a word or expression
6.10 appealing for assistance
6.11 asking someone to speak more slowly'
6.12 paraphrasing
6.13 repeating what one has said
6.14 asking if you have been understood
6.15 spelling out a word or expression
6.16 supplying a word or expression
183
erarchy and are thus not intended to be followed as a rigid sequence. They
need to be repeated in different but meaningful combinations.
Objectives of the component on listening and speaking
Listening to and discriminating: consonant clusters, sentence stress and intonation, diphthongs and homonyms
Listening to and understanding: words, phrases and sentences; instructions,
messages; stories; talks; reports; opinions; poems; dialogues; information in reports, guides, charts, graphs, manuals, forms, and letters; description of scenes, events, places, things, and processes and procedures
Speaking with correct pronunciation, intonation, word stress and sentence
rhythm
Asking for and giving: meanings of words, phrases and sentences; instructions; messages; talks; reports; opinions; information in reports, guides,
charts, graphs, manuals, forms and letters; descriptions of scenes, events,
places, things, and processes and procedures; and
Telling stories
Skill specifications
At the end of the English Language Programme for Form IV, students
should be able to
1.1 Listen to and discriminate between: consonant clusters, diphthongs
and homonyms.
1.2 Listen to and understand, and ask for and give meanings of words,
phrases and sentences.
1.1 Speak with correct intonation, word stress and sentence rhythm.
1.3 Listen to and understand, and ask for and give instructions on how to
fix things, such as a leaking tap.
1.4 Listen to and understand, ask for and give and relay messages received
through the mass media, such as the radio and the television.
1.5 Listen to and understand, and tell stories on moral values, such as selfreliance, diligence andpublic-spiritedness.
1.6 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in
talks on current issues, such as consumerism and health care.
1.7 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in
reports, such as newspaper reports and book reports.
1.9 . Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in
charts, graphs and manuals.
1.10 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in
informal letters, in newspapers and in formal letters of enquiry and
complaint.
184 Chapter 6
1.11Listen to and understand, ask for and give descriptions of scenes, such
as tourist spots in the ASEAN region.
1.12 Listen to and understand, ask for and give descriptions of events, such
as the SEA games.
1.13 Listen to and understand, ask for and give opinions on current issues,
such as unemployment.
1.14 Listen to and understand selected poems of writers from ASEAN region.
1.15 Listen to and understand, ask for and give descriptions of processes
and procedures, such as the recycling of material.
1.11 Listen to and understand, and express displeasure and regret.
1.16 Practice social skills such as interrupting a conversation, and joining
in and participating in a conversation.
The following sub-skills need to be combined and taught simultaneously
with the above main skills where appropriate.
Sub-skills of listening
a. Discerning main ideas
b. Understanding sequence
c. Noticing specific details
d. Inferring
e. Comparing
f. Predicting
g ' Determining relevance
h. Distinguishing fact and fiction
i, Differentiating between fact and opinion
j- Generalizing
k. Classifying
Sub-skills of speaking
1. Using correct pronunciation
m Questioning
n. Paraphrasing
0. Supporting and clarifying
P Summarizing
q Using registers
r. Speaking coherently
Extract adapted from Focus on Speaking by A. Bums and H. Joyce (1997) with
permission from the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research
(NCELTR), Australia. Macquarie University.
186 Chapter 6
Step
Starting
^s^^m^^^^^^^^^s^s^.
people usually have? Rank them in terms point ' of importance, and add others of your
own. Then compare'with a partner.
. curiosity .
. independence
. resourcefulness
decisiveness .
. intelligence ,
. sensitivity .
determination .
originality .
thriftioess
discipline
patience
B Pair work Do you think mese occupations demand a high level of creativity?
Discuss some of the qualities you need in each job, and then compare around die class.
listening
A jp Listen to Angela, Simon, and Naomi talking about their jobs. What are their
occupations? Why is creativity important in their work?.
B Pair work Is creativity important in what you do every day? Why or why not? 74
ill^^^lffiffffiFg1
188 Chapter 6
You con shorten a relative douse by dropping who and We verti be.
Originality Is on important quality (or o person f>ho Is) working as a screenwriter.
Yau can also drop who and change the vert) to -fag.
An^ne {*M}lo
A Rewrite these sentences by reducing each relative clause. Then compare with a partner.
1. Anyone who wants to become a journalist should be able to write under pressure.
Anyone wanting to become a journalist should be able to wrft4 underpressure.
2. Anyone who is hoping to succeed in business needs to have
original ideas on how to market products.
3. A person who works as an inventor is always looking for
new ways of solving common problems.
4. A person who is working as a detective has to try to get
inside the mind of a criminal
5. Anyone who is trying to become a successful actor will
End that there is & lot more to it than be or she first
thought.
6. Someone who works in advertising needs to be able to
write catchy slogans.
. 7. A person who ts responsible for a large staff has to be
creative with scheduling.
B Now rewrite the sentences in Exercise A with your own
ideas. Then compare with a partner.
-Anyone'Wonting to'beeornea journalist
should keep 'up on eurrent events. ..V.
discussion
A Pair work How much creativity do these jobs require? Rank them from 1 (most creative) to
6 [least creative), and then compare with a partner. Ask and answer follow-up questions.
____businesspeisoa
____cbef
____radio DJ
________fashion designer
____lawyer
____teacher
'-
mym^^^m^mm^mm^^^^^m^^^^m
discussion
A Creative people often aniwer "yes* to questions like these. Can you think of two more
questions to add to the list?
Are you sensili
fo beauty?
Do you Into
Jak risks?
76
US*g?,Rittiifn,UiB:rnEmtte wn:fc
190 Chapter 6
writing
A Read-this composition and decide where die writer changes focus. Write awhere you think
each new paragraph should begin. Compare wids a partner.
-=r*
!
B Write a diree-paragraph composition about someone you know who is very crean've or who is unique or different in some other interesting way. Use these questions
or others ofyour own to get started.
---..
1. In what ways is this person special or different?
2. How does this affect his or her life?
3. Would you like to be like this person? Why or why not?
C Pair work Read your partner's composition, and answer these questions.
:
Are the paragraphs divided where they should be?
Is the focus of each paragraph clear?
3.
Is there any additional information that you would like to know that was not
included in die composition?
1.
2.
i^mttolMingiercaSri^
77
starting A Look at these "invention*." Why do people use them often? Why do you think
point they have been successful?
&SE2E3
W-H-HiHKB
Et Pair work What everyday objects in your household are die moat useful?
Why do you think they have been so successful?
listening
A &* listen to John, Sandra, and Ted talking about what diey would invent to
make meir lives~easiet What are the inventions? What would they do?
B Pair work Which invention would be most useful for you personally? Why?
73 mmmwzmmm____________________
192 Chapter 6
Non-defining relative clauses as sentence modifiers
grammar
focus
Non-defining relative douses with which con be used to make a comment about an entire sentence.
Notice the use of the comma.
People need a quick and easy way to cook tood, which ts why the microwave own has been so wccessful.
Seel belts ore now required In all vehicles, which means fewer people die In traffic Occidents.
A Much these problems with the appropriate non-defining clauses. Then compare with a partner. Can you
think of another clause to complete each sentence?
1. AIDS kills thousands of people each year,
-L
B Add non-defining clauses beginning with which is inky... or which nuaxs thai. to these
statements. Then compare widi a. partner.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
discussion
Group
work
What three inventions
^
or discoveries have had the greatest
impact on life in the twentieth century?
faej&^iwhos'pod'a jroojimpncf'ai?.
Ufa In the twentieth cenfur/Jft^J/o ca/i"^_
Mow tmvet long^OsKnces fojs^x5s|
vocabulary
193
A Combine the verbs with the nouns to make common expressions. How many
expressions do you find? Compare with a partner.
i^explorcjjj^organkc^
j-'.fihd >iiiS5aoIve.:'4
analyze a stuotfon
sotr tf problem
'Us ImpcrtantnSlo be T)
',afrald to mote a
mistake.]
$MaJgn&ti&&eaieG
discussion
A Pair work Why do inventors invent new products? Read this list of reasons, and add
two more of your own.
B Group work Join another pair. Why do you think these things were invented? Use
the reasons in Exercise A or others of your own.
air bags for caw
fax machines
handheld computers
lie deteaors
life preservers
jet engines
so mMsmmmm
194 Chapter 6
^^o^^^^^s^^ic^-^^^^^^^m^^^m
reading
A Pair work Why were these things developed or invented? Why have they been so successful?
TiwrEiir
^=5';"^~i'2^J5^^-T:T' ? ~*S"*?rTS?vC- "*"."'"''.' '
B
Now read the article. What questions do you think inspired the inventors of these products?
1 .?*
Sometimes good ideas grow out of frustration. '
WbeaFredSmithwaasstudentalYale , .".- : '_'
that he need- ;-;
country
f.^- V.- <_.. ..
....................
Fevers! yeara ago, Maaaru Ibuka, the diaiiiaan
*>)/ uofSony.wnaatacompoivplanaingmcetinff.
V Suddenly he had a brilliant idea. Ho stopped - ;-^_, Univoiaj^, ha had soma paperwork
p~tbo meeting and asked everyone present what'-j.^j'ed to bicvo delivered acrootTtha ooun
t..>Tvoui happen if Sony removed the recordmg"
S;,fimdion and ipeakar'and sold headphones -with -~'. that overnight delivery was impossible. Ha sat^iT:?^'
j'-"'.tapo'phycr instead. Alrooat everyonethmght.'.*' Jbraloog'^oWodeciQg'whjtWhycoiddn't ;",;..]
yinlWMmiTf Sun,ThiiVav.-pttMnV(pnlmnt-':.' -". thoreWareliable^overnightaiaildelivetyiirar- '': 'J ^-'flis
idea aud worked at refining it. The result"V;' ;vv)ce?He decided tb'dcsigno&c. Smith did t, of course, turned
out to" be tbe wildly successful j'v just that and turned his design into a doss'pro-' j
K- Sorr/Walkman:'.^'. 5;.^^-^-'. -<,; -'> i^..% ject. His buainew profeaeor gave him only '-.
i^S-'je.
C for bis efforts. However, Smith was not
>^'Good ideaa often fttBrfc'wtth'n rruilW nTIv >'-"!**- ,.
C Group work Discuss these questions. Then share your answers with the class.
1.
2.
3.
4.
195
Functions
imSrll
How do you spend your day? '
Occupations, workplaces, and school;
doily schedules; clock time
Grammar
Wh-queatiobs and statements with be;
yea/no questions and short answers with
ie;'contraction8; subject pronouns;
posseasive"adjeivea,;A ,-, *
Simple present Wh-queatioas and J
statements; time expressions: at, in, _ on,
around, until, before. after, early, andiette
- ' ,
; -i ' '
wmsm
.
Simple.present yea/no and " ',": :;'i Wbqueations with do; question:' ' '.;> what
kind; object pronouns; modal ' 'verb
mould; verb + to + verb ' ^TV". ;
r^r:.^^-i^-'.::.,. -A \ i.x-t. .$
Tell ma s^ut yoar'fami]y~ :,*'.''.'' '{
Families and family life '
-* ' I
--'-:'i$?.->::'.-*".;--"---- " "'
;&&&
CSEEE_
How often do you exercise? . -.'J Asking about and describing Sports and
exercise; routines "...' i routines and exercise; talking about
''*;.' . ,-.-'
1 frequency; talking about abilities
about post events; giving
EHEEE3L Talking
opinions about past experiences;
Wo tad n great fcunet : LJ Pree-time and taiidne about vacations
weekend activities; vacations "
K&R.
How do you like tbe "
aei&b&orhood?
Stores and places in a city;
neighborhoods; houses and
apartments
""
littMI'H'IfliH*
22EHS_
196
Chapter 6
References
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. 1985. Hastings-on Hudson: ACTFL Materials
Center.
Axbey, S. 1997. Real times elementary. London: Richmond.
Brinton, D., M. Snow, and M. Wesche. 1989. Content-based second language
instruction. New York: Newbury House.
Buckingham, A., and N. Whitney. 1995. Passport. New York: Oxford University Press.
Burns, A., and H. Joyce. 1997. Focus on speaking. Sydney: National Centre for
English Language Teaching and Research.
Feez,S. 199&. Text-based syllabus design. Sydney: National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research.
Hindmarsh, R. 1980. The Cambridge English lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Ingram, D. 1982. Designing a language program. RELC Journal 13(2): 64-6.
Kelly, L. G. 1969. Twenty-five centuries of language teaching. Rowley, MA:
Newbury House.
Krahnke, K. 1987. Approaches to syllabus design for foreign language teaching. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Liskin-Gasparro, J. E. 1984. The ACTFL proficiency guidelines: A historical
perspective. In T. V. Higgs (ed.), Teaching for proficiency: The organizing
principle. Skokie, IL: National Textbook Company. 11-42.
Lowe, P. 1986. Proficiency: Panacea, framework, process? A reply to Kramsch,
Schultz, and particularly to Bachman and Savigon. Modern Language
Journal 70: 391-397.
Mohan, B. 1986. Language and content. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Mxowicki, L. 1986. Project work English competency-based curriculum. Portland: Northwest Educational Cooperative.
Munby, J. 1978. Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I. S. P. 1990. Teaching and learning vocabulary^New York: Newbury
House.
Paltridge, B. 1992. EAP placement testing: An integrated approach. ESP Journal
11(3): 243-268. Prabhu, N. S. 1987. Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford
University
Press. Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. 1989. Bahasa Inggeris Tmgkatan
iv. Kuala
Lumpur. Richards, J. C, and C. Sandy. 1998. Passages 1. New York: Cambridge
University Press. Richards, J. C, S. Proctor, and J. Hull. 1997. New Interchange
1. New York: Cambridge University Press.
197
The institution
The organizational culture
The organizational culture of a school refers to the ethos and environment
that exist within a school, 'the kinds of communications and decision making that take place, and the management and staffing structure they support.
In Chapter 4, several aspects of a school's organizational culture were discussed, including the extent to which the school's organizational culture facilitates or hinders the reception of new ideas and practices. A school's organizational culture is revealed in the way the following questions are
answered:
What are the school's goals and mission?
What is the school's management style?
198
199
200 Chapter 7
4. Many programs have hiring, promotion, and dismissal policies that match
those of the mechanistic model. They hire based on professional
qualifications such as degree, field, length and type of professional experience, and letters of recommendation; they promote based on seniority,
program contributions, and professional achievements; and they terminate
only after due process has occurred.
(Davidson andTesh 1997, 179)
The organic model of organizational design, by comparison,
is one that maximizes flexibility and adaptability, encourages complete confidence
and trust between superior and subordinates, and taps a wide range of human
motivations to achieve organizational goals. Communication flows in all
directions, both vertically and laterally. Teamwork is substantial, and decisionmaking and control functions are shared widely throughout the organization.
(Davidson and Tesh 1997,179)
Aspects of the organic model are also found in many language programs.
Davidson and Tesh cite the following examples:
1. Numerous program administrators value flexibility and adaptability;
they expect their teachers to teach most, if not all, skills in most, if not
all, levels. Thus they encourage a range of professional development ac
tivities for each faculty member. Level, skill, or content area specializa- tion is viewed as an obstacle not only to the professional growth of the
specialist, but also to other teachers who may wish to teach such classes, but
cannot because they are not the "experts."
2. Many language programs provide opportunities for professional training that
build up the value and worth of each faculty and staff member. They hold
timely, well-organized, and appropriately focused in-service or residency
meetings with internal or outside experts. They provide travel funding to
relevant local, regional, and national professional meetings. They provide
release time for materials development. They encourage research,
publications, and grant proposal writing.
3. Numerous programs allow for communication not only vertically, but also
laterally through cooperative teaching, peer coaching and observation, and
joint piloting of new materials.
4. A large number of programs value teamwork and have established, a
committee system so that decision-making and control functions are shared
widely throughout the program. Committee recommendations may be
advisory or binding. Areas of concern include long-range plan-
202 Chapter 7
mission has not been developed, nor has a plan to achieve it. Teachers may
be poorly motivated, poorly qualified, and on poor employment terms. Staff
turnover is high, and the reputation of the institute low. Maintaining educational quality within a business environment is a challenge for many private
language schools. It is increasingly the case that education is a business and
the challenge is to meet educational objectives and standards while at the
same time meeting financial imperatives, whether it be cost recovery or
profit making. Being sound educationally and sound financially are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The following kinds of questions need to be addressed if an institution seeks to build quality and effectiveness into its programs (Henry 1997,79):
1.How can we determine the quality of the language program?
2.How can we improve the quality of the language program?
3.What do we value most in the language program?
4.What type of curriculum best meets student needs?
5.What do we need to support the curriculum?
1.What kind of language proficiency testing is needed for accurate student
placement?
6.What qualities are we looking for in faculty?
In the following sections, we will examine some of the key dimensions of
quality and how quality can become a focus in a school or language program.
A SENSE OF MISSION
What goals does the institution have? Does it exist to serve an important educational purpose that provides die rationale for the range of courses and
services it offers? A useful format for articulating a school's sense of mission is in the form of a mission statement Such a statement should be developed collectively by those who have a commitmehCto the success of the
institution. Appendix 1 gives an example of a mission statement for a university English department that was developed collectively by its staff.
Once it is developed, a mission statement can serve as a reference point to
assess proposals for new initiatives or programs within an institution and to
provide a basis for evaluation of its performance over time.
A STRATEGIC PLAN
A_strategic plan is a description of the long-term vision and goals of an in^tituuo'tiaiicrm'ernteaiiytt undenakeT'foTfiilfilling them/Based on ap-
proaches used in successful businesses and industries, die notion of strategic planning is now increasingly seen as essential to the success of any organization, including schools. Klinghammer (1997, 64) provides a useful
overview of the function of strategic planning in effective language programs, and identifies six elements of a good strategic plan:
* yis*pn-'a statement of where a language program is going in die long term
and what its members hope to accomplish
* vafeg-?-' the principles that guide the conduct of a program, in terms of responsibility to students, teachers, and other stakeholders
purpose: die basic reasons for die institution's existence
* gagtoa-^ description of the institution's vision in terms of specific goals
that if seeks to achieve, usually within a particular time period. This is expressed in die form of die mission statement
* &&! specific steps that relate to each aspect of the mission, such as increasing student enrollments, developing teaching materials, or providing an environment in which teachers can carry out classroom research
*stJat<~8'ies: tne methods and activities that will be used to attain the
"goals
QUALITY ASSURANCE MECHANISMS
Quality assurance refers to systems a school has in place to ensure die quality of its practices. For example, how does one ensure that die best-quality
staff are employed? Is there a transparent recruitment process or is staff recruitment made through personal networks? "What process is in place to select and review textbooks? Are textbooks chosen by teachers on me basis
of quality and relevance or because of odier factors? What systems are in
place to ensure that tests and odier forms of assessment are sound and fair?
Are grades sometimes adjusted up or down by the administration based on
unknown criteria? Factors relevant to creating a culture of quality assurance
in an institution are:
* A formulated policy on quality assurance has been articulated and is familiar to all staff.
* Reasonable and acceptable standards have been determined for all aspects
of quality, such as employment, publicity, materials, facilities, and teachers' dress codes.
* Systems are in place to ensure that quality is regularly assessed and corrections are made where necessary.
* A reward system is in place to ensure that tiiose who attain high quality
in dieir work are recognized.
204 Chapter 7
Support is available to enable staff to improve quality (e.g., of their teach
ing or materials) if necessary.
A SOUND CURRICULUM
We noted earlier that effective schools and language programs are characterized by administrators who are open to change, flexible, and who encourage teachers to innovate. There is an atmosphere of trust and support
and staff are supported by reasonable teaching loads, rewards, and opportunities for professional development. The management style is participatory rather than top-down (Stoller 1997).
GOOD INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
"
205
who need it
written guidance for staff on their different roles and job duties so mat
leagues can pass on experiences, give and ask for suggestions, and report
on successful teaching experiences
informal gatherings that allow staff to get to know one anotiier and develop collegial relations and friendships
PROFESSIONAL TREATMENT OF TEACHERS
Language teachers often suffer from poor employment conditions. They are
not always recognized as trained professionals with specialized skills and
knowledge. Leung and Teasdale (1998, 5) point out that the status of ESL
teachers in mainstream education in many parts of die world is problematic
and one of the major obstacles teachers face.
In the primary and secondary sectors ESL teachers work in mainstream classrooms,
often in highly varied and unpredictable situations. ESL is not a curriculum subject
and it has to be delivered through the content of other subjects. ESL teachers do not
generally have sole control of classroom management; they often work as support or
collaboradve teachers and are with particular classes usually only for a limited
number of hours per week. The pupils can, and do, arrive at different rimes of die
year, their English language learning needs varying according to their previous
schooling and circumstances. There are no clearly ' established and widely
accepted disciplinary based teaching procedures (in the way that, for instance,
science or music may have) and no clearly defined outcomes which are tailored to
the specific needs of ESL pupils.
The broader issue here is whether teachers are treated as professionals or
simply regarded as members of a workforce. Eskey (1997, 24) comments
on the low academic status of Intensive English Programs in American universities, and the fact that they often have to deal with oppressive budgetary arrangements:
206 Chapter 7
Most are required to be self-supporting and many are frankly regarded as cash
cows that are expected to generate large surpluses for the support of more
prestigious programs____This means maximizing income and minimizing costs,
which in practice means radical understaffing, low salaries for both staff and
faculty, large numbers of part-time faculty with few or no benefits, and major
comer-cutting with respect to equipment, facilities, and faculty perks such as
support for curriculum development, in-service training, and attending
professional conferences.
The extent to which teachers are regarded as professionals is indicated by
the following:
Employment terms and conditions: Do teachers have a written contract
that clearly lays out their roles and responsibilities? Are they given fulltime contracts or employed simply on a casual basis with few or no benefits? A program that is staffed entirely by teachers on casual terms cannot hope to attract the same level of commitment as one staffed by
teachers on long-term contracts.
Support and reward systems: What support is available to help teachers
carry out their varying roles and what rewards are given for quality service?
Both factors are likely to influence teacher morale. Do teachers speak, positively of their school or institute and are they proud to work there, or do
they feel undervalued and exploited?
OPPORTUNITIES FOR TEACHER DEVELOPMENT
Teachers need to develop long-term career goals and expand their roles and
responsibilities over time if they are to continue to find teaching rewarding.
A quality institution provides opportunities for teachers to develop their careers. ESL/EFL is a rapidly changing field, and teachers need regular opportunities to update their professional knowledge and skills. Such opportunities may be provided for in a number of ways. -_
Conference participation: Teachers can participate in professional con-
ferences and seminars networking with other teachers and learning about,
trends, issues, and practices.
Workshops and in-service seminars: Specialists from outside the school
or staff from the school can offer workshops and seminars on topics of interest to the staff.
Reading groups: Teachers can put together reading groups and read and
discuss articles or books of interest.
Peer observation: Teachers can take turns observing each other's classes
as a basis for critical reflection and discussion about teaching approaches.
The size of a school and its administrative structure influences many aspects
of a teacher's work. Working in an institute with a staff of five teachers is
very different from working in one with a staff of one hundred. In the former case, the teachers are likely to be a closely knit team whose members
know each other well. In the latter case, teachers may work more independently and may not feel that their individual contribution is crucial to
the success of the program. In this case, die school will need to ask what
can be done to enable teachers to get to know one another and to develop a
sense of collegiality-Options available include informal professional activities such as "brown-bag lunches'* as well as social activities. The administration will also need to develop mechanisms for communicating with such
a large group of teachers.
EQUIPMENT
Schools vary greatly in the amount they have invested in equipment and
technology. Some schools make extensive investments in such things as
computers, cassette and. CD players, video recorders, overhead transparency (OHT) machines, and photocopiers, recognizing that these are essential tools for teachers and can have a positive effect on teaching, staff
208 Chapter 7
workload, and morale. Where such investment is lacking, there may be a
negative impact on teachers' workload.
SUPPORT STAFF
Adequate support staff can also facilitate teachers' work. Is there secretarial or administrative staff to help with typing, time-tabling, duplicating, and
administration? If not, what percentage of teachers' time is spent on noninstructional chores and at what cost?
TEACHER WORK SPACE
One way of determining how seriously a school regards its teachers and the
work they do is the work space it provides for its teachers. Is there a staff
room for teachers where they can interact with colleagues, carry out lesson
preparation, mark assignments, and prepare teaching materials and handouts?
TEACHER RESOURCE ROOM
Where does teaching take place and how adequate are teaching facilities?
In addition to classrooms, is there a multimedia lab or computer lab, language lab, self-access center, and student reading room? What impact do
these facilities have on the quality of die program?
CLASS SIZE
What is the size of classes? Current wisdom suggests that class size should
not exceed fifteen for most language classes, though in many contexts
teachers have to work with much larger groups. Sometimes class size is outside the control of language providers. However, it should be made known
to the client that class size affects the quality of instruction. The optimal
class-size needs for each type of course should be established based on
teacher, learner, and school factors, and when needed, the reasons for standards set need to be explained to clients.
210 Chapter 7
content knowledgg2jh<z teacher's understanding of the subject of TESOL,
e.g., pedagogical grammar, phonology, teaching theories, second lan
guage acquisition, as well as the specialized discourse and terminology
of language teaching
contextual fengjWe^geAiarniliarity with the school or institutional context,
~^fiooTnorms, and knowledge of the learners, including cultural and other
relevant information
P^^ZSiS^iJ2}^d^BS.: abi^ty t0 restructure content knowledge for
"teaching purposes, and to plan, adapt, and improvise
personal knowledge: the teacher's personal beliefs and principles and his
"orheT-imtividTjarap'pro'ach to teaching
^flSS^^10^^^'tne teacher's capacity to reflect on and assess his or
Tier own practice
In describing teachers' skills, it is possible to compare teachers according to whether they are untrained or trained and whether they are novice or
experienced. The training dimension refers to possession of a professional
qualification in language teaching; die experience dimension refers to classroom experience. Initial teacher training typically sets out to give teachers
what can be called "basic technical competence." This consists of an introductory understanding of the subject matter of TESOL, mastery of basic
classroom teaching processes, as well as approaches to teaching the four
skills. For example, the UCLES Certificate in Language Teaching to Adults
(CELTA) (UCLES 1996), a widely taught initial qualification for language
teachers, focuses on six areas of basic teaching skills:
language awareness
die learner, the teacher, and the teaching/learning context
lesson.
ment levels.
They lack practical classroom management routines to keep pupils on
task.
Their concern with control makes it difficult for them to focus on pupil
learning.
They lack an established "pedagogic content knowledge."
They lack the practical experience from which to construct personal
212 Chapter 7
Language teaching behavior cannot be separated from pedagogic models
Teachers need good materials to teach from either in the form of commercial textbooks or institutionally prepared materials. Nothing is more demdtivating to teachers than having to use a textbook that no one likes or materials that are poorly prepared or presented. Teachers need to be involved in
the choice of materials and guidelines may be needed on the role of materials in the program.
COURSE GUIDES
Course guides should be provided for each course offered in the program
with information on the course, aims and objectives, recommended materials and methods, suggested learning activities, and procedures for assessment.
DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITIES
Teachers in an institution may not always have the particular knowledge and
skills a program needs, so it may be important to select staff for specialized
training to meet these needs. For example, a staff member may be sent to a
workshop on using multimedia resources in the classroom or on alternative
assessment.
TEACHING RELEASE
If teachers are expected to play a key role in some aspect of the program
such as materials development or mentoring, they may need to be given release time from teaching to enable them to devote time to this. This acknowledges the value with which the institution regards such activities.
214 Chapter 7
MENTORS
Teachers need to be told when they are doing well and when there are problems with their performance. Good teaching sometimes goes unnoticed. In
. the case of negative feedback, ways need to be found for providing constructive and non-threatening feedback. Feedback"can be face-to-face, in
writing, or on the telephone, depending on the kind of feedback it is.
REWARDS
Teachers who perform well should receive acknowledgment for good service. This could include being sent to a conference or in-service course or
having their name listed in a staff newsletter,
HELPLINES
Teachers often work for long periods in relative isolation. Whom should
they turn to when they have problems with student discipline, difficulties
working with another teacher, or difficulties in using course materials?
Teachers should know exactly whom to turn to for help in solving different
kinds of problems.
REVIEW
Time should be allocated for regular review of the program, problem solving, and critical reflection. These activities help solve practical problems
and also develop a sense of collegiality among staff.
216
Chapter 7
English.
Realistic and communicative uses of language are given priority.
Maximum use is made of pair and group activities in which students complete tasks collaboratively.
There is an appropriate balance between accuracy-focused and fluencyfocused activities.
Teachers serve as facilitators of learning rather man as presenters of information.
Assessment procedures reflect and support a communicative and skillbased orientation to teaching and learning.
Students develop an awareness of the learning process and their own
learning styles, strengths, and weaknesses.
Students develop the ability to monitor their own learning progress and
ways of setting personal goals for language improvement.
These statements were produced through discussion with teacher trainers,
curriculum planners, and teachers and served as a reference for materials
developers, teacher trainers, and teachers. Articulating a teaching philosophy in this way can help clarify decisions relating to choice of classroom
activities, materials, and teacher evaluation. In die case of a teaching model
that is based on an existing teaching model such as communicative language
teaching, the philosophy and principles of the model are accepted as givens:
-Teachers are expected to be familiar with them and to put the principles into
practice.
Unless a teaching model is agreed upon, it is difficult to make decisions
about what constitutes acceptable or unacceptable teaching practices. Atthe
same time, teachers should have the opportunity to teach in ways that re-
217
fleet their own preferred teaching styles. Teachers teach in different ways. Even
though two teachers work toward identical goals they may choose different
ways of getting there. Teachers bring to teaching their own personal beliefs and
principles and these help to account for how they interpret their role in the
classroom as well as differences in die way they teach. Teachers' principles are a
product of their experience, their training, and their beliefs. Breen (no date, 45)
comments;
Any innovation in classroom practice - from the adoption of a new task or
textbook to the implementation of a new curriculum - has to be accommodated
within a teacher's own pedagogic principles. Greater awareness of what these are
on the part of the designer or curriculum planner and, indeed, the teachers
themselves, will facilitate harmony between a particular innovation and the
teacher's enacted interpretation of it in the classroom. The opportunity for teachers
to reflect upon the, evolving relationship between their own beliefs and their
practices lies at the heart of curriculum change.
Examples of teachers' principles cited by Breen are:
Selectively focus on the form, of the language.
Selectively focus on vocabulary or meaning.
Enable the learners to use the language.
Address learners' mental-processing capacities.
Make the new language familiar and manageable.
Make the learners internalize and remember the new language.
Take account of learners' affective involvement.
Directly address learners' needs or interests.
Monitor learner progress and provide feedback.
Facilitate learner responsibility or autonomy.
Manage me lesson and the group.
In any group of teachers mere are some principles that are shared as well as
some that are held"by individual teachers. As teachers plan lessons and teach,
they draw on a teaching philosophy as well as their personal princi ples to help
them shape and direct their teaching (Bailey 1996; Richards 1998).
Opportunities for teachers to clarify their teaching principles can help focus on
issues concerning choice of teaching methods, activities and materials, the
purposes underlying different teaching strategies, and criteria for evaluating the
effectiveness of lessons. Leung and Teasdale (1988, 20) comment: "Clearly there
can be effective teaching without teachers making explicit die theories which
underlie their practice. However, we would contend mat, otfier things being
equal, privileging and developing the intellectual frameworks which inform
teaching offers a principled way of conceptualizing teaching as purposeful
action."
218 Chapter 7
At a practical level, the following decisions are therefore needed in formulating the teaching approach for a program:
What teaching model or philosophy of teaching should the program reflect?
What teaching principles are consistent with dais model or philosophy?
* What other kinds of principles do teachers hold?
What are the expected roles of teachers?
What are the expected roles' of learners?
* What is the role of instructional materials?
* What kinds of classroom activities and practices are recommended?
need attention. Observation may, but need not, involve evaluation. Peer observation can also be used to enable teachers to share approaches and teaching strategies. Or, while observing a colleague, a teacher can collect information the colleague is interested in obtaining. This might include
information on how students complete a learning activity or the type and
frequency of questions the teacher uses (Richards and Lockhart 1994).
Teachers can also make use of self-observation through audio- or videorecording their lessons and reviewing the recording to see what it tells them
about their teaching.
IDENTIFICATION AND RESOLUTION OF PROBLEMS
Teachers often work in isolation and do not always have the opportunities
to benefit from the collective expertise of their colleagues. One way to avoid
this is to build in opportunities for collaborative planning, as when teachers
work together in pairs or groups on course planning, materials development,
and lesson planning. During the process of planning, potential problems can
often be identified and resolved.
DOCUMENTATION AND SHARING OF GOOD PRACTICES
220 Chapter 7
2.The teacher has attended a professional conference or workshop and can
share what was learned.
3.The teacher has read a current publication in the field and can tell colleagues about it.
4.The teacher has a practical teaching strategy to share.
5.The teacher has developed audio, video, or written materials relevant to
the language program curriculum and can provide a demonstration.
6.The teacher has used the textbooks on the booklist for the coming semester and can share ideas about what works and what does not work.
7.The teacher would like to lead a discussion concerning a particular curricular or program issue.
SELF-STUDY OF THE PROGRAM
The purpose of the appraisal will determine the type of appraisal that is
carried out.
lesson plans
teacher-made classroom materials
course outlines and handouts
class assignments
participation in profession development activities
222 Chapter 7
Appraisal by a supervisor: Supervisors often assume the role of appraiser,
though many teachers find mat they prefer appraisal to be carried by
someone other than a supervisor. The presence of a supervisor in the
classroom may inhibit the teacher from performing to his or her best Such
assessments may also be flavored by subjective factors. In addition, if the
supervisor is largely an administrator rather than a classroom teacher, he
or she may not have a good understanding of the classroom situation, resulting in misperceptions about different aspects of the lesson. In order to
provide some consistency to appraisals, checklists are often used (see Appendix 4).
Appraisal by a colleague: Peer appraisal is generally less threatening for
a teacher than appraisal by a colleague and may result in more constructive feedback. A colleague will often have a better understanding of the
difficulties a teacher faces and perhaps be able to suggest useful ways of
addressing them. Appendix 8 presents an example of a peer appraisal
form used in a large English program. The form was developed by teachers in the program and provides an opportunity for the teacher to respond
to the appraiser's comments.
Self-appraisal: Teachers themselves are often in a good position to assess
their own teaching and self-appraisal is perhaps the least threatening form
of teacher assessment Self-appraisal may take a variety of forms:
Lesson reports: The teacher may use structured descriptions of a lesson
with an evaluation of each component (See Appendix 6 for an example
of a self-evaluation form.)
- Teaching journal: The teacher may keep a regular journal about his or her
class, and describe and reflect on different aspects of planning and teaching the course.
Audio/video recording: The teacher may record a number of lessons of
his or her class or arrange to have someone else record them, review the
recordings, and comment on the strengths or weaknesses of die lessons.
Student appraisal: Students are in a" good position'to assess the effectiveness of teaching, although die extent to which they are able to do so
depends on*the type of feedback instrument they are given. Although students are often critical, they usually have a good sense of whether a
teacher prepares his or her lesson, teaches relevant content, provides lessons that are engaging, relevant and at an appropriate level of difficulty.
What students may not be able to recognize is how difficult the course (or
a particular group of students) is to teach due to the personal dynamics of
the class and its members). Appendix 7 contains an example of a student
appraisal form.
It is important to ensure that the learners understand the goals of the course,
the reason for the way it is organized and taught, and the approaches to
learning they will be encouraged to take. It cannot be simply assumed that
learners will be positively disposed toward the course, will have the appropriate skills the course demands, or will share the teacher's understanding
of what the goals of the course are. Brindley (1984,95) states:
When learners and teachers meet for the first time, they may bring with them
different expectations concerning not only the learning process in general, but also
concerning what will be learned in a particular course and how it will be learned.
The possibility exists, therefore, for misunderstanding to arise. It is, accordingly, of
vital importance that, from the beginning of the course, mechanisms for consultation
are set up, in order to ensure that the parties involved in the teaching-learning
process are aware of each other's expectations. If learners are to become active
participants, in decision making regarding their own learning, then it is essential that
they know the teacher's position and that they be able to state their own. Teachers,
conversely, need to canvass learners* expectations and be able to interpret their
statements of need.
VIEWS OF LEARNING
Learners enter a course with their own views of teaching and learning and
these may not be identical to those of their teachers. How do they see the
roles of teachers and learners? What do they feel about such things as memorization, group work, the importance of grammar, and pronunciation? Alcorso and Kalantzis (1985) found that teachers rated the usefulness of communicative activities highly, whereas their learners tended to favor more
traditional activities such as grammar exercises, copying written materials,
memorizing, and drill work. What roles are learners expected to play during
the course? Courses may assume a variety of different learner roles, such as:
manager of his or her own learning
independent learner
224
Chapter 7
needs analyst
collaborator and team member
peer tutor -
How happy are learners with the roles expected of them? Will, they need any
special orientation or training in order to carry out these roles effectively?
LEARNING STYLES
Learners' learning styles may be an important factor in the success of teaching and may not necessarily reflect those that teachers recommend. In a
study of the learning style of adult ESL students, Willing (1985, cited in
Nunan 1988, 93) found four different learner types in the population he
studied:
Concrete learners: These learners preferred learning by games, pictures,
films and video, talking in pairs, learning through the use of cassettes, and
going on excursions.
Analytical learners: These learners liked studying grammar, studying
English books, studying alone, finding their own mistakes, having problems
to work on, learning through reading newspapers.
Communicative learners: This group liked to learn by observing and listening to native speakers, talking to friends in English, watching TV in English, using English in shops, and so on, learning English words by hearing
them and learning by conversations.
Authority-oriented learners: These students liked tlie teacher to explain
everything, writing everything in a notebook, having their own textbook,
learning to read, studying grammar, and learning English words by seeing
them.
A questionnaire on preferred learning styles, classroom activities, and
teaching approaches can be used to identify learners' learning style preferences. Where discrepancies are identified between views of teaching and
learning on the part of teachers and learners, these may have to be addressed
through learner training, discussion, and orientation to the course.
MOTIVATION
It is also important to find out what the learners' motivations are for taking
the course. Why are the learners in the course and how will it affect their
lives? What do they want from it? Which aspects of it are they most interested in? It may be that learners have very different priorities. For example,
Brindley (1984,119) cites the following preferences for three learners in an
adult ESL class in Australia to show how individual learner choices may
SUPPORT
226 Chapter 7
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
An example of an institutional mission statement (from Department of English, City University of Hong Kong).
The goals of the department
The Department of English has developed die foUowing mission statement
to represent its commitments and goals:
The goals of the Department of English are to promote the
effective learning and teaching of English and the learning and
practice of professional communication skills in the City
University and in the community, and to provide leadership in
language and communication education in Hong Kong and the
region.
To achieve this, the Department of English:
offers degree courses in Teaching English as a Second Language and in'
Professional Communication
delivers instruction in English for students in the City University to meet
228 Chapter 7
Appendix 2
teaching*
1. Institution
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
agement and administration team which is knowledgeable about the design, implementation, and evaluation of ELT programs;
seeks to attract and retain a staff of trained, dedicated, professional ELT
practitioners;
recognises the importance of appropriate salary and benefits as well as
the importance of staff development The. centre has clearly stated policies concerning these issues;
reviews its employment conditions and procedures periodically in light
of generally accepted ELT standards and local market conditions; and
takes account of input from teachers, support staff and students in making decisions regarding personnel practices, management of resources
and program evaluation.
language teaching;
recognises that the number of contact hours, preparation hours and office
A quality language centre recognises the vital role that non-teaching staff
play in supporting training activities and contributing to the quality of the
service provided to clients.
STAFF DEVELOPMENT A
quality language centre:
actively supports and engages in continuing staff development for all em-
230 Chapter 7
documents curricula, and such documentation includes details of program
goals and objectives, expected learner outcomes, teaching materials,
methodology, assessment criteria, and evaluation procedures;
assesses student progress on a regular basis. The instruments for assessment are selected or developed according to principles generally recognised in the field of ELT and are culturally appropriate. They relate directly to the stated goals and objectives of the training program. Students
are regularly informed of their progress;
acknowledges that factors such as class size, course length and course intensity are often beyond the control of the training provider. However,
curricula are developed with tfiese considerations in mind;
engages in regular evaluation of its curriculum and courses in response to
changing student needs, new trends in ELT and die changing global context. Teachers and students are involved in this evaluation which leads to
program re-design, with the development of new approaches, new components, and/or new courses; and
* seeks periodic external evaluation dirough consultation with experienced,
recognised professionals in appropriate fields, such as applied linguistics
and ELT management. These individuals work with staff to share expert
ise and to provide objective appraisals of the program's effectiveness.
4, Resources
A quality language centre:
* provides instructional materials to facilitate successful language learning.
These resources are up-to-date and accessible to all teachers and include
print materials, video tape recorders and cassettes, audio tape recorders
and cassettes, as well as a range of realia;
* recognises the contribution that computerised language instruction and
self-access resources make to effective language learning and wherever
possible aims to provide such resources;
" * maintains a resource collection of relevant books, journals and other materials which is easily accessible to teachers and students; and
documents procedures for die selection, evaluation, purchase and upkeep
of equipment and materials and ensures that all concerned are actively in
volved in decision-making related to these matters.
the group;
organising the classroom to suit the learners and/or the activity;
setting up and managing pair, group, individual, and plenary work;
adopting a teacher role appropriate to the stage of the lesson and the teaching
context;
232 Chapter 7
' teaching in a way which helps to develop learner self-awareness and autonomy.
Focus
The syllabus focus to include:
Language awareness
(Syllabus Topic 1) The learner, the teacher and the
teaching/learning context
(Syllabus Topic 2) Planning for effective teaching of
adult learners of English
(Syllabus Topic 3) Classroom management and teaching skills for
teaching English to adults
(Syllabus Topic 4) Resources and materials for
teaching English to adults
(Syllabus Topic 5) Professional development for
teachers of English to adults
(Syllabus Topic 6)
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
233
II. PRESENTATION
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
III. EXECUTION/METHODS
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
.>;.-. n.TUmvetaiiy
234 Chapter 7
16. The material was reinforced.
Comment:
17. The teacher moved around the class and made eye contact
with students.
Comment:
N/A 4 3 2 1
' N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
V. TEACHER/STUDENT INTERACTION
Degree to which...
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
' 34. The teacher was able to control and direct the class.
Comment:
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
N/A 4 3 2 1
OQ
K-ftlCllJlGI /
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
The teacher
1 2 3 4 5 NS
12. The teacher does not impede student learning via over-use
of the mother tongue, or attempts to learn the students'
mother tongue.
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
15. The.teacher uses, and gets students to use, correct classroom language. -2 3 4 5 NS
15. The teacher deals with errors systematically and effectively. 1 2 3 4 5 NS
16. The teacher gets students to self-correct minor mistakes.
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
238
Chapter 7
12 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
7. The teacher has good strategies for dealing with inappropriate student
behaviour.
1 2 3 4 5 NS
8. The teacher does not intimidate shy students in the class.
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
12. The teacher is able to adapt his/her teaching plan to respond to students' immediate needs and reactions to
planned activities.
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
19. The teacher makes good use of visuals and other media.
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1.2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
239
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS
1 2 3 4 5 NS .
1 2 3 4 5 NS
240 Chapter 7
Skills
practice
Correction
Imp = Improvable
1
e
NA = Not Applicable
OK Imp NA
Imp = Improvable
NA = Not Applicable
OK Imp NA
Class
13 Did you generally keep control of who spoke,
management
and when (not too much calling out)?
14 Did you make sure some reluctant students
participated (non-volunteers)?
15 Was there as much student talk as teacher
talk?
16 Did they use English to each other?
17 Did you do anything to leave them with a
feeling of achievement (evaluate,
summarise, look ahead)?
Other
1
Two things you'd like to
do better next time you
teach this class.
242
Chapter 7
1*
NA
Lesson structure
1.1
Varieties of activities
1.2
Sequencing of activities
1.3
1.4
Visuals, realia
1.5
Presentation
2.2
Comprehension check
2.3
Re-use
2.4
Record in notebooks
(other)
Skills practice
3.1
Participation of weak students
3,2
3.3
3.4
Meaningful practice
3.5
Student-to-student work
(other)
Class management
4.1
Hands up, nominating students to speak
4.2
Non-volunteers
4.3
Students' names
4.4
*t needs improvement
2 saosfactoo/
3 good
excessive
5.3
5.4
Avoidance of correction during fluency
work (communication)
(other)
Points to improve before
next self-evaluation
I.
2.
NA
244 Chapter 7
Appendix 7 Student appraisal form
Example of a student appraisal form, Department of English, City University of
Hong Kong.
Semester..
NOTE: This is a general questionnaire. Please indicate the teaching context (lecture
and/or tutorial) to which your comments refer.
TEACHING
Strongly
Strongly
disagree
agree
2 - 3 4 5 6 7
2
5'
Poor
4
Acceptable
5
Very good
7
Excellent
COURSE 9. How do you rate die content (topics, skills, etc.) of this
course?
12 3 4 5 6 7 Not
useful Very useful
10. How do you rate the course materials (textbook, readings, etc.) in this course?
12 3 4 5 6 7 Not
useful Very useful
11. Which aspects of the course were most useful?
246 Chapter 7
Appendix 8
______________________________
Observer _________________________________________
Module No.:
Date: ________________ Class Time: __________________
Nature and goals of the lesson: ______________________________
I. Aims and objectives
Were the aims and objectives for the lessons clearly explained?
Did the lesson have a clear focus?
Comments:
2. Appropriacy of materials
How appropriate were the classroom activities to achieve the aims and objectives?
How effectively was the content presented? Was the
material/content too much or too little for the lesson?
Comments:
248
Chapter 7
8. Effectiveness
Was the lesson effective? Why or why not?
Comments;
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TESOL. 1986b. The TESOL core standards for language and professional
preparation programs. Washington, DC: TESOL.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1996. Cambridge integrated language teaching schemes: Certificate in English language leaching to adults. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1998. Syllabus and assessment guidelines for course tutors and assessors. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
252 Chapters
for motivation and stimulation
for reference
254 Chapters
forms, advertisements, instructional leaflets and all the rest. Some books, indeed,
almost entirely consist of authentic material, including illustrations, extracted
from newspapers, or magazines.
Textbooks
Commercial textbooks together with ancillaries such as workbooks, cassettes, and teachers' guides are perhaps the commonest form of teaching
materials in language teaching. Haines (1996,27) characterizes differences
between past and current trends in English language textbooks.
Then
_
author and academic' centered
uncertain global market
European focus
sell what is published
culture and methodology of origin
English for its own sake
UK/US publisher dominance
native speaker expertise
culturally insensitive
low risk/competition
little design
artificial texts and tasks
single-volume- titles
Now
market led
specific fragmented markets
Pacific Rim/Latin American focus
international or local culture
indigenous learning situations
English for specific purposes
rise in local publishing
normative speaker competence
culturally sensitive
high risk/competition
design rich
authenticity
multicomponent/multimedia
256 Chapter 8
They are expensive. Commercial textbooks represent a financial burden
for students in many parts of the world.
In making decisions about the role of commercial textbooks in a program, the impact of textbooks on the program, on teachers, and on learners
has to be carefully assessed.
Evaluating textbooks
"With such an array of commercial textbooks and other kinds of instructional
materials to choose from, teachers and others responsible for choosing materials need to be able to make informed judgments about textbooks and
teaching materials. Evaluation, however, can only be done by considering
something in relation to its purpose. A book may be ideal in one situation
because it matches the needs of that situation perfectly. It has just the right
amount of material for the program, it is easy to teach, it can be used with
little preparation by inexperienced teachers, and it has an equal coverage of
grammar and the four' skills. The same book in a different situation, however, may turn out to be quite unsuitable. It contains too little material, it is
not sufficiently challenging for teacher and students, and has elements in it
(such as a grammar syllabus) that are not needed in the program. Before one
can evaluate a textbook, therefore, information is needed on the following
issues;
The role of the textbook in the program
' Is there a well-developed curriculum that describes the objectives syllabus and content of the program or will this be determined by the textbook? '
Will the book or textbook series provide the core of the program, or is it
one of several different books that will be used?
Will it be used with small classes or large ones? """
Will learners be expected to buy a workbook as well or should the textbook provide all the practice students need?
The teachers in the program
How experienced are the teachers in the program and what is their level
of training?
Are they native speakers of English? If not, how well do they speak En-
glish?
Do teachers tend to follow the textbook closely or do they use the book
simply as a resource?
258 Chapter 8
not be welcome in particular markets may have to be removed. As a consequence, much of the "flavor" and creativity of the author's original manuscript may disappear.
At the same time, the publisher will try to satisfy teachers* expectations
as to what a textbook at a certain level should contain. For example, if an
introductory ESL textbook does not include the present continuous in the
first level of the book, teachers may feel that it is defective and not wish to
use it. Anew describes the process of making the textbook usable in the
widest possible market as "homogenization."
Many publishers systematically delete all (or all but traditional consideration, of)
topics believed to be controversial or taboo. This tendency has several significant
consequences. Besides making texts look alike, these biases affect the treatment
of target cultures and may result in inaccurate descriptions or characterizations.
The text becomes an ethnocentric clone of the most conservative expression of
our own culture. (Anew 1982,12-13)
Criteria for textbook evaluation
Cunningsworth (1995) proposes four criteria for evaluating textbooks, particularly course books:
1. They should correspond to learners' needs. They should match the aims
and objectives of the language learning program.
2. They should reflect the uses (present or future) that learners will make
of the language. Textbooks should be chosen that will help equip students to use language effectively for their own purposes.
3. They should take account of students' needs as learners and should facilitate their learning processes, without dogmatically imposing a rigid
"method."
4. They should have a clear role as a support for learning. Like teachers,
they mediate between the target language and the learner. " '-'
Cunnings worth (1995) presents a checklist for textbook evaluation and selection (see Appendix 2) organized under the following categories:
259
teachers' books
practical considerations
Dudley-Evans and St John (1998,173) suggest that operating with so many
categories is often not very practical and it is easier to use two or three key
criteria in the first instance and then apply others if or when needed. They
propose the following questions to ask when selecting ESP materials:
1.Will the materials stimulate and motivate?
1.To what extent does the material match the stated learning objectives and
your learning objectives? (It is rare for a single set of published material
to match the exact learning needs of any one ESP learner group, and activities do not always meet the stated objectives.)
2.To what extent will the materials support the learning process?
The type of evaluation a textbook receives will also reflect the concerns
of the evaluator. One teacher may look at a book in terms of its usability.
The teacher is primarily interested in whether the book works easily in her
class, can be used flexibly, and could easily be adapted. Anomer teacher
may look at a book much more critically in terms of its theoretical orientation and approach. If it is a book that teaches conversation skills, what theory of conversation is it based on? What kind of syllabus is it based on and
what is the validity of the activities it makes use of? Two teachers evaluating a writing text may likewise look at it from very different perspectives.
One may subscribe to a process-oriented view of writing and look for activities that practice such processes as generating ideas, drafting, reviewing,
revising, and editing. Another may be more concerned to see that adequate
treatment is given to different conventions for organizing different kinds of
texts, such as narrative writing, expository writing, and descriptive writing.
In any language program, therefore, it is unlikely that a published checklist
can be used without_adaptation as a basis for evaluating and choosing textbooks. Based on the factors in each situation, questions specific to that situation need to be generated around the main issues involved in textbook
evaluation and selection:
program factors - questions relating to concerns of the program
teacher factors - questions relating to teacher concerns
learner factors - questions relating to learner concerns
content factors - questions relating to die content and organization of me
material in the book
pedagogical factors - questions relating to the principles underlying the
materials and the pedagogical design of the materials, including choice
of activities and exercise types
260
Chapters
Adapting textbooks
Most teachers are not creators of teaching materials but providers of good
materials. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, 173) suggest that a good
provider of materials will be able to:
1. select appropriately from what is available
2. be creative with what is available
3. modify activities to suit learners'needs
4. supplement by providing extra activities (and extra input)
Commercial textbooks can seldom be used witfiout some form of adaptation to make them more suitable for the particular context in which they
will be used. This adaptation may take a variety of forms.
Modifying content. Content may need to be changed because it does not
suit the target learners, perhaps because of factors related to the learners'
age, gender, social class, occupation, religion or cultural background.
Adding or deleting content. The book may contain too much or too little
for the program. Whole units may have to be dropped, or perhaps sections
of units throughout the book omitted. For example, a course may focus primarily on listening and speaking skills and hence writing activities in the
book will be omitted.
Reorganizing content. A teacher may decide to reorganize the syllabus
of the book, and arrange the units in what she considers a more suitable order. Or within a unit the teacher may decide not to follow the sequence of
activities in the unit but to reorder them for a particular reason.
Addressing omissions. The text may omit items that the teacher feels are
important. For example a teacher may add vocabulary activities or grammar
activities to a unit.
Modifying tasks. Exercises and activities may need to be changed to give
them an additional focus. For example, a listening activity may focus only
on listening for information, so it is adapted so that students listen a second
or third time for a different purpose. Or an activity may be extended to provide opportunities for more personalized practice.
Extending tasks. Exercises may contain insufficient practice and additional practice tasks may need to be added.
The ability to be able to adapt commercial textbooks in these ways is an
essential skill for teachers to develop. Through the process of adaptation the
teacher personalizes the text, making it a better teaching resource, and individualizes it for a particular group of learners. Normally this process takes
place gradually as the teacher becomes more familiar with the book, because the dimensions of the text that need adaptation may not be apparent
262
Chapters
263
both motivating and useful practice. Good materials do many of the things
that a teacher would normally do as part of his or her teaching. They should:
arouse the learners' interest
remind them of earlier learning
tell them what they will be learning next
explain new learning content to them
relate these ideas to learners' previous learning
get learners to think about new content
help them get feedback on their learning
encourage them to practice
make sure they know what they are supposed to be doing
enable them to check their progress
help them to do better
ful.
Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment.
Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught.
Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use.
264 Chapters
This may seem a. somewhat cumbersome list to apply in actual practice. Any
developer of teaching materials will have to develop his or her own set of
working principles that can be referred to in planning and assessing materials as they are written. For example, I used the following checklist in developing a set of low-level speaking materials. The list identifies the qualities each unit in the materials should reflect:
Gives learners something they can take away from the lesson
Teaches something learners feel they can use
Gives learners a sense of achievement
Practices learning items in an interesting and novel way
Provides a pleasurable learning experience
Provides opportunities for success
Provides opportunities for individual practice
Provides opportunities for personalization
Provides opportunities for self-assessment of learning
Each draft of the materials was then examined to assess the extent to which '
these principles were reflected. Achieving these goals through the design of *
instructional materials depends on the art, experience, skills, and craft of the
materials developer.
Decisions in materials design
In Chapters 5 and 6, the following processes of program design and materials design were discussed;
developing aims
developing objectives
developing a syllabus
organizing the course into units
developing a structure for units
sequencing units
265
and that students respond to in some way in using the materials. The following are examples of input questions in the design of different kinds of
materials:
Grammar materials: Will the new grammar items be presented through
the medium of texts, conversational extracts, or a corpus of utterances? How
will tiiese be selected?
Listening materials: Will the source of listenings be aumentic recordings
taken from real-world sources, scripted materials on different topics, or a
mixture of both?
Reading materials: What kinds of texts will students read (such as magazine articles, newspaper articles, extracts from books), and how will these
be chosen?
Writing materials: Will students be shown examples of different types of
compositions? Will these be examples of real texts or will they be specially
written? Will examples of student writing also be included? If so, how will
-these be chosen? For example, Raimes (1988) sees the primary texts in a
writing course as:
the students' texts: that is, the writing students do the teacher's texts: that
is, the comments teachers write on their papers other authentic texts:
supplementary readings for writing stimulus and close analysis
Speaking materials: What will the source of speaking activities be? Will
dialogues, recordings, texts, topics, pictures, situations, and so on be used,
and how will these be selected?
Often writers start with resources taken from magazines, books, the Internet, television, or radio. (A large amount of material is available on the
World Wide Web, including articles, photographs, audio and video materials, and much of it can be used free.) It is important, however, to realize that
many of the sources for teaching materials that exist in the real world have
been created by someone and that copyright permission may be required in
order to use it as a source of teaching materials in an institution or textbook,
even if they are adapted or modified in some way. It is normally not possible, for example, to use the following without permission from the copyright holder
segments taken from commercially broadcast materials (radio, video, musical recordings) magazine articles, newspaper articles, chapters from
books
However, if materials are being used for legitimate educational purposes
and not being sold to make a profit it is often possible to obtain permission
266 Chapter 8
without payment of a fee. A letter is written to the copyright holder (such
as a publisher) outlining the wish to use die materials and describing how
they will be used and in what quantities. (Rowntree, 1997)
SELECTING EXERCISE TYPES
One of me most difficult decisions in writing is deciding on the types of exercises that will be used. The issue is how to create exercises dial engage
learners in the use of skills and processes related to specific language teaching objectives. A review of the exercise types used in current commercial
textbooks is a good starting point. In Richards (1990), for example, exercise
types related to different types of listening skills are presented as follows:
Exercises that develop "top-down" listening
' Listen to part of a conversation and infer the topic of a conversation.
Look at pictures and then listen to conversations about the pictures and
match them with the pictures.
- Listen to conversations and identify the setting.
Read a list of key points to be covered in a talk and then number them in
sequence while listening to the talk.
- Read information about a topic, then listen to a talk on the topic and check
whether the information was mentioned or not.
Read one side of a telephone conversation and guess the speaker's responses: then listen to me conversation.
Look at pictures of people speaking and guess what tiiey might be saying
or doing; then listen to their actual conversations.
Complete a story, then listen to how the story really ended,
Guess what news headlines might refer to, then listen to news broadcasts
about the events referred to.
Exercises that involve listening for interactional purp~oses
Distinguish between conversations that have an interactional and a trans-
actional purpose.
Listen to conversations and select suitable polite comments and other
phatic responses.
Listen to utterances containing complements or praise and choose suit-
able responses.
Listen to conversations containing small talk and indicate when the
Crandall (1995) gives further useful suggestions for the design of exercises in reading materials (see Appendix 1). Candlin (1981) contains an exercise typology for the design of communicative exercises. Reviewing published materials for information of this kind is a good way to get a sense of
the range of possible exercise types that can be used in materials.
268 Chapter 8
pects of the project. In a large-scale project, however, the following people
might be involved:
project director: responsible for overall management of the project, for
setting goals and ensuring that targets are met, and for liaising with all
parties involved
writers: those responsible for writing all components of the course
media specialist: a person who can help with such aspects as use of audiovisual materials and computer software
editor: a person who reviews everything the writers have produced and
prepares the final version of the materials for publication or duplication
illustrator: someone responsible for preparing and selecting art and illustrations
designer: the person who is responsible for the layout, type style, graphics, and the overall format of the materials
Planning the number of stages involved: A materials project always goes
through several different stages of development. Typical stages might include:
first draft
comments on first draft
second draft
further comments
tryout of the materials
final revisions of materials
These processes are not necessarily linear. Carey and Briggs (1977, 286)
comment: "Many activities occur simultaneously, and one often works one
part of a product through a phase of design and then cycles back and begins
the same phase again with another part of the product"
Identifying reviewers: A crucial source of input to the developmental
process is critical feedback on materials as tiiey are written. A key person
is someone who can cast a critical eye over the materials as they are drafted
and provide constructive feedback on them. People involved in a materials
writing project should be open to feedback and suggestions and be prepared
to undertake extensive revisions of materials if necessary. Things that seem
perfectly obvious to the writer may not strike another person in the same
way. In commercial projects, this role is undertaken by editors and reviewers. In institutional projects, this responsibility needs to be assigned to a
member of the project team. It is also useful to involve the participation of
classroom teachers in the process to review materials as they are written.
Focus groups can also be set up consisting of five or six experienced teach-
ers who meet to discuss materials in progress and give suggestions for improving them.
Planning the writing schedule: A writing schedule can now be developed
with dates assigned for the different stages in the process. Even though aspects of the writing process are often cyclical, as noted, for practical planning purposes the different stages in the writing process need to be represented within a tentative time frame.
Piloting the materials: Piloting involves trying out materials with a representative group of learners and teachers before they are made available
for wider use in order to identify problems or faults in them that can be identified before they are used more widely. Piloting seeks to find answers to
question" such as these:
Are the materials comprehensible and the instructions clear?
Do they contain any editorial or content errors?
Is the pacing of the materials appropriate?
Do the materials do what they are supposed to do? Do they address learners' needs?
Is there sufficient quantity of practice material?
Are the materials sufficientiy interesting and engaging?
Davison (1998,184) comments:
In general, piloting provides a feel for whether the material actually "works" or not;
whether the aims of the material are fulfilled; whether it is appropriate in level,
content, and approach; whether it relates well to teachers' expectations . and stages
of development, and whether it successfully promotes learning.
The intention is to have a group of teachers and students work through the
materials in conditions as close as possible to those under which the final
version of the materials will be used. However, it is often not possible to pilot
materials in a near-final form, because art and design may await finalization of the manuscript. A practical solution is to have sections of the ma- :
terials piloted by different teachers rather than have a few teachers try out
all of the materials. This can speed up the piloting process and enable more
teachers to participate. Following the piloting, both students and teachers
complete a review sheet or questionnaire and may also be interviewed to
find out what they think about the materials. Any problems identified can
be addressed at this stage. In some cases, this may involve a substantial
rewriting of the materials.
Design and production: Design issues refer to the layout of text and art
on each page. An effective design is a major factor in the reception and usability of materials. Will art and illustrations be added to the manuscript and
270 Chapters
who will be responsible for these? Production issues relate to the printing
of the materials. "Will the materials be printed from the writers' files, reset,
photocopied, laser printed, or sent to a commercial printer?
An example of how some of these issues were addressed in a materials
development project is given in Appendix 3.
find out how materials influence the quality of teaching and interaction
that occurs in a lesson
Feedback sessions: group meetings in which teachers discuss their experience with materials
Written reports: the use of reflection sheets or other forms of written feedback in which teachers make brief notes about what worked well and what
did not work well, or give suggestions on using the materials
Reviews: written reviews by a teacher or group of teachers on their experiences with a set of materials and what they liked or disliked about them
Students' reviews: comments from students on their experience with the
materials
272 Chapters
Appendix 1 Guidelines for developing reading
activities (from Crandall, 1995)*
General guidelines for reading activities
In developing reading materials, it is helpful to consider the following general guidelines. The reading text should:
1. Encourage appropriate use of both top-down and bottom-up strategies.
1. Offer opportunities for developing speed/fluency as well as deliberateness/accuracy.
2. Include different text types, rhetorical genres, and topics.
2. Incorporate different types of reading tasks with different purposes (reading to learn, reading to do, reading to evaluate, reading for enjoyment).
3. Offer sufficient interaction with a topic or text to develop content and related vocabulary knowledge.
4. Encourage students to examine their own reading strategies and try out
different strategies for dealing with different types of texts or for reading for different purposes.
5. Introduce students to different types of directions encountered in texts
and tests.
6. Assist in identifying and building culturally variable information needed
for text interpretation, while treating positively the students' primary language and culture.
Prereading activities
1. Discussion questions and prewriting activities that help relate the reading to a student's prior experiences, activating and expanding the student's content and formal schemata, building vocabulary, and helping to
identify cultural influences that may affect reading comprehension or interpretation. Brainstonning, semantic mapping, and free writing might
all be used.
2. Prediction activities that draw attention to the organization of the text
and to identification of potential tfiemes and directions the author may
take.
3. Skimming activities that provide students with a general idea of the text
themes and the organization and development of ideas.
* From Material Writer's Guide, Isr edition, by P. Byrd 1995. Reprinted with
permission of Heinle & Heinle, an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of
Thomson Learning. Fax SOQ 730-2215.
274 Chapters
5.Journal writing, either monologic or dialogic, to encourage students to
reflect on, synthesize, or evaluate what they have read.
6.Application activities, which encourage students to apply what they have
read to some task or activity.
Q Does the course book deal with the structuring and conventions of language use above sentence level, for example, how to take part in conversations, how to structure a piece of extended writing, how to identify the main points in a reading passage? (More relevant at intermediate
and advanced levels.)
Q Are style and appropriacy dealt with? If so, is language style matched
to social situation?
Skills
Are all four skills adequately covered, bearing in mind your course aims
and syllabus requirements?
Q Is there material for integrated skills work?
Q Are reading passages and associated activities suitable for your students' levels, interests, etc.? Is there sufficient reading material?
Q Is listening material well recorded, as authentic as possible, accompanied by background information, questions, and activities which help
comprehension?
Q Is material for spoken English (dialogues, roleplays, etc.) well designed
to equip learners for real-life interactions?
Q Are writing activities suitable in terms of amount of guidance/control,
degree of accuracy, organization of longer pieces of writing (e.g., paragraphing) and use of appropriate styles?
Topic
Q Is there sufficient material of genuine interest to learners?
Q Is there enough variety and range of topic?
Q Will the topics help expand students' awareness and enrich their experience?
Q Are the topics sophisticated enough in content, yet within the learners'
language level?
Q Will your students be able to relate to the social and cultural contexts
presented in the course book?
Q Are women portrayed and represented equally with men?
Q Are other groups represented, with reference to ethnic origin, occupation, disability, etc.?
Methodology
Q What approach/approaches to language learning are taken by the course
book? Is this appropriate to the learning/teaching situation? Q What
level of active learner involvement can be expected? Does this
match your students' learning styles and expectations?
276 Chapters
278 Chapter 8
PROJECT SPECIFICATIONS
Market:
Levels:
Extent:
Colors:
Trim:
Starting point:
Ending point:
Components:
Distinguishing
features:
Other features:
Art:
Balance of skills:
Syllabus: Length
of units: Activities
per page:
Listenings per unit:
Number of units:
time per lesson:
Teacher profile:
Piloting:
50% Universities
30% Private language schools and vocational colleges
20% Junior colleges 2
96 pp. 4
8.5x11 false
beginner
intermediate
text CDs
audiocassettes
placement and achievement tests; unit quizzes;
video (tentative)
learner-centered syllabus based on student
questionnaires; student questionnaires within the
text; student-centered activities with extensive
cognitive skill development; conversation
management strategies
task-based; extensive graphic organizers; easy to use
mix of illustrations and photos; sophisticated look for
universities
75% speaking; 25% listening
topical
4 pp.; two 2-pp. lessons
2 2 20
50 minutes
80% foreign with varied levels of training *
Yes
280 Chapter 8
classroom testing. These revisions addressed exercise design, unit flow, and
interest level. The plan was to have the sample unit taught by several different teachers in Japan and to conduct focus groups (group meetings in '
which participants gave feedback on the materials) with teachers and students. The publishers had copies of the unit prepared, with rough black-andwhite art and a simple cassette recording of the listening passages.
Piloting the sample unit
The next step in the process was to have the sample lesson taught to see if
it worked, to find out whether teachers and students liked it, and to identify
what its strengths and weaknesses were. For the piloting the publishers secured the cooperation of a private university in Tokyo, which agreed to pilot the unit Both the editor and I visited the university, explained the project to the program director, and watched two teachers teach the sample unit
to two different classes of young Japanese students. Following the piloting
of the unit, the editor and I met with the teachers to discuss the unit, spoke
to the students about the material, and also met with a focus group of teachers from the same institution to get their reactions to the unit.
The general reaction to the sample unit was quite positive, although some
activities worked better than others and my overall impression of the unit
was that the idea of using four single-page lessons was not very successful.
The teachers were able to get through two pages in a 90-minute lesson, so
it would make sense to have two two-page lessons per unit rather than four
one-page lessons. The idea of having a topic-based unit with a variety of
short student-centered activities, which contained both language control
and language support, seemed to work well. I now had all the information
I needed to do a first draft of the whole of Book 1.
Writing the first draft of book 1
" -
1 now began writing a first draft of the complete manuscript of Book 1. This
included 20 five-page units, each consisting of two two-page lessons and an
extra page devoted to a project-based activity. This was sent to seven reviewers. These reviewers were identified by the publisher, and chosen on
the basis of dieir teaching background and their ability to write useful reviews. They were asked to examine the manuscript and to respond to five
questions:
1. How much variety and balance is tfiere in the material?
2. How original and distinctive is it, compared to other books available?
281
282 Chapters
Vacation) are by far the most interesting and the most in line with where the
market is right now.
The direction the manuscript needs to go in is clean more topic-based units,
more real-world content and more focus on the world of the students. As far as
the projects are concerned, this is an excellent section that will really add to the
appeal of the course, although too many of them involve poster work; we need
some more variety here. There are several key topics that are missing: dating,
travel, customs, careers, environmental issues, campus life, student lifestyles, dos
and don'ts in other countries. Some of these are more appropriate for Level 2.
Others can be the focus of existing units.
The editor and I then met to go through the reviews and to look closely at
each unit of the draft manuscript to determine what features could be incorporated into the next draft of the manuscript. The main decisions we
reached at that meeting were:
Each book would be reduced from 20 units to 15 units.
We were undecided about the fifth page in each unit, the project page. For
284 Chapter 8
References
Allright, R. 1981. Language learning through communication practice. In C. J.
Brumfit and K. Johnson (eds.), The communicative approach to language
teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 167-182.
Anew, R. 1982. The textbook as curriculum. In T. Higgs (ed.), Curriculum,
competence and the foreign language teacher. Lincolnwood, JJ-: National
Textbook Company. 11-34.
Briggs, L. (ed.). 1977. Instructional design: Principles and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Byrd, P. 1995. Material writer's guide. New York: Heinle and Heinle.
Candlin, C. 1981. The communicative teaching of English: Principles and an
exercise typology. London: Longman.
Carey, J., and L. Briggs. 1977. Teams as designers. In Briggs 1977.261-310.
Clarke, D. F. 1989. Communicative theory and its influence on materials production. Language Teaching 22(2): 73-86.
Crandall, J. A. 1993. Content-centered learning in the United States. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13: 111-126.
Crandall, J. 1995. The why, what, and how of ESL reading instruction: Some
guidelines for writers of ESL reading textbooks. In Byrd 1995.79-94.
Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Heinemann.
Davison, P. 1998. Piloting - a publisher's view. In Tomlinson 1998.149-189.
Dudley-Evans, T., and M. St John. 1998. Developments in English for specific
purposes. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Grellet, F. 1981. Developing reading skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Haines, D. 1996. Survival of the fittest The Bookseller (February): 26-34.
Peacock, M. 1997. The effect of authentic materials on the motivation of EFL
learners. ELT Journal 51(2): 144-153.
Phillips, M. K-, and C. Shettlesworth. 1978. How to arm your students: A consideration of two approaches to providing materials for ESP. In English for
Specific Purposes. ELT Documents 101. Londonf ETTC Publications,
British Council. 23-35.
Raimes, A. 1988. The texts for teaching writing. In B. Das (ed.). Materials for
language teaching and learning. Singapore: SEAMEO RELC. 41-58.
Richards, J. C. 1995. Easier said than done: An insider's account of a textbook
project In A. Hidalgo, D. Hall, and G. Jacobs (eds.). Getting started: Materials
writers on materials writing. Singapore: SEAMEO RELC. 95-135. Richards, J.
C. 1990. The language teaching matrix. New York: Cambridge
University Press. Rowntree, D. 1997. Making materials-based learning work.
London: Kogan Page.
9 Approaches to evaluation
A recurring theme throughout this book has been reflective analysis of the
practices that are involved in planning and teaching a language course. This
has involved an examination of the context in which the program occurs, of
the goals, syllabus, and structure of a course, and how these can be planned
and developed, as well as analysis of the teaching and learning that takes
place during the course. The focus throughout has been analysis of the different factors that determine the successful design and implementation of
language programs and language teaching materials. This overall and interlinked system of elements (i.e., needs, goals, teachers, learners, syllabuses, materials, and teaching) is known as the second language curriculum. However, once a curriculum is in place, a number of important
questions still need to be answered. These include:
Is die curriculum achieving its goals?
What is happening in classrooms and schools where it is being implemented?
Are those affected by the curriculum (e.g., teachers, administrators, students, parents, employers) satisfied with the curriculum?
Have those involved in developing and teaching a language course done a
satisfactory job?
Does the curriculum compare favorably with others of its kind?
Curriculum evaluation is concerned with answering questions such as these.
It focuses on collecting information about different aspects of a language
program in order to understand how the program works^ and how successfully it works, enabling different kinds of decisions to be made about the
program, such as whether the program responds to learners' needs, whether
further teacher training is required for teachers working in the program, or
whether students are learning sufficiently from it.
Evaluation may focus on many different aspects of a language program,
such as:
curriculum design: to provide insights about the quality of program plan
ning and organization
286
the syllabus and program content: for example, how relevant and engaging
it was, how easy or difficult, how successful tests and assessment procedures were
classroom processes: to provide insights about the extent to which a program is being implemented appropriately
materials of instruction: to provide insights about whether specific materials are aiding student learning
the teachers: for example, how they conducted their teaching, what their
perceptions were of the program, what they taught
teacher training: to assess whether training teachers have received is adequate
the students: for example, what they learned from the program, their perceptions of it, and how they participated in it
monitoring of pupil progress: to conduct formative (in-progress) evaluations of student learning
learner motivation: to provide insights about the effectiveness of teachers
in aiding students to achieve goals and objectives of the school
the institution: for example, what administrative support was provided,
what resources were used, what communication networks were employed
learning environment: to provide insights about the extent to which students are provided with a responsive environment in terms of their educational needs
staff development: to provide insights about the extent to which the school
system provides the staff opportunities to increase their effectiveness
decision making: to provide insights about how well die school staffprincipals, teachers, and others - make decisions that result in learner
benefits
(Sanders 1992; Weir and Roberts 1994)
Since the 1960s, curriculum evaluation has become of increasing interest to
educators and curriculum planners. Funding for national curriculum projects in many parts of the world was often linked to a requirement to provide
evaluation reports that demonstrated accountability, that helped guide improvement of ongoing projects, and that documented what happened in curriculum projects. Increasingly since then, schools, program administrators,
and teachers have had to be accountable for the funds they received or for
the programs they have been responsible for, and this has created the need
for an understanding of the nature of curriculum evaluation. The scope of
evaluation has moved from a concern with test results to me need to collect
information and make judgments about all aspects of the curriculum, from
planning to implementation (Kewings and Dudley-Evans 1996).
288 -Chapter 9
Purposes of evaluation
Weir and Roberts (1994) distinguish between two major purposes for language program evaluation, program accountability, and program development, Accountability refers to the extent to which those involved in a program are answerable for the quality of their work. Accountability-oriented
evaluation usually examines the effects of a program or project at significant end points of an educational cycle and is usually conducted for the benefit of an external audience or decision maker. Development-oriented evaluation, by contrast, is designed to improve the quality of a program as it is
being implemented. It may involve staff who are involved in the program
as well as others who are not and may have a teacher-development focus
(Weir and Roberts 1994, 5). The different purposes for evaluation are referred to us formative, illuminative, and summative evaluation.
Formative evaluation
Evaluation may be carried out as part of the process of program development in- order to find out what is working well, and what is not, and what
problems need to be addressed. This type of evaluation is generally known
as formative evaluation. It focuses on ongoing development and improvement of the program. Typical questions that relate to formative evaluation
are:
Has enough time been spent on particular objectives?
Have the placement tests placed students at the right level in the program?
equally in them?
What type of error-correction strategies do teachers use?
290 Chapter 9
What kinds of decisions do teachers employ while teaching?
How do teachers use lesson plans when teaching?
- What type of teacher-student interaction patterns typically occur in
classes?
What reading strategies do students use with different kinds of texts?
How do students understand the teacher's intentions during a lesson?
Which students in a class are most or least active?
Example 1: A teacher is teaching a course on reading skills and has developed a course which focuses on a wide variety of reading skills, such as
skimming, scanning, reading for details, surveying a text, critical reading,
and vocabulary development. All of the skills receive regular focus throughout the course. The teacher is interested in finding out what the students perceive to be die main point of the course. Students complete a short questionnaire at different times during the course in order to describe their
perceptions of what the course is seeking to achieve. At times diere is a different perception on the part of students as to die purpose of different activities, or even of whole lessons. After reflecting on this phenomenon, me
teacher comes to understand that learners' perceptions of a course may reflect what they are most interested in or what they feel they need most help
with at a particular point in time.
Example 2: A teacher is mterested in learning more about teacher-student
interaction in her own classroom. She invites a colleague to visit her class
and to carry out a series of classroom observations. The observer is given
the task of noting how often the teacher interacts with different students in
die class and the kind of interaction that occurs. This involves noting the
kinds of questions the teacher asks and die extent to which she acknowledges and follows up on students' questions. From die data collected by die
observer, die teacher is able to assess the extent to which she or me students"
control classroom interaction and gets a better understanding of.how she
uses questions to "scaffold" lesson content
Example 3: A teacher wants to find out more about how students carry out
group work and whetiier he is sufficiendy preparing students for groupwork tasks. He arranges to record different groups of students carrying out
a group-work task and reviews the recordings to find out die extent to which
students participate in group discussions and die kind of language tiiey use.
On reviewing the recordings, me teacher is pleased to note that die strategy
of assigning each member of a group a different role during group tasks -
Summative evaluation
A third approach to evaluation is die type of evaluation with which most
teachers and program administrators are familiar and which seeks to make
292 Chapter 9
Approaches to evaluation
293
used to measure achievement. Such tests might be unit tests given at the end
of each unit of teaching materials, class tests or quizzes devised by teachers and administered at various stages throughout the course, or as formal
exit tests designed to measure the extent to which objectives have been
achieved. Weir (1995) points out that achievement tests can have an important washback effect on teaching and learning. They can help in the making
of decisions about needed changes to a program, such as which objectives
'need more attention or revision. Brindley (1989) reports, however, that in
programs he studied in Australia, teachers preferred to rely on informal
methods of ongoing assessment rather than formal exit tests. About the use
of informal methods, he comments:
This does not seem to be sufficiendy explicit to meet the expectations and
requirements of either administrators or learners for more formal information on
learners' achievement of a course or a unit____The informal methods of ongoing
assessment provided by teachers do not provide the kind of explicit information on
achievement required by learners and administrators. (Brindley 1989,43)
Weir (1995) argues for the need for better measures of sumraative evaluation and for the development of progress-sensitive performance tests for use
during courses.
Measures of acceptability: A course might lead to satisfactory achievement of its objectives and good levels of performance on exit tests yet still be
rated negatively by teachers or students. Alternatively, if everyone liked a
course and spoke enthusiastically of it, could this be more important tfian the
fact that half the students failed to reach the objectives? Acceptability can be
determined by assessments of teachers and students. Reasons for a course
being considered acceptable or unacceptable might relate to such factors as
time-tabling, class size, choice of materials, or teachers' teaching styles.
Retention rate or reenrollment rate: A measure of a course's effectiveness that may be important from an institution's point of view is the extent
to which students continue in the course throughout its duration and the percentage of students who reenroll for another course at the end. If there is a
significant dropout rate, is this true of odier courses in the institution and
the community or is it a factor of a given course only?
Efficiency of the course: Another measure of the success of a course is
how straightforward the course was to develop and implement. This may be
a reflection of the number of problems that occurred during the course, the
time spent on planning and course development, the need for specialized
materials and teacher training, and the amount of time needed for consultations and meetings.
294 Chapter 9.
Examples of different approaches to determine program effectiveness
are given in the appendix.
appropriate to the purpose of the evaluation and the context under review
These principles raise the following issues in the evaluation process.
Students
What did fleam?
How well did I do compare to others?
How well will I rate this course?
How will this help me in the future?
Do I need another course?
Teachers How well did I teach? What did my
students leam? Were my students satisfied widi
the course? How useful were the materials and
course work? How effective was the course
organization?
Curriculum developers
Is the design of the course and materials appropriate? What
aspects of the course need replacing or revising? Do teachers
and students respond favorably to the course? Do teachers
need additional support with the course?
Administrators
Was the time frame of the course appropriate?
Were the management and monitoring of the course successful in identifying and rectifying problems? Were clients' expectations met? Were testing
and assessment procedures adequate? Were resources made use of?
Sponsors
Was the cost of the course justified?
Did the course deliver what was promised?
Was the course well managed?
Is the reporting of the course adequate?
Shaw and Dowsett (1986, 66) suggest that three audiences are identifiable for all summative evaluation of language courses:
other teachers in the program, for course design and planning purposes
the curriculum
296 Chapter 9
In planning an evaluation, these different kinds of audiences need to be carefully identified and the results of the evaluation presented in a way that is
appropriate for each audience.
Participants in the evaluation process
Two types of participants are typically involved in evaluation-insiders and
outsiders. Insiders refers to teachers, students, and anyone else closely involved in the development and implementation of the program. Formative
evaluation, for example, is often carried out by teachers who can monitor
a course as it develops to check the extent to which it is working, what difficulties are encountered, how effective the materials are, and what modifications would ensure the smooth running of the program. Students are often key participants in the summative evaluation of the program, providing
evidence of their gains in language proficiency and completing evaluations
on the way the program was taught and the relevance of what they have
learned to their needs. An important factor in successful program evaluations is often the involvement of key insiders in the process of designing
and carrying out the evaluation, because as a consequence, they will have
a greater degree of commitment to acting on its results. Outsiders are
others who are not involved in the program and who may be asked to give
an objective view of aspects of the program. They may be consultants,
inspectors, or administrators whose job it is to supplement the teachers'
perceptions of what happened in a course with independent observation
and opinion.
Quantitative and qualitative evaluation
Quantitative measurement refers to the measurementof something that can
be expressed numerically. Many tests are designed to collect information
that can be readily counted and presented in terms of frequencies, rankings,
or percentages. Other sources of quantitative information are checklists,
surveys, and self-ratings. Quantitative data seek to collect information from
a large number of people on specific topics and can generally be analyzed
statistically so that certain patterns and tendencies emerge. The information
collected can be analyzed fairly simply because subjective decisions are
not usually involved. Traditionally, quantitative data are regarded as "rigorous" or conforming to scientific principles of data collection, though the
limitations of quantitative information are also recognized, hence the need
to complement such information with qualitative information.
298 Chapter 9
Institutional documents: anything that is available about the school or institution, hiring policy, job descriptions, needs analyses that have been conducted, reports of previous courses.
Course reviews: a written account of a course, prepared by the teacher
or teachers who taught the course. This should be both descriptive and reflective. It should be an account of how the course progressed, what'problems occurred, the perceived strengths and weaknesses of the course, and
suggestions for the future. A well-written review is a useful resource for
others who will teach the course and also provides a record of the course.
Weir and Roberts (1994, 12) comment: "One shudders to think how many
times the wheel has been reinvented in ELT programs and projects around
the world. Where is the collective memory of decades of projects? Where
does one go to learn from the mistakes and successes_of similar projects in
the past?"
implementation .
The purpose of evaluation is to promote review, reflection, and revision of
the curriculum based on careful compilation of information from a variety
of different sources. In order to make decisions based on the evaluation, it
is first necessary to review the process of evaluation to ensure that the evaluation was adequately designed. Questions that help determine this are:
Scope: Does the range of information collected include all the significant aspects of the program being evaluated?
Audience: Does the information collected adequately serve the needs of
all the intended audiences?
Reliability: Has the information been collected in such a way that the
same findings would be obtained by otfiers?
Objectivity: Have attempts been made to make sure that there is no bias
in the collecting and processing of information?
Representativeness: Does the information collected accurately describe
the program?
Timeliness: Is the information provided, timely enough to be of use to the
audiences for the evaluation?
Ethical considerations: Does the evaluation follow accepted ethical standards, e.g., such that confidentiality of information is guaranteed and information obtained in a professional and acceptable manner? (Stufflebeam,
McCormick, Brinkerhoff, and Nelson 1985)
Once it has been determined that the evaluation meets acceptable standards of adequacy, it is necessary to decide how to make use of the information obtained. The following processes are normally involved:
commercial course
student records, such as information collected throughout die course based
300 Chapter 9
on course work or continuous assessment. This .information may be used
to arrive at a final score or grade for a student without using a final test.
Advantages: Tests can provide a direct measure of achievement, particularly if they are based on student performance, that is, they are criterionreferenced.
Disadvantages; It is not always easy to be sure that changes in learning
as measured by tests are a direct result of teaching or are linked to other factors. And if there is poor performance on achievement tests, this does not
identify the cause of the problem. Is it the teacher, the materials, the students, or the course? Further investigation is normally needed. Student evaluation should not be confused with course evaluation. In addition, sound
tests - tests that reflect principles of reliability and validity - are difficult to
construct
Comparison of two approaches to a course
Two different versions of a course might be taught and the results as measured by student achievement compared. The comparative approach seeks to
compare the effects of two or more different teaching conditions. It measures the efficiency of the curriculum by comparing the relative effectiveness
of two different ways of teaching it
Advantages: The comparative approach seeks to control all relevant factors and to investigate factors rigorously.
Disadvantages: This approach usually imposes artificial constraints on
the teacher. One teacher, for example, might be required always to give explicit error correction and another to give only indirect error correction. But
because of human factors, it is very difficult to maintain these kinds of differences. It is usually impossible to control all relevant variables and the results are therefore usually inconclusive,
Interviews
Interviews with teachers and students can be used to get their views on any
aspect of the course. Normally, structured interviews provide more useful
information than unstructured interviews.
Advantages: In-depth information can be obtained on specific questions.
Disadvantages: Interviews are very time-consuming and only a sample
of teachers or students can normally be interviewed in depth; hence the representativeness of their views may be questionable.
302 Chapter 9
Disadvantages: Not all of the information collected may be relevant.
Some information may be impressionistic and represent only the teacher's
point of view.
Student logs
Students might be asked to keep an account of what happened during a
course, how niiich time they spent on different assignments, how much time
they allocated to homework and other out-of-class activities.
Advantages: Provides the students* perspective on the course and gives
insights that the teacher may not be aware of.
Disadvantages: Requires the cooperation of students and time commitment. Students may not see the benefit of such an activity.
Case study
A teacher may conduct a case study of a course or some aspect of a course.
For example, the teacher might document how he or she made use of lesson plans throughout a course, or trace the progress of a particular learner.
Advantages: Case studies provide detailed information about aspects of
a course, and over time the accumulated information from case studies can
provide a rich picture of different dimensions of a course.
Disadvantages: The information collected may not be typical or representative, and case studies are time-consuming to prepare.
Student evaluations
Students can provide written or oral feedback on a course both during the
course and after it has been taught, commenting on features such as the
teacher's approach, the materials used, and their relevance to the students'
needs.
*-Advantages: Student evaluations are easy to obtain, provide feedback on
a wide range of topics, and enable large numbers of learners to be involved.
Disadvantages: Information obtained may be subjective and impressionistic and is sometimes difficult to interpret or generalize.
Audio- or video-recording
Lessons can be recorded to provide examples of different teaching styles
and lesson formats.
Advantages: Recordings can provide a rich account of teaching in real
time and record information that is difficult to document in other ways.
Procedures
Pre/Post: questionnaires
interviews observations
review of lesson plans
Teacher abilities
Observations/videotapes
Self-assessment quizzes
Pre/Post: questionnaires
interviews observations
review of lesson plans
Teacher practices
Record of activities
Lesson plan reviews
Observations/videotapes
Interviews
Questionnaires
Student behaviors
Student interviews
Student questionnaires
Teacher logs
304
Chapter 9
Student behaviors
(cont.)
Student learnings
Observation
Teacher interviews
Chapter/unit tests
Standardized test
Teacher logs Student
assignments
Comparison of present term grades to previous
grades (or grades of another group of students)'
Student interviews Teacher questionnaires
Student questionnaires Teacher interviews
306 Chapter 9
fied, with recommendations for modifications in different aspects of the
program as well as more school-based support for some aspects of the program.
The second reports focused on the things students appeared to be learning and problems teachers had reported as well as suggestions from teachers and schools on how aspects of the program could be fine-tuned. Comments on the appropriateness of the teachers' methodology were also
included.
The third report commented on the extent to which the teachers were reflecting principles and practices that had been emphasized in the teacher
training that all teachers had received. Problems teachers identified were
summarized as input to future teacher-training sessions.
client satisfaction
teacher competence
teacher satisfaction
adequacy of placement and achievement tests
adequacy of course curriculum and materials
adequacy of teaching methods .
efficiency of course development and delivery
adequacy of administrative structures and support
course marketing and financial matters
Approaches to evaluation
307
described how and why the evaluation was conducted, an analysis of the
strengths and weaknesses mat were identified, and recommendations for
follow-up action.
A report for coordinators and teachers with curriculum development responsibilities outlining findings in relation to course offerings, tests, materials, and teaching.
308 Chapter 9
A report for classroom teachers on the main findings in relation to teachers, teaching, and students. This report served as the focus of working
groups who were given the task of recommending changes in course delivery and other areas.
A copy of all the reports for senior managemenL This information was to
be used to formulate a strategic plan for the next 5 years' operation'of the
institute.
Author index
Aicorso, C. 223-24
Alexander. L. G., 9. 14.27.38
Allen. P.. 32 Allen.W.S.,9
AHright.R.,252 Apple. L.,
118 Anew, R., 257,258
Auerbach. E. R 55.119,123
Axbey.S.. 178
Bailey, K.M.. 217
Banks, J., 119
Bean.W.C.,90
Berwick, R., 51.62
Block, D., 291
Bloomfield. L 25
Bobbin. F.. 115-16.129
Bongaerts.T.,6-7,27, 93
Breen,M.,217
Briggs,L.,41,263
Brindley, G 51.54. 66,140-41,223.224-25
293
Brinkerhoff,R-.51.293
Brinton, D-, 158 Britten, D.,
240-43 Brown, H.D..
221,232-35" Brown. J.
D 123 Bruner. J 135
Bruno, A. V., 106
Buckingham. A., 156
Bumea.L.,55.119 Burns, A.,
140,163.185-86 Burt, M., 12
Byrd, P., 257
Candlin,C..267
Carey, J., 268
Carkin, S., 220
Carter, L., 12
Chancerel, J. L., 33
Chiu.R.,30
Clandinin, D. J.. 56-57
Clark, J. L., 42-43,90.114-18
Clarke, D. F-. 252.253-54
Close. R. A.. 9
ColUngham, M-. 119
Comenius, 13
Connelly. E. M., 56-57
Crandall, J. A.. 128,267.272-74
Crozet, C, 119
Cunningsworth, A., 251.258-59.274-76
Dorian, S 14,23,28-29
Davidson. J.. 199-201,213,219-20
Davison, P.. 269
Derwing, B., 32,34
Dewey. J., 117
Docking. R., 129
Dowseo, G-, 59.295-96
Dudley-Evans, T., 251-52.259,260.262,
287
Dulay, H.. 12
Eisner, E.W., 113 E!
ley,W.,58.294 Eskey. D..
205-6 Ewer. J. R-, 2930.43,45 Extra. G-, 67.27,93
Faucett. L_ 8 Feez.S157,163,164 Rndlay.CA.,
139 FrankeLM. A.. 12526 Frcire,R. 116-17, US,
119 Fries, C, 9,14
Glaser. R.. 132
Gravatc. B.. 57-58, 63-64.80
311
Inglis. E, 40
Lado, R-, 13,25 Langc D., 2526 Latorrc, G., 29.45 Lawron,
D-, 39-40 Lcidccker.J. K.. 106
Leung, C. 205,209,217 Lewis,
M-, 63-64,80 Li, D., 5. 10.73
Liddicoac A. J., 119 Linn, R.,
132 Linse, C. T., 52-53 LiskinGasparro, J. E., 147
Thorndike, E. U, 8 Tollefson,J,.
129. 131-32 Tomlinson. B 263
Trim. J. L. M., 179-82 Tyler.
R.. 39.40
Uhrmacher.P.B.. 115,119
Van Ek, J. L.. 27,38,179-32
Van Els, T-, 6^7. 13-14,27, 93
Van Os, C, 6-7,27,93
Walter, A., 135
Weir, C. 147, 176-77.287.288,293.294,
298,303 Werner, P.,
257 WeschcM., 158 West, M.,
6.8,17-18 West, W.. 16 White,
R-. 23-24 Whitla, E., 135
Whitney, N., 156 Widdowson,
H-, 32 Wilkbs, D. A., 9,1415.36-37 Willis. D, 154
Willis, J.. 154
Yalden.J.,38, 160
Subject index
314
goals
assumptions concerning, 112
development of. 113-20
of needs analysis, 90
gradation, 10-15
approaches to, 13
cyclical, 13-14
linear, 13-14
principle of, 10-11
spiral, 13-14
grammar
as basic unit of language, 15
in first-year English course, 178
in materials development program, 265
grammar selection, 4,9-15 Grammar
Translation Method
(1800-1900), 3 grammatical
competence, 36 grammatical syllabus,
25,153-54
criticism of, 153-54
development of, 10-15,16,153
sample, 20-21 Guide to Patterns and Usage
in English (Palmer), 14
help lines, for teachers, 214
identification of problems, 219
ideology of the curriculum, 113-20
academic rationalism, 114-15
cultural pluralism, 119-20
teamer-centeredness, 102,117-18
social and economic efficiency, 11517
social reconstructionism, 118-19
IELTS, 146-47,173-75,299 illuminative
evaluation, 289-91
examples of, 290-91
questions in, 289-90,291 _
implementation, of evaluation process,
298-99 informationgap tasks, 162 information
texts, 163 institutional
factors .
examples showing impact of, 98-99
human side of, 97
list of, 93
nature of, 97
physical side of, 98
in situation analysis, 97-99
instructional blocks, 165-67
instructional materials, 251-85
authentic, 252-54
observation (com.):
in needs analysis, 61
of teachers, 218-19,232-35 Office of
Education, U.S., 129 operative model of
teaching, 215 opinion exchange tasks,
162 organic model of organizational
culture,
200-201,215
organizational culture, 198-201
mechanistic model, 199-200,215
organic model, 200-201,215
organizational framework, 204
orientation, new teacher, 212
part to whole sequencing, 151 Passages
(Richard and Sandy), 187-94 Passpon
(Buckingham and Whitney), 156
pedagogy critical, 118-19 tasks of, 162
in textbook evaluation, 259 peer
evaluation, 222,246-48 peer observation,
218-19,232-35 persuasive texts, 163
Philippines refugee resettlement training
program, 131-32 political dimension, of
needs analysis, 56 prerequisite learning,
sequencing by, 151 problem-solution structure,
31-32,162,215 procedures for conducting
needs analysis, 59-63 curriculum evaluation,
299-304 in syllabus framework, 163 process
approach to teaching, 215 process objectives,
135-37 defined, 133,135 examples of, 13537 professional development, opportunities for,
206-7
proficiency scale, 147
program evaluation, see curriculum evaluation
program factors, in textbook evaluation, 256,259
progressivism, 117 project factors examples
showing impact of, 96-97 list of, 95 nature of,
95 in situation analysis, 95-97
qualitative evaluation, 297
quality assurance, 2034
320
Subject index