PAGANISEMPER

(Date,volume,etc.)
AtanaPotnia:TheSnakeGoddessofNeolithicGreece
FranklinAnnis,Ph.D.(NewYorkUniversity:NewYork,NY.)
The Minan snakegoddess was at last unearthed by Oxford scholar, and British
archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans (18511941) during the final months of his 1903
excavationatCrete.HernamemeansImmortalLady,1andsheappearstohavebeen
regarded as a GreatGoddess worshipped under many names, and numerous
personifications. Asthesnakegoddess,sheiscommonlydepictedasabarebreasted
femalewithserpentscoiledaboutherwrists,aheaddresssurmountedbyalioncub,as
wellasaskirtwithsevenflouncesandanapronbearingalatticemotifthatmayassociate
thegoddesswithhumaninternmentortheUnderworldwithintheNeolithicpsyche.2He
discoveredthepartialremainsofthisfaencefigurine(datedto20001800 BCE)atthe
Knossoscomplexamidacacheofotherrelicsfromaroomhelateridentifiedasthe
CentralShrine.Althoughthebottomhalfoftheimagewaslost,Evansreconstituted
itfromthenearbyremainsofanotherfigurinewhosetorsohadbeeneffacedbytime,
despitethefactthatthelatterwasclearlyholdingaballoftwineinonehandratherthana
snake(perhapsidentifyingthestatuetteasaprotoHellenicAriadn).Bethatasitmay,it
wasthepriorsmatronlybosomthatconvincedEvanshehaddiscoveredamother
goddessofgreatsignificance.3
Theimageofthesnakewieldingfemaleisarguablythemostubiquitousfindthroughout
thearchaeologicalrecordofMinanCrete.Infact,ithasbeenobservedthattheapparent
ritualgesture adopted by these figures recall a folkdance remembered by the local
inhabitantsoftheisleupuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury CEthiswouldassociateher
cultwithceremonialsnakedances. Hence,itisnotsurprisingthattheserpentshould
haveacquiredaveneratedstatus. Theywereroutinelyhousedattemplesites where
inscribedclaytubesorringsmayhavebeenusedtofeedthem.While,itwasprobably
deemedasocioreligioustabutoharmoneinanyway.Thisobservationmaybeechoed
throughoutclassicalGreece,whoseinhabitantskeptserpentsthroughouttheirhomesto
feastonvermin.Moreover,AtanaPotniamaybearanintrinsicconnectionwithgoddess
worshipthroughoutPhilistine,forwenoteinthearchaeologicalrecordsnaketubesthat
bearanearidenticalresemblancetothosefoundatKnossos,particularlyintheworship
ofAshtoreth.
Thenameofthegoddess,whichhascomedowntousfromLinearBtablets
documentingaprotoGreekscript,furtheridentifiesourLadyasLaburinthoioPotnia,or
the Mistress of the Labyrinth, indicating that she was an Initiatrix who received
1PotniadenotespowerandauthoritythroughoutIndoEuropeanlinguistics,thoughitisusually
translatedintheEnglishlanguageasMistressorLady.
2Castleden,Rodney(1990).Minoans:LifeinBronzeAgeCrete.Routledge:pp.129;LewisWilliams,
DavidandDavidPearce(2005).InsidetheNeolithicMind:Consciousness,CosmosandtheRealmofthe
Gods.Thames&Hudson.
3MacGillivray,JosephAlexander(2000).Minotaur:SirArthurEvansandtheArchaeologyofMinoan
Myth.HillandWing:NewYork,NY.pp.223.

oblationsofhoney,forweobservethesprawlingtempleplansoftheKnossoscomplex
wherelabyrinthineinitiationceremoniesandritualordealsmighthavebeenconducted.
Furthermore,shemaybearcertainconnotationswiththeritesormythofAriadnwho
giftedherfleetingparamour,Theseus,withaskeinoftwinewhenhenavigatedthegreat
labyrinthofMinosinordertoslaytheMinotaur.Thisisprobablyalateintimationofher
initiationritesmirroredcenturieslaterintheworksofHomer.Asidefromservingasthe
templewhereherMysterieswerecelebratedwhichmayhaveinvolvedecstaticdancing
inordertoengageatrancestateofconsciousness,thelabyrinthmayhavepossessed
anotherfunctionalignedwiththepsychicpassageofthesoulthroughlife,death,andto
rebirth.4SuchaparallelwasobservedbytheinhabitantsofMinanCreteeachmomenta
sacredserpentslougheditsskininanactofperpetualrejuvenation,anactthatbears
obviousassociationswiththegoddesswhosesacrednameisrenderedbyancienttongues
throughoutNeolithicCreteastheImmortalLady.
Bethatasitmay,despitethesurmountableevidenceEvanshadbroughttolight
concerninganequalitariansocietyifnot matrifocal toanextenthewas(likemany
scholarstoday5)unabletoconceiveofanyculturenotentirelycenteredupondivinely
ordainedpatriarchy.6

4Baring,AnneandJulesCashford(1991).TheMythoftheGoddess:EvolutionofanImage.Penguin
Arkana:NewYork,NY.pp.135.
5eg.CynthiaEllersTheMythofMatriarchalPreHistory:Whyaninventedpastwillnevergivewomen
afuture.Thisauthorhas,apparently,constructedherownstrawmanargumentwhichsheceremoniously
wrestlestothegrounditbearsnorelationshiptoleadingscholasticwritingsonNeolithicreligionand
cultureasexpressedbyProfessorsMarijaGimbutasorMiriamRobbinsDexter,etal.,saveforthe
extremistfantasiespositedbycertainNewAgeauthors.Essentiallyanywhiffofapossibleequalitarian
socialstructureisthoughtlesslydismissedasamerecodewordforfullblownmatriarchy;whileevery
counterargument,nomatterhowspecious,istreatedasfactualinoppositiontotheallegedmythsthis
textclaimstoexpose.ThereaderisreferredtothefollowingpolemicalcritiquewrittenbyHarvard
educatedfreelancescholar,MaxDash:http://www.suppressedhistories.net/articles/eller.html.
6Minotaur,op.cit.pp.224.

TheTotemsofSpring:ACollectionofFolkLore
JessicaMills,MA.(UniversityofChicago:Chicago,Ill.)
BADGER:InthosedistrictsofEuropewherethebearwasnolongerplentifuloritscaves
wererarethebadger anotherhibernatingmammal wasgenerallychoseninitsstead.7
Asaconsequence,itwasthecustomtoobservethehabitsofthebadgeron2February
throughoutGermany,inviewofthebeliefthatifthedaywassunnythanthecreaturewas
thoughttoscurrybackintoitsholeforseveralmoredayssignalingthatWinterhadnot
yetrelinquisheditsicyholdontheland;however,ifthecreatureobservedthattherewas
stillsnowonthegrounditwouldthenproceedtowalkabroad.8
BEAR:FrancealsoretainsacustomaryanalogwheretheonsetofSpringwasreckonedby
theappearanceofthebear,thearrivalofwhichprofessedafairplantingseason;ifthesun
shoneonCandlemasDay,however,thebearwouldreturntoitsdenforaperiodofforty
days. EvenamongthemedievalFrenchpopulationthebeliefpersistedthatitwasthe
bears own flatulence associated with dehibernation that announced the arrival of
Spring.9 WithincertaindistrictsofcontemporaryGreecethebearwascelebratedon2
February at Crete in a festival honoring the Madonna of the Bear (Panagia
Arkoudiotissa)inthesacredcaveofAcrotiri(Arkoudia,TheCaveoftheSheBear)
which seems to have displaced a local cult to Artemis after Christianity officially
outlawedtheOldGods.MalebearsmayalsohavebeensacrificedintokenofSprings
renewal;indeed,theIndoEuropeanrootwordsforbear(bher)signifyanestablished
IndoEuropean lexicon centered upon a quite ancient concept revolving around the
harbinger ofnew life, particularly ones offspring,and it is foundin such terms as
*beran (tobearchildren), *burdh (birth),and *barman (child).10 Thismaybe
rememberedintheBritishfolkbeliefthatabearcubemergedasaformlessmassofflesh
untilthemotherbearlickedhernewborn,sculptingitsfamiliarfeatures.11

7Hand,WaylandD.,FrankC.BrownandNewmanIveyWhite(1964).PopularBeliefsand
SuperstitionsfromNorthCarolina.DukeUniversityPress:pp.210;AllAroundtheYear,pp.58.
8AllAroundtheYear,Ibid.;Tucker,Elizabeth.GroundhogDay.AmericanFolklore:An
Encyclopedia,ed.JanHaroldBrevard(1998).Taylor&Francis:pp.351.
9Cohen,HennigandTristramPotterCoffin(1991).TheFolkloreofAmericanHolidays.GaleResearch:
pp.65;Glosecki,StephenO.(2002).Bear[Ursusarctosarctos].MedievalFolklore:AGuidetoMyths,
Legends,Tales,Beliefs,andCustoms.CarlLindahl,JohnMcNamera,andJohnLindow(eds.).Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.32;GroundhogDay.AmericanFolklore,pp.351.
10Gimbutas,Marija(1989).TheLanguageoftheGoddess:UnearthingtheHiddenSymbolsofWestern
Civilization.Harper&Row:pp.116;Gimbutas,Marija(1999).TheLivingGoddesses.Editedand
SupplementedbyMiriamRobbinsDexter.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.144;Kirsch,Jonathan
(2005).GodAgainsttheGods:TheHistoryoftheWarBetweenMonotheismandPolytheism.Penguin
Compass:pp.2734.
11Newall,Venetia(1971).DiscoveringtheFolkloreofBirdsandBeasts.ShirePublications:pp.12.

A further signifier of Springs onset was the eventide appearance of Arcturus, the
brighteststarintheconstellationofUrsaMajor(TheGreatBear),whichwasvisible
alongtheeasternhorizonshortlyaftermidFebruary. 12 Accordingtonativelorethis
constellationwasonceKallisto,oneofArtemissfaithfulattendantswhowasrapedby
Zeuspossiblyinthelikenessofthedivinehuntress.Kallistohidherpregnancyfromthe
eyesofArtemisuntilonedayshewasspiedbythegoddesswithherroundbellywhile
bathing.Feelingbetrayedbythenymph,Kallistowassummarilytransformedintoabear,
thecultanimalofArtemis. Sheeventuallydeliveredherson,Arcas,andremainedthe
vigilantcompanionofherpatrongoddess.However,onedayshewonderedintoasacred
enclosure dedicated to Zeus which was prohibited on penalty of death. The local
ArcadianspursuedheraccompaniedbyKallistosgrownson,whenZeusintervenedand
mercifullysetheramongstthestars topreservehissacredorderandlaw.13 Thissame
constellation, more popularly known as The Big Dipper, was, in medieval Britain,
referredtoasArthursPlow,whichisperhapsalsosuggestiveofthismammalasone
proposedinterpretationfortheetymologyofArthursnameisfromtheCelticnounart,
meaningbear;furthermore,theneighboringconstellationnowknownasBoteswas,
duringthissametimeperiod,thoughttobeaheavenlyHerdsmanorPlowman.14
The festival of Christmastide was officially adjourned on Plough Monday (the first
MondayfollowingEpiphanyon6January)whenthecommonploughwasfetchedfrom
thelocalchurchandconsecratedbytheparishpriestforthepoortoemploy.Duringthe
postmedievalperiodthisploughwasthendecorated;youngfarmboyswouldalsodon
themselvesinribbonsthatwereattachedtothePloughinavillageprocessionledbya
mandressedasanoldwomanorwitchwithaFoolasacompanionwhowould
brandishastickorawhip.Thispairwouldbegformoneythatwascollectedtokeepthe
PloughLightcontinuallyburningattheparishchurch. Theselightswerebeeswax
candlesthatwerelitinordertoinvokedivineblessingsontotheplough,thefestivities,
andthecommunityfields.Anyrefusaltopaytheensemble,however,mightresultinthe
tenantsorlandlordshavingtheirownyardsplowedupinrecompense.Alternatively,the
ploughwasalso,onoccasion,carriedaboutabonfirethatintimatedthedomestichearth
flameinordertolinkthefertilityofthesoilandagrariancustomswiththefunctionsof
the mistress of the house in employing those resources of the Harvest season. The
Plough Monday rituals commenced the onset of the English agricultural year when
plowingthefieldsforSpringsowingoccurred. 15TheultimateoriginsofPloughMonday
12Hesiod(trans.ApostolosN.Athanassakis,1983).Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield.TheJohns
HopkinsUniversityPress:pp.81,102n.56470.
13Condos,Theony(trans.1997).StarMythsoftheGreeksandRomans:ASourcebook.PhanesPress:
pp.197204.
14Ashe,Geoffrey(1985).TheDiscoveryofKingArthur.Macmillan:pp.150;Miller,Michelle(2000).
PlowandPlowing.MedievalFolklore,pp.32223;Pickering,David(1999).Bear.TheCassell
DictionaryofFolklore.Cassell:pp.267.
15Baker,Margaret(2007).DiscoveringChristmasCustomsandFolklore:AGuidetoSeasonalRites.
ShirePublications:pp.114;Hazlitt,W.Carew(1905).PloughLight.FaithsandFolkLoreofthe
BritishIsles,vol.1.BenjaminBlom:pp.495;Op.cit.,PloughMonday,pp.4956;Hutton,Ronald
(1994).TheRiseandFallofMerryEngland:TheRitualYear14001700.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.
1617;Hutton,Ronald(1996).TheStationsoftheSun:AHistoryoftheRitualYearinBritain.Oxford
UiversityPress:pp.124,12731;PlowandPlowing.MedievalFolklore,pp.32223;Simpson,

arefoundinanearlierpagancustomthatoccurredlaterintheyear,duringFebruary,
which was eventually shiftedtowards January afterthe establishment oflater British
technologicalandagrarianinnovations.InEngland,thisFebruarybasedriteoriginally
connectedwiththespringtidecultofNerus,theEarthMother,asanestablishedfacet
ofAngloSaxonsocietywasprimarilyassociatedwiththeblessingofthesoilandfields
toguaranteetheirfertility.However,amidthepaganGermaniccultsontheContinent,
thistraditionalploughceremonyoccurredclosertoEaster,completewithploughalms
liketheirlaterBritishcoevalsamonetarycustomthatwasalsoobservedinAnglo
Saxonlawtracts.Furthermore,thefertilityofthelandandtheKing(earlier,Chieftain)
wereintimatelyconnectedinGermanictribalsociety.Indeed,thispaganbeliefsystem
seemstohavebeenestablishedaspartofAngloSaxonculturefortheearlyChristian
Alcuin, during the end of the eightcentury CE, to remind King Aethelred that the
righteousnessofhispositionassovereignistoensuretheblessingsofmildnessofthe
seasonsandabundanceofcropsthroughouthisrealm.Thismayultimatelyrepresent
aGermanoCelticantecedent. Thepaganelementsofthisimportantagrarianfestival,
however,seemtohavelingeredonlyuntiltheseventeenthcentury CE whentheywere
disbandedwithoutregionalsupport.16
TheepiphanyofSpringtheBearwasalsoafeatureofcertainPloughMonday
festivitiesthatwereconfinedtothedistrictsofHuntingdonshireandCambridgeshirein
whichanadolescentboyoramanfromthecommunitywoulddressinstrawfromhead
totoe;hewouldbeledfromhousetohouseintimatingthebehaviorofacircusbear
thatwasatypicalsightinYugoslavianorRomanianGypsycommunitiesasawayto
makemoney. Itisalsobelievedthattheseeffigiesmaybetheremnantofanearlier
paganriteandcornspirit.17 Anointmentrenderedfrombearfatwasalsorubbedonto
fieldworkimplementsandgardentoolsinanefforttoprotectandpreservethemagainst
decayandmildew;thesetools,nowcharmedwithbeargreasewerebelievedtoprotect
cropsfromblight.18
AnothertraditionwasthatoftheCandlemasBear,whoseappearancewould
signalthecomingofSpring.Thistraditionculminatedinamasqueradeoraritualdrama
on 2 February and it involved a game of hunt or a peasant drama that involved a
JacquelineandSteveRoud(2000).PloughMonday.ADictionaryofEnglishFolklore.Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.281.
16Botelho,LynnA.(2004).OldAgeandtheEnglishPoorLaw,15001700.TheBoydellPress:pp.30
1;Chaney,WilliamA.(1970).TheCultofKingshipinAngloSaxonEngland:TheTransitionfrom
PaganismtoChristianity.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.5860,59n.67,and24344;Davis,Miriam
(2000).FestivalsandHolidays.EncyclopediaofMedievalLiterature.RobertThomasLambdinand
LauraCoonerLambdin,eds.GreenwoodPress:pp.18896;Gascoigne,Margaret(1998).Discovering
EnglishCustomsandTraditions.ShireClassics:pp.7;Jolly,KarenLouise,CatherinaRaudvere,and
EdwardPeters(2002).TheAthloneHistoryofWitchcraftandMagicinEurope,vol.3:TheMiddleAges.
TheAthlonePress:pp.47;Jones,PrudenceandNigelPennick(1995).AHistoryofPaganEurope.
Routledge:pp.15758;Miles,ClementA.(1912).ChristmasCustomsandTraditions:TheirHistoryand
Significance.DoverPublications:pp.352;Simek,Rudolf(trans.AngelaHall,1993).Nerthus.
DictionaryofNorthernMythology.Boydell&Brewer:pp.2331.
17StationsoftheSun,pp.12829;FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.12;StrawBears.Dict.ofEnglish
Folklore,pp.345.
18FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.12.

costumedHuntsmen,andaretinueoffourtotwelvetwofacedmaskedmaleattendants
(known as the Rosetta) of the lustful Candlemas Bear which are all adorned in
womenscottondresses,leatherbeltswitheightortencowbells,andasmallbarrelwith
adifferentfacepaintedonthefrontandthebacksideintimatingaheaddress. Afteran
amorous interludebetweentheBearfigureandtheRosetta,thebearwaspresumably
killed by the Huntsman, revived, shaved, and finally killed a second time. The
CandlemasBearcustomasfoundthroughoutmedievalFranceandtheSpanishPyrnes
hasbeenconclusivelydeterminedtohaveitsantecedentsinearlyritualdramasinvolving
theWildManmotifasevidencebywoodcarvingsandpaintingsthatportraylocal
gamesinwhichatransvestitemalecharacterisperceivedholdingoutaringtoaWild
Manfigure; and, perhaps, also because the bear is so physically similar to early
hominids,evenintimatingourhabitofmatingwhilelayingdown. Furthermore,this
sexual inversion by the participants which was taken on throughout Europe almost
exclusivelybymalesisbelievedtohaverepresentedamagicalorritualfunction.Indeed,
the transgender Rosetta figures have alsobeen identified with the Gyro, a grotesque
giantesswhoisintimatedinapeasantdramaatOldCandlemasDay(12February)inthe
OrkneyIslandsofScotland.19Thisfacetofgenderinversionmayevenprovetorepresent
apanCelticImbolccustomassociatedwiththeprimacyofthefemaleatthistimeand
certainprohibitionsthatguardagainstthemalegenderandsocietybecauseweobservea
farmorethanincidentalcustomamidIrelandat2Februaryinwhichavirginalyoung
womanisobservedmarchinginprocessionfromhousetohousethroughouthervillage
accompaniedbyherattendantsofladieswhoarenoneotherthanlocalboyssomewhat
facetiouslydressedasyoungwomen.20
DuringthesamegeneralperiodofCandlemasatCarnival,thebearfiguremakes
yetafurtherappearanceinthedistrictofthePratsdeMollointheCatalonianPyrnes.
Thisuniquefestivityinvolvestheguisingcustomofmaleswhowearbearmasksand
huntvictimsthroughoutthelocalcommunitywhomtheysmearwithsootordaubwith
a blackmask which associates the chosen citizens with black fairylike beings
representingOtherworldpersonagesknownasrevenants(comingback)whichserveas
asurvivalofshamanicancestorworshipthroughoutbothFranceandGermany,aswellas
elsewhere.21
GROUNDHOG/WOODCHUCK:TheGermanimmigrantsthatcametopopulatethestateof
Pennsylvaniabroughtthistraditionofseasonalaugurywiththem;but,theytransposed
19Cook,A.B.(2010).Zeus:AStudyinAncientReligion.CambridgeUniversityPress:pp.1130n.ii.
326;Davis,NatalieZamon(1965).WomenonTop.SocietyandCultureinEarlyModernFrance:
EightEssays.StanfordUniversityPress:pp.12451;Davis,NatalieZamon(2006).WomenonTopin
EarlyModernEurope:IssuesandInterpretations.BlackwellPublishing:pp.398411;AllAroundthe
Year,pp.59;Walter,Philippe(trans.JonE.Graham,2006).Christianity:TheOriginsofaPagan
Religion.InnerTraditions:pp.41.
20hgin,Dith(2006).Time.TheLoreofIreland:AnEncyclopaediaofMyth,Legendand
Romance.BoydellPress:pp.47275,
21Lecouteux,Claude(trans,JonE.Graham,2009).TheReturnoftheDead:Ghosts,Ancestors,andthe
TransparentVeilofthePaganMind.InnerTraditions;Christianity:TheOriginsofaPaganReligion,pp.
589and75.

this belief from the European badger onto the far more plentiful and bearlike,
groundhog.Asaconsequence,itcametobebelievedthatthegroundhogemergedfrom
hibernationon2FebruaryandifthecreaturedidnotseehisshadowatNoon,springhad
commenced.22
HEDGEHOG:PerhapsaprototypeoftheGermanAmericangroundhogtraditionmaybe
foundontheshoresofIrelandduetothescarcityofbears,whereitisbelievedthatwhen
thehedgehogemergesfromitswinterburrowtheanimalwilllookaboutinordertojudge
ifpoorweatherwillcontinue;or,ifthecreaturestaysout,itisinterpretedthatmild
weatherwillsoonfollow.23AsimilarcustomisobservedinEnglandwherethehedgehog
wascreditedwithforeknowledgeofapproachingstormsandwindsdependinguponthe
directionthatthecreaturebuiltitsnest.24
LAMB/SHEEP:Acommonandgentleepiphanyofthespringtides,particularlysincethe
JudeoChristianculturaldomination. Onetypicallyfindsthesheeporlambassociated
with virginal hearthcults throughout Eurasiagoddesses that are not infrequently
celebrated in very early Spring (earlytomidFebruary). Throughout Eurasia the
associationofthelambwiththespiritoftheflameseemstounderscoretheimportanceof
thepurityofthehearthgoddessandtheelementoffire,itself; 25archaeologicalremains
throughout central England heaped with the bones of female sheep have also been
interpreted as signifying cult activity celebrated at Imbolc (1 or 12 February).
Furthermore, Imbolc was the time during which ewes began to lamb and produce
nourishing milk fortheir young.26 InLancaster,the sheep is alsoesteemedin early
Springaugury;toseetheheadofthefirstlambisthoughttobeanomenofgoodluck,
whiletheobservationofitstailisaharbingerofmisfortune.27
LARK: Another local Irish custom disclosed in Country Armagh holds that, as a
consequenceofSt.Brighidsloveofbirds,ifalarkshouldbeheardsingingonherFeast
Day(1February)itisanomenofafairspring. 28EveninScotlandthereexistsaproverb
thatthelarkheraldsandushersCandlemaswithsongbecauseitissooftenheardtosing
on8February.TheWelsh,however,observethelarkasanomenoffineweatherwhen
onenoticedthebirdcontinuallysoaringhighupintheskiesasitsang.29
22PopularBeliefs,pp.20910;OzarkMagic,pp.27.
23Danaher,Kevin(1972).TheYearinIreland:IrishCalendarCustoms.MercierPress:pp.14;
Macquarrie,Alan(2006).Imbolc.CelticCulture:AHistoricalEncyclopedia.JohnT.Koch,ed.ABC
Clio:pp.95859;GroundhogDayandWeatherForecasting.TraditionalFestivals,pp.445;AllAround
theYear,pp.58.
24FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.36.
25RitesbyFirelight:TheEurasianCultoftheHearthandHome(rev.andexp.edn.),pub.asThe
FeastoftheFlameinSilverWheel:Annual,vol.1,ed.AnnaFranklin.LearBooks:pp.12046.
26MacKillop,James(2006).MythsandLegendsoftheCelts.Penguin:pp.101;Ross,Anne(1995).
RitualandtheDruidsinTheCelticWorld,ed.byMirandaAldhouseGreen.Routledge:pp.435.
27Harland,JohnandT.T.Wilkinson(2003).LancashireFolklore.KessingerPublishing:pp.139.
28YearinIreland,pp37.
29FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.42.

SNAKE:InthehighlandsofScotland,aregalsnakeisthoughttoemergefromitsWinter
sleeponSt.BrighidsDaysignalingthearrivalofSpring. Accordingtoanoldcharm
recordedbyAlexanderCarmichaelduringthelasthalfofthenineteenthcentury,Early
onBridesmorn/Theserpentshallcomefromthehole;/Iwillnotmolesttheserpent,/
norwilltheserpentmolestme.30EffigiesofthesnakearealsomadebytheScotsatthis
timecomposedofapeatfilledstockingthatwasrituallydamagedforreasonsthatarenot
entirelyclear.LithuanianfolktraditionalsoreckonsthesnakeastheepiphanyofSpring
atthisperiodknownas Kirmelin (DayofSerpents). Onthisdaywhichisnow
celebratedbyChristiansasKriktaiat25Januaryserpentswouldslitherfromtheforest
floorsandholesintothehomesofvillagers. Theawakeningofthesnakepopulation
signaledtheawakeningofnewlifeand,consequently,anabundantnewyear! Local
festivitieswouldincludetheshakingofappletreesinalocalorchardtomakethemmore
fruitful,aswellasknockingonbeehivestoawakenthemforworkfromtheirwinter
slumber.31 [JacobGrimm,inSwitzerland,dragonsandsnakeswerealsosupposedto
emergefromtheircavestoannouncethearrivalofSpring!]
WOLF:AmongtheGermanicpeoplesisaproverb,likelybaseduponthehibernating
habitsoftheEuropeanwolf,thatinsiststhatashepherdwouldratherseeawolfenterhis
foldoflivestockonCandlemasDaythanthesunasafortunatepresagetoSpring!32
WiththeexceptionoftheLARK,however,thearrivalsofcertainbirdsseemtoheraldthe
arrival of Spring. Throughout Hellenistic Greece and elsewhere augury was a very
common and widely practiced form of divination involving the song, appearance, or
flightpatternsofbirds. TheTemplesofZeus,forexample,wereroutinelyestablished
nearanesteemedoaktreewheretherustlingofdoveswasobservedbyalocalOracleto
foretellsomecomingevent.33
CUCKOO:Accordingtothefamedmythographer,Hesiod,thecuckoowasregardedasa
belovedheraldtoSpringduringhistime. 34Thecuckooalsoretainedthesameesteemed
positionthroughoutvariousdistrictsofBritainwheretohearthefirstcallofthecuckoo
foretoldcertaineventsuntiltheforthcomingSpring,suchaswhetherornotoneshould
expectgoodorillluck,howmanydaysuntilacouplemightmarry,orthelengthofones
remaininglife. CuckooDaywasconsideredtheofficialstartofthisseason,andit
usuallyfellbetween14and20April,thoughsomesayMarchmarkedthemonthofthe
cuckoosarrival.IncelebrationofthisseasonShropshirecollierworkerswouldtakea
holidayuponhearingthefirstcuckoooftheyearanddrinkalewhereitwasthatthe
30TheGenealogyofBride,quotedin:Dexter,MiriamRobbins(1990).WhencetheGoddess:A
SourceBook.TeachersCollegePress:pp.165.
31LanguageoftheGoddess,pp.135.
32Pickworth,G.L.CandlemasDay.CountryLife,vol.13(31January,1903):pp.14041;
TraditionalFestivals,pp.445.
33Dowden,Ken(2006).Zeus.GodsandHeroesoftheAncientWorld.Routledge:pp.623
34Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield,pp.103n.56470.

creaturewasheard.35 Accordingtooneoldlegend,thecuckoowassuchanindustrious
nestbuilderthatshewouldregularlyforgettoobservethefestivalofLadyDay,andwas
cursednevertoenjoyherdomesticefforts.So,shewasconsignedtolayhereggsinthe
nestsofotherbirds. Shakespeareseemstohavebeenawareofthistraditionwhenhe
wrote how this cuckold creature [m]ocks married men. 36 The cuckoo was also
associatedwithoneofthefirstflowersofspring,thevioletandthepansy.37
ThecuckoowasalsoesteemedthroughoutWaleswhen,on7April(St.BrynachsDay),
itwasbelievedthatthecuckoowouldannuallyalightatopSt.Brynachscrossinorderto
sing. Indeed, so enshrined was this belief that the Christian priest of Nevern was
reluctanttogiveasermononthisdayuntilheheardthecuckoossong. 38 However,in
Yorkshire,thecallofthecuckooportendsrainyweatherahead.39
SWALLOW:AbelovedharbingerofSpringinantiqueGreecewhosesonginmidFebruary
announcedtheonsetofthisseasonalportal.
Accordingtolegend,theAthenianprincessPhilomelawassentbyherfatherto
wedtheThraciankingTereus,underthepretensethathisownwifehaddied.Uponher
arrival,KingTereusrapesPhilomelaandcutsouthertonguesothatshemayneverspeak
ofhis abuse. However,theyoungprincess commits hertragicstoryintoapieceof
embroiderywhichwasthengiventohersister,Procne.Enraged,ProcnemurdersItys,
thesonPhilomelaboretoTereus,andservestheyouthsfleshtohisfather.Tereusthen
pursues after the pair of sisters, but the gods intervene and transform Procne into a
nightingaleandPhilomelaintoSpringsshrillvoicedherald,theswallow.40 Infact,
today,theswallowiscelebratedbycontemporaryGreekswhoseemedtohavepreserved
theirpaganancestorsrespectforthebirdasanemissaryoftheancienthouseholdgods.
Thiscelebrationtakestheformofafolkritethatinvolvestwochildrenwhowalkfrom
doortodoorbeseechingsmallgiftsastheysing,carryingabasketfilledwithivyanda
woodenswallowwreathedwithagarlandofbells.
However,insouthernGermanyandAustriathesongoftheswallowannounces
that Spring has commenced on 25 March (Schwalbentag), a holiday that is
commemoratedbythefollowingfolkrhyme:
WhenGabrieldoesthemessagebring,
35Cuckold.FaithsandFolkLoreoftheBritishIsles,pp.15962;FolkloreofBirdsofBirdsand
Beasts,pp.24;Robinson,Phil.ThePetsBird.V.TheCuckoo.TheGentlemansMagazine.January
June,1882,vol.252:pp.48792;Simpson,JacquelineandSteveRoud(2000).Cuckoos.ADictionary
ofEnglishFolklore.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.856.
36Latter,OswaldH.TheCuckoo.TheLivingAge.AprilJune,1903,vol.237:pp.43945.
37Hardy,James.ThePopularHistoryoftheCuckoo.FolkloreRecord:RelicsofPopularAntiquities,
Part2,ed.theFolkLoreSociety(1879).Messrs,Nichols&Sons:pp.4791.
38Gwyndaf,Robin(1995).WelshFolkTales.NationalMuseumofWales:pp.79;Thomas,Ruth
(1977).SouthWales.ArcoPublishingCompany:pp.150.
39FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.25.
40Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield,pp.81and103n.56470;FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.57;
Price,SimonandEmilyKearns(2000).Philomela.TheOxfordDictionaryofClassicalMyth&
Religion.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.424.

Returntheswallows,comethespring.
AverysimilartraditiontotheFeastofSwallowsissharedalsobytheItalians,the
French,andtheSpanishnearthesameperiodoftime,thoughthisseasonalharbingeris
saidtoannounceSpringsarrivalsomewhatlaterinEngland,on5April. Throughout
RussiaitwasbelievedthattheswallowwouldflybacktoEarthfromParadise,alsoon25
March,bringingwithitthewarmthoftheSpringseason.
Another belief was that the swallow did not migrate, but that they formed a solid,
collective, mass and hibernated beneath the water until the warmth of Spring had
returned.Still,otherbeliefsinsistedthattheswallowtookshelterinholesandcavesuntil
Winterhadpassed. Woodenimagesofswallows,andsocalledswallowsongswere
alsodedicatedtoVesnaortoLada,theSlavicgoddesseswhopersonifiedtheonsetof
Spring.41
Rites By Firelight: The Eurasian Cult of the Hearth and Home
[Author]
Mayyourheartsbeaswarmasyourhearthstone.
OldIrishblessing
Sincethedawnofprehistory,whenmuchlaterGreekmythographerswouldinformus
that the legendary titan Prometheus had stolen fire from the gods to benefit
humankind,42thehearthhasbeenregardedwithasenseaweandreverencethroughoutthe
continentofEurasia,quitenaturallybecauseitturnedrawmorselsintonourishingmeals
anditkeptuswarminourfurlinedsheltersduringthecoldnights;itmayalsohave
deterred predatory animals from attacking early human settlements as they migrated
acrossthelandscape.Isitnowonder,then,thatthecentralhearthflamemayhavebeen
deifiedatsuchanearlystageinhumanevolution?Still,consideringhownecessarythis
primalelementhasbeenforthesurvivalofourspeciesandtechnologicalinnovation,
scholars have largely passed over the hearthdeity in silence as an animistic pagan
expressionworthyofseriousstudy.Indeed,theonlyacademicthesis(albeitsomewhat
shallow in scope) that has attempted to yield a synthesis based upon comparative
methods,tomyknowledge,hasbeenthefoundationalworkofProf.MartinL.Westin
hisrecenttext,IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth(OxfordUniversityPress,2007).
It was the subsequent IndoEuropeans tribes who comprised the superseding cultural
milieu that was forged from the birth pangs of the invading Kurgan seminomadic
peoplesapatrilocalwarriorsociety,sonamedfortheirburialcustoms,thatoriginated
intheRussianandsouthUkrainiansteppeswhocametosettlethroughoutcentraland
southeasternNeolithicEuropeinthreesuccessivewavesbetween4400and2800BCE. 43
Asaresulttheycametograduallysubjugate(thoughsometimesdestroy)theindigenous
41MacedonianFolklore,pp.19;FolkloreofBirdsandBeasts,pp.568;Seytter,Emil.Swallow
Tales.OurAnimalFriends:AnIllustratedMonthlyMagazine,vol.22(June,1885):pp.22830;Weiser,
FranzXaver(1958).HandbookofChristianFeastsandCustoms:TheYearoftheLordinLiturgyand
Folklore.Harcourt:pp.302.
42Hesiod(trans.M.L.West,1988).TheoganyandWorksandDays.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.38.

equalitarianinhabitantsoftheirnewhomelands;bringingwiththemthedomesticated
horse (a militaristic vessel and authoritative symbol), weapons, and a reverence for
chieflywarcenteredmalethunderandskydeities,theycametoeclipsetheoncepotent
spiritual institution of the socalled greatgoddess throughout each localized
community.
Fromthisbirth,intime,spranganewfamilyofinterrelatedculturalidentitieswitha
generallysharedlanguage,patriarchalsystemofhierarchy,andmythologicalorreligious
motifs.Asthesenewculturegroupsspreadandinfluencedotherracialcontactgroups
theygaverisetothosewhomwenowregardastheRomans,theGreeks,theSlavs,the
Balts,aswellastheSaxons,andtheIronAgetribesofBritain,Gaul,andIreland,among
manyothers.44 Despitethisculturalhybridizationtheaboriginalbeliefsfromtheonce
beatingheartofNeolithicEuropewerenotcompletelyeffacedfromtheworldwiththe
adventoftheKurganculturalonslaught,butwereassimilatedtooneextentoranother;
theysurviveandarerememberedincontinuousthreadswoventhroughoutsubsequent
materialculture,regionalcustoms,aswellas(primarily)themythicandreligioussystems
oftheIndoEuropeanpeoplestretchingfromIndiaandtheNearEast,tothebordersof
easternEuropeandthefrigidnorthernclimesoftheNetherlands,withtheBritishIsles
constitutingtheirperipheralwesternextent.
Yetnoscholar,tomyknowledge,hassearchedforevidentIndoEuropeanreligiousand
cultural traditions outside of these borders to their most probable mean source.
Moreover,asthelateProf.MarijaGimbutashasvaliantlyargued,wemaybeableto
glimpse the system of belief or relative cultmotifs that once persisted throughout
NeolithicEuropeonlyafterwehaveisolatedandexcisedthoseforeignelementsthat
wereonlylaterimposedontotheseindigenoussocieties.45 Inordertoaccomplishthis
taskwemustscanthehistoricalrecordinordertodeterminewhichsystemofbeliefsmay
havebeenpreIndoEuropean(Neolithic),andwhatmayhavebeenProtoIndoEuropean
(Kurgan).FromthedatapresentlyavailabletomeIhavebeenabletoascertainasetof
striking IndoEuropean beliefs spanning the majority of Eurasia and traceable to the
circumpolar districts of the subarctic plains, with a secondary subset preserving an
evidentlyforeign,andpossiblypreIndoEuropean,remnant.
Itwascertainlyfromthis basicneedforwarmththattheheartheventuallygenerateda
systemofcultactivitythatcametobediffusedthroughoutthelaterIndoEuropeanstrata
betweenthemiddleofthefourthandthirdmillenniumBCE.Oneoftheseseemstobe
43Theterm,kurgan,firstcoinedbyMarijaGimbutasinreferencetovariousandidenticalburial
moundsthroughoutsucceedinggenerations,isnowbeinggenerallysupersededbytheconceptofthe
Yamnayahorizon,whichsignifiesastratigraphiclayerdisclosedbythearchaeologicalrecordwhenthis
transitionandculturalinfluencecanbedated(Anthony,DavidW.[2007].TheHorse,TheWheel,and
Language:HowBronzeAgeRidersfromtheEurasianSteppesShapedtheModernWorld.Princeton
UniversityPress:pp.3067,31734).
44Gimbutas,Marija(1999).TheLivingGoddesses.EditedandSupplementedbyMiriamRobbins
Dexter,Ph.D.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.xvxvi,524,129130and188;Mallory,J.P.(1989).In
SearchoftheIndoEuropeans:Language,ArchaeologyandMyth.ThamesandHudson:pp.1825and241
3.
45Gimbutas,Marija(1989).TheLanguageoftheGoddess:UnearthingtheHiddenSymbolsofWestern
Civilization.HarperandRow:pp.xviii.

theimplementationofthehearthasasortofprimitivealtar;adevicethatisrequiredto
issueone'sofferingsandmessagestothegods.Forexample,remainsofnativetemples
throughoutScandinaviahavebeenunearthed,oftenenclosingacentralhearth. 46 While
theIronAgeGreeksmaintainedtemplehearthsasrudimentarysacrificialaltarstodeliver
theirofferingstotheOlympianpantheon.47
Moreover,thehearthflameseemstoberegardedasthelocusoftheancestors,whereclan
lineage and ones tribal ethnicity is held in high regard. With the rise of the Indo
European nations this belief may have been transferred to the mistress or resident
daughters of a home who were tendered as the bearers of the next generation in a
patriarchaltribalsociety,hencetheubiquitousmarriageritualsassociatedwiththehearth
flameorfirefoundthroughoutthecontinentofEurasiawhere,asonepeculiarcustomin
Uzbekistanattests,partofamarriageceremonyrequiresthecoupletocircumnavigatea
smallflamethreetimes.AsaresultofanearlierbrandofratherseverePatriarchywith
rootsinNeolithicSiberiaandMongoliawecanseethatthechastityoffemaleswasof
paramount concern in order to ensure that the succeeding generation of a tribal
communitycouldnothavepatrilinealtiestoforeigncultures,perhapseveninaneffortto
protectonesinheritancefrombeingusurpedbyanotherethnicorculturalgroup.Some
evidenceforthisbeliefmayfindavoice,toacertainextent,intheHindutextofprayers
and ritualprocedures, the Upaniad. Here a variety of prayers frequently speak of
kindlingafireatthebirthofason,andrequestingthatone'ssubsequentdescendants
thrive.48 WhileIrishmanuscriptspreserveasimilarconcept:whenoneDelbaethwas
banishedwithhisfivesonsfromMunsterhekindledafireatthecairn(burialplace)of
Fiachuwhichburstforthwithfiveflamingtongues;hesethissonsateachstreamoffire,
andafterwhichhissons'descendantscametobecalledtheDelbnas("shapefire")tribe. 49
Indeed,likethecivilhearthfoundthroughouttheGrecoRomancultures,thecultural
hearthlitatTara(usuallyinassociationwithsalt)wasalsousedtolighteachchieftain's
hearth.50ItmayevenbetheTocharians(anIndoEuropeanoffshoot),whomigratedto
China,51whichlikelyservetoexplainwhythefemaleofahousewastraditionallytheone
responsiblefortendingthehearth,anditscult,thisfareast.52
46Dowden,Ken(2000).EuropeanPaganism.Routledge:pp.128.
47Spawforth,Tony(2006).TheCompleteGreekTemples.ThamesandHudson:pp.20.
48Olivelle,Patrick(trans.1996).Upaniad.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.92.
49Rees,AlwynandBrinley(1961).CelticHeritage:AncientTraditioninIrelandandWales.Thames
andHudson:pp.157.
50Op.cit.,pp.156.
51InSearchoftheIndoEuropeans,pp.5663.
52MythicparallelsfromIndoEuropeanantiquityarenotforeigntoChineseculture.LikehisIndo
EuropeancoevalfromGreece,Chinaalsohasalocalcultureherowhostolefiretowarmhumanityinthe
nativeheroicfigure,Azha.AccordingtotheHanipeople,locatedinsouthwestChina,hededicatedhis
wholelifetoacquiringfire;however,theonlysourceforthiselementwaslocatedbetweentheeyebrowsof
aterriblemonster.AfterhestolethisprimalsubstanceAzhasetoffforhome,howeverthebeast
discoveredhimandengagedthethiefinabattle.Inordertopreservethefireheswallowedit.Whenthe
monsterwasfinallyvanquishedhecutopenhisownchesttoliberatethefireforthebenefitofhispeople,
leadingtohisowndeath(Yang,LihuiandDemingAn[2005].HandbookofChineseMythology.ABC
Clio:pp.209).TheparallelsbetweenAzhaandPrometheusisevident:thelatterwasalsorenownedfor
havingstolenaparceloffireonlytoendureunyieldingtortureasaconsequence;hewasboundtoapillar

However, it has otherwise been fairly suggested that virginity, in an IndoEuropean

context,represents"storedenergy"and"untappedpotential"alongasortofmetaphysical
continuumusedprimarilyforthebenefitofthepatriarchalwarriorestablishment. This
validargumenthas definitemeritfroma macrocosmic standpoint,becausenumerous
IndoEuropeanculturescametoregardvirginalwomenasbeingendowedwithacertain
"power",suchaspropheticabilities.53But,microcosmically,astudyofthehearthyields
whatIbelievetobeacomplimentaryhypothesis.Byextension,thehearthgoddessmay
havealsopossessedarespectivecultanimalassociatedwithpurity:thesheep.Wenote
thatmanyhearthgoddessesfromEurasiancultureswhichwereroutinelyofferedsuch
animalsinreverence,orwereotherwiseassociatedwiththiscreature:Vesta,Brighid,and
Gabija,tonameafew;whileinIndia,ancientgraveshavebeenfoundinconjunction
withthehearth,alsoassociatedwiththeremainsofsheep. 54EventhepreZoroastrian
virginalwatergoddess,Anhit,albeitnotahearthgoddess,isassociatedwiththiscult
animal.55
Thedomesticandsacredhearthwasalwayskindledorfuelledwithwoodfromavery
specificspeciesoftree.And,throughoutIndoEuropeanculturesthisspecieswasusually
theoak,56probablybecauseoakistheonespeciesthatcourtslightningmostfrequently;it
wasprobablythoughttoholdfirewithinitself. 57 So,byrubbingtwostickstogetherit
mayhavebeenthoughttoliberatethisgiftfromthethundergod.Thishearthflame,once
kindled,wasregardedasanEternalFlamethatwasrituallyextinguishedonlyonceina
year, usually during the season of spring. And, to ignite a flame on a plot of land
signaledtheownershipofthatproperty.ThissurvivedeveninCelticthoughtwhenthe
PatronSaintofWales,DewiSant,claimedadistrictinWalesbykindlingafirethere.58
Although,fire,itself,seemstohavebeenregardedasanagentofpurification. Celtic
customsfromtheMiddleAges,onward,sustainthisbelief.InFranceitwasbelievedthat
firecould"rejuvenate"one;59 andinIrelandcattleweredriventhroughtheubiquitous
Beltanefiresinordertopreservethemfromdisease.60
Littleelse,inmyview,seemstohavedemonstrablysurvivedtheculturaltransitionfrom
the Neolithic age, however, save for the bird as the epiphany associated with the
andhisliver(whichregeneratednightly)waseatenoutdailybyaneagle(Price,SimonandEmilyKearns
[2003].PrometheusTheOxfordDictionaryofClassicalMyth&Religion.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.
453).
53Dexter,MiriamRobbins(1990).WhencetheGoddess:ASourceBook.TeachersCollegePress:pp.
16173.
54InSearchoftheIndoEuropeans,pp.54.
55LivingGoddesses,pp.218n.21.
56West,M.L.(2007).IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.267n.96.
57ThismayhavealreadybeenabeliefofPaleolithicEuropeansforwenoteanearlyIrishhearthburial
fromtheOldStoneAgeassociatedwiththecharcoalremnantsoftheoak,ashandhazeltrees(Herity,
MichaelandGeorgeEogan[1978].IrelandinPrehistory.Routledge:pp17).
58Mackillop,James(1998).Fire.OxfordDictionaryofCelticMythology.OxfordUniversityPress:
pp.235;CelticHeritage,pp.157.
59Walter,Philippe(trans.JonE.Graham,2006).Christianity:TheOriginsofaPaganReligion.Inner
Traditions:pp.64.
60Hutton,Ronald(1991).ThePaganReligionsoftheAncientBritishIsles:TheirNatureandLegacy.
BlackwellPublishers:pp.182;CelticHeritage,pp.158.

Neolithic goddesscults. Whether the bird was intended to represent a local hearth
goddess during the stone age cannot be verified from the evidence. All that can be
inferred is that the birdgoddess, as in the case of the later IndoEuropean goddess
Nantosvelta(below),mayhaverepresentedadomesticfunctioninwhichthegoddess
oversawandprotectedherproverbial"nest"orclan.But,thisispurelyspeculative.
The only other possible evidence preserved from Neolithic antiquity is
theswastika motif61 which has been found carved on cave walls, stone artifacts and
paintedonclayvessels.Itmeans"wellbeing"andisfrequentlyassociatedwiththedaily
andyearlypassageofthesunasittransitsthroughthesky. Thismayassociatelater
hearthgoddesseswiththesun,orfirefromheaven.
WhatfollowsisthebulkofmyresearchontheEurasianhearthgoddesscult:
AGNYTheconsortofAgni;sheistheIndicgoddessoffire. 62Thegoddesswasinvoked
inthe RigVeda as atutelarydeityandimploredtoacceptanofferingofSoma(the
psychotropicfoodofthegods);whileshealsobestowedprosperity,nourishment,and
wellbeingontothosethatsoughthercomfortingflame. 63HernamemeansFiery.As
withherconsort,herhearthflamewaskindledwithafiredrillconsistingoftwodried
sticks(thearani);howeverherflamemayhavecometosymbolizeeroticenergy,orthat
infernalelementwhichdeliveredmessagesandofferingstothegods.
AsSvh,shetookontheidentityofthechastewivespossessedbytheprimevalSeven
Seers(SaptaRishi)whoconjuredthefiregodfromthesunandthenlaywithAgni.
ShecoaxedAgnisseedfromhisphallus,andbroughtittoMountvetaintheformof
theGarudabirdwhereshedaubedthesemenintosixportionsandformedthewargod,
Skanda.64
ARAIAnimportantHindugoddessintrinsicallyassociatedwiththeculturalhearthcult;
sheis thepersonificationofthefiredrill,symbolizedbythetworotarysticks anda
wheel.Ithasbeensuggestedthatherritualsmayhaveemployedlesbianismorfemale
masturbation due to the belief that her fire signified feminine sexuality. 65 Her name
meansbeingfittedintoorturninground.66Noaltarfirecanbekindledwithouther
presence.

61Wilson,Thomas(1894).TheSwastika,TheEarliestKnownSymbolandItsMigration;With
ObservationsontheMigrationofCertainIndustriesinPreHistoricTimes.SmithsonianInstitution:pp.
798.
62Farrar,Janet&Stewart(1987).TheWitchesGoddess:TheFemininePrincipleofDivinity.Phoenix
Publishing:pp.192.
63TheRigVeda,Hymn22.
64VanBuitenen,J.A.B.TheMahabharata.TheUniversityofChicagoPress:pp.209,639,and650.
65WitchesGoddess,pp.197.
66OFlaherty,WendyDoniger(ed.Andtrans.,1975).TheHinduMyths:ASourcebookTranslatedfrom
theSanskrit.PenguinBooks:pp.340.

ASPELENIE ThesacredLithuanianhearthsnake(altys);shewasregardedastheone
behindthehearth.67ThedomesticgreensnakewasahighlyveneratedanimalinBaltic
folkreligion;andtohaveonecrossyourpathindicatedafuturemarriageorthebirthofa
child,buttokillonewasdeemedasin.68Thisnativebeliefmayreflectanearlierpractice
throughoutpaganLithuaniawhereitwascustomarytoenshrineasacredserpentbehind
theobligatoryfirealtar.
BABAYAGA:IthasbeensuggestedthatBabaYagawasaSlavicandRussiangoddessof
thehearth;69 moreover,ithasbeensaidthatshewasassociatednotjustwiththeclan
mother of the hearth and its higher social functions (served originally by a High
Priestess),butwasalsoesteemedastheMistressofAnimals,andapotentearthmother
whodominatedbothspheresoflifeanddeath.70
AccordingtoonelocaltraditionthatrecallsthemorefamiliartaleofCinderella,ayoung
woman(Vasilisa)istreatedpoorlybyherruefulstepmotherandjealousstepsisters:One
eveningherstepmotherdecidedtodousethehearthflameandthehousecandles,saving
oneforherdaughterstoworkby. Underthepretenseoftrimmingthewick,however,
oneofVasilisasstepsistersextinguishedthiscandlesflame,commandinghertofetch
fire from the maneating ogress, Baba Yaga. Vasilisa bravely proceeded past Baba
Yagasfencewroughtofhumanbones;andwiththeaidofanenchanteddollthatwasleft
toherbyherownmother,aswellasimpeccablemanners,shesurvivedthetrialsset
beforeherbythegoddessandwasfinallyrewardedwiththefireshehadsoughtenclosed
withinahumanskull. Whenshereturnedhometheskullfixeditsburninggazeonto
Vasilisasstepmotherandstepsisters,reducingthemtoash. 71Asaresult,thistalemay
evince,albeittentatively,thatBabaYagawasperceivedasthecivichearthflamefrom
whichallothersmustberekindled.
BEREHYNIAorBereginia,theGuardianoftheHearth,isthegoddesswhopersonifies
Slavic and Ukranian nationalism with respect to certain desirous feminine traits
particularlyduringthelatetwentiethcenturyCE.Itwasamidsttheheightofaneconomic
recessioninthe1980sthatwomenreturnedtotheirstationtendingthefamilyhearthafter
beinglaidofftoensurethattheirchildrenwerewellcaredfor,andthattheirhusbands
weresatiated.Asaresult,perhapsthroughlocalpropaganda,thegoddesswaslaudedas
a symbol of the ideal mother and feminine identity, particularly in rural districts.
However,thissocietalshiftwastocomeundersomescrutinybynativecommentators

67Hastings,James(1914).EncyclopediaofReligionandEthics,PartIII,vol.3.KensingerPub:pp.34.
68Vaidilut.Gimbutas,Marija(1963).TheBalts.Thames&Hudson:Ch.VIII,pp.203
<http://www.vaidilute.com/books/gimbutas/gimbutascontents.html>(Retrieved:21March,2007).
69Anthroglobe.Rjabchikov,SergeiV.(2001).TheScythianandSarmatianSourcesoftheRussian
MythologyandFairyTales.<http://www.anthroglobe.info/docs/Sergei/scythiansarmatianRussian
mythologyfairytales.htm>(Retrieved:13August,2009).
70Hubbs,Joana(1993).MotherRussia:TheFeminineMythinRussianCulture.IndianaState
UniversityPress:pp.27,41.
71Warren,Elizabeth(2002).RussianMyths.TheBritishMuseumPress:pp.267.

who remarked that it was merely a renaissance of patriarchy through the

romanticizationofstereotypicalgenderroles.
The goddess Berehynia, as she was known throughout antique Slovenia, not only
dominatedthedomestichearthflamefromparticularclansorextendedfamilies,butshe
alsopreservedtheUkraniannationasawhole,andwasunderstoodtobeaformidable
EarthMother. She was further associated with the weavers shuttle as a domestic
implement, and this only served to underscore her perception with the household
occupationsoffemalesfromanagewhentheywereculturallymarginalizedasagender.72
InSlavonichouseholdsthefamilyhearthwasusuallykeptperpetuallyalightuntilitwas
annuallydousedwithcertaingesturesattheSummerSolstice,atwhichpointitwassoon
rekindled;thisdutywasoftenfulfilledbyanewbridewhowouldstokeherhusbands
ancestralflamewithliveembersthatshehadcollectedfromhermothersstoveaspartof
thelocalmarriageceremony.73
BOKAMisthefeminizedhearthflameworshippedbytheshamanicKettribeofSiberia;
theydominatethelowerbasinoftheholyYeniseiRiverinRussiasKrasnoyarskKrai
district.Imaginedasabeautifulwoman,thegoddessisbelievedtoguardthehearth,the
home,andtheclan.Mealtimeofferingsweremadetoher,usuallywithsmallportionsof
meatandtea;anditwasthechiefmistresswhoroutinelyoversawtheproceedingsof
Bokamsdomesticcult.HernametranslatesasFireMotherand,asagestureofesteem,
thegoddesswasalsoaddressedwiththesamerespectdueonesowngrandmotherin
acknowledgmentofherroleastheAncestralMotheroftheKetpeople.WhentheKet
emigratedtoanewencampment,livingcoalsfromthehearthwouldbecarriedwiththem
inaspecialboxbytheheadmistressinordertorekindletheirancestralflameuponre
distributingthecoalsamongthegatheredclanmembers.Coalsfromthehearthmayonly
bedividedamongclanmemberswhichservestounderscoretheindivisibilityofthetribe;
indeed,thismayhavegivenrisetoapopularKetsayingdescribingthemselvesas,the
peopleofonefire,onehearth.Thehearthisintrinsicallyassociatedwithbirthandclan
lineagebyestablishingaportalthroughwhichasoulfromtheLandofSoulsmay
travelthroughthesmokeholeofthetentandenterintoawombinordertobeborn.74
BRIGHID wasapanCelticgoddessofsovereigntyappearingasBrighidorBridgetin
Ireland,BrideintheHighlandsofScotland,BrigantiathroughoutnorthernEngland,and
BrigindoamidthetribesofeasternGaul(antiqueFranceandGermany).
72Phillips,SarahD.(2008).WomensSocialActivismintheNewUkraine.IndianaUniversityPress:pp.
4959;Slobin,GretaN.(1997).Ona:TheNewElleLiteracyandthePostSovietWomaninGisela
BrinkerGablerandSidonieSmith(eds.),WritingNewIdentities:Gender,Nation,andImmigrationin
ContemporaryEurope.TheUniversityofMinnesotaPress:pp.33757;Wejnert,Barbara(2002).
TransitiontoDemocracyinEasternEuropeandRussia.PraegerPublishers:pp.335.
73Barford,PaulM.(2001).TheEarlySlavs:CultureandSocietyinEarlyMedievalEasternEurope.
CornellUniversityPress:pp.195.
74Bianchi,Ugo,C.J.BleekerandA.Bausani(1972).ProblemsandMethodsoftheHistoryofReligions.
BRILL:pp.186;Jacobson,EstherJ.(1993).TheDeerGoddessofAncientSiberia:AStudyintheEcology
ofBelief.BRILL:pp.18689.

Extensively worshipped by the Brigantes tribe that dominated the six northernmost
countiesinEngland,hernameisultimatelyderivedfromtheadjective*brigantmeaning
"Exalted One" or High One,75 hence the identity of the tribe which was prone to
occupychieflyelevatedlandscapeswithintheirrespectiveterritories.76Indeed,sheseems
to have promoted sacral kingship, a religious purview that dominated Celtic thought
duringtheIronAge.Thiscultwasexpressedbyaritualmarriagebetweenthechieftain
andthetriballandgoddess,personifiedbytheHighPriestessorChiefDruidesswho
ruledashisqueen. Withoutherthechieftaincouldnothopetomaintainhisseatof
power.77
So pervasive was this cult, in fact, that during the reign of the Brigantes' Queen,
Cartimandu(c.4370CE),acoupwasdeclaredbetweenwarringtribalfactionsoverthe
title, *brigantnos (aritualtermdenotingthechieftain),whenshechosetodivorceher
prevailing husband, Venutius, in favor of his armorbearer, Vellocatus. This belief
extendedeven toWales wherethe Brigantes arethought tohave oncelived orheld
influence;heretheWelshwordfor"king", brenin,hasbeenconclusivelytracedtothe
sacredtitle*brigantnos,preservingtheancientbeliefthatthechieftainwasoriginallythe
consortofthegoddess,Brigantia.78 However,this overwhelmingconsensus does not
appeartohavebeenconsideredbyarecenthistoricalenquiryintotheancientpaganfaiths
ofBritainwhichhasspeculated,instead,thatBrigantiawasmerelyalocalmilitaristic
inventionpromotedduringtheonsetofthethirdcenturyBCEinanefforttosustainand
focustribalallegiance.79
During the course of their marriage the Brigantian confederacy remained a client
kingdomundertheauspicesofRomewithCartimanduassovereign;but,aftertheir
separation,Venutiuscouldnolongerabidethedominionofhisfellowtribesmenbythe
occupyingforeignlegion.Hesoughttodislodgethemfromthegripofhisnativesoiland
wagedanumberofmilitaryskirmisheswithhissupporters.ThiscausedCartimanduto
retaliatebyslaughteringhisbrotherandotherrelatives.AtthispointRomaninfantryand
auxiliaryunitswerecalledintodealwiththeBritishrevoltwithswiftbrutality. 80Native
75Ross,Anne(1996).PaganCelticBritain:StudiesinIconographyandTradition.AcademyChicago
Publishers:pp.180.
76Koch,JohnT.(ed.2006).Brigantes.CelticCulture:AHistoricalEncyclopedia,vol.1.ABC
CLIO:pp.28487.
77Green,Miranda(1992).SacralKingship.DictionaryofCelticMythandLegend.Thamesand
Hudson:pp.182;Territory,GodOf,Op.cit,pp.208;MacCana,Proinsias,"AspectsoftheThemeof
KingandGoddessinIrishLiterature",tudesCeltiques,7(19556),pp.76114,and356413;"Aspectsof
theThemeofKingandGoddessinIrishLiterature",tudesCeltiques,8(19589),pp.5965;MacCana,
Proinsias(1983).CelticMythology.PeterBedrickBooks:pp.923;Kingship.Dict.ofCelticMythology,
pp.28586;Sovereignty,Lady.Op.cit.,pp.3901;hgin,Dith(2006).Goddess.TheLoreof
Ireland:AnEncyclopaediaofMyth,LegendandRomance.BoydellPress:pp.2756;Kings/Kingship.
Op.cit.,pp.3012;CelticHeritage,pp.736;Simmons,Victoria.SovereigntyMyth.CelticCulture,
vol.4,pp.162122.
78Tacitus,Annals,12.40,27inKoch,JohnandJohnCarey(trans.2003).TheCelticHeroicAge:
LiterarySourcesforAncientCelticEurope&Ireland&Wales(FourthEdn.Rev.&Exp.).CelticStudies
Publications:pp.456and45n.23.
79PaganReligions,pp.240.
80Annals,Ibid.;Tacitus,Histories,3.45inCelticHeroicAge,pp.46.

survivorsofthisonslaughtlikelyfledtoareasfurthernorthandwest,evenarrivingonthe
shoresofIreland,bringingwiththemtheirlocalcults.
Later archaeologists would confirm Ptolemys remarks that situated a branch of the
Brigantes tribe in southeastern Ireland with material remains excavated at Lambay
Island(offIrelandseasterncost).81
With this British infusion was borne a hybrid from the migrant Brigantes that was
eventuallyadoptedandpromotedbythenativeIrishLaighintribewhoinhabitedthe
regionofLeinster,subsequentlyfoundinghegemoniesinwhatispresentdayKildare. 82
Herethegoddess(nowknownasBrighid)seemstohavewitnessedremarkablylittle
changeupuntilthemedievalperiodwhenmonasticscribesrecordedthemythological
traditionsofIreland,duetoherrelationshipwiththeinsularthundergod,TheDaghda,
appearing as her father. According to the Second Battle of Moytura Brighids son,
Ruadan,waskilledduringafailedattempttoslaythesmithgod,Goibniu;lamentingover
herlossshewailedthefirstcrytoeverbeheardinthecountry.Whileonecommentator
holdsthatshewasafamedpoetwithtwoequallyskilledsisters,bothcalledBrighid:one
aphysician,andtheotherasmith.83 DespitetheBrigantes' clear migratorystatusand
influence withinlocal tribes,however,it has beenconjecturedthat bothBrighid and
Brigantiarepresentcompletelyunrelatedlocalcharacterswithonlyphilologicallysimilar
names.84
AccordingtohagiographictextslaterChristiansseemtohavebeatifiedtheIrishgoddess
undertheguiseofaSaint.St.Brighid'sbiographyholdsthatshewasbornethedaughter
ofanoblemanandaslaveatdawn,whilehermotherwassteppingoverathreshold,
underscoringtheCelticobsessionwithtransience. Whileshewasstillveryyoungher
motherleftherunattendedwhenthesurroundingneighborswitnessedthewholeestate
engulfedbyapillaroffire,whichextendedtotheheavens;frightenedforthechild's
safetytheyrushedtothehouseonlytofindnoevidencethatanyfirehadbeenpresent.
Againthismysteriousfireoccurredwhenadruidwasvisitingtocheckonsomecattle
wherehesawapileofdungaflamebeforethegirl,butwhenhestretchedouthishandthe
firevanished. Perhapsmoreevenmoreinteresting,itwasfoundthatduringheryouth
shecouldingestno impure foods,soshewasnourishedonthemilkofanOtherworld
cowthatwaswhitewithredears.
AsayoungwomanshesworehervirginitytotheChristiangodandsoontooka
Nun'sveilwhen,atherinitiation,onemorepillaroffirewasobservedstretchingfromher
81UniversityofChicago.LacusCurtius:IntotheRomanWorld.ClaudiusPtolemy,TheGeography,Book
II,chap.I.<http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/1*.html>
(Retrieved:1March,2009);Raftery,Barry(1994).PaganCelticIreland:TheEnigmaoftheIrishIron
Age.ThamesandHudson:2003and2046;andTacitus(trans.KennethWellesley,1964).TheHistories.
PenguinClassics:pp.1501.
82Laighin.LoreofIreland,pp.3056.
83CormacmacCuilleanain(trans.CaitlinMatthews,2004),"SelectionsfromCormac'sGlossary"in
Matthews,JohnandCaitlin(comp.,ed.andtrans).TheEncyclopaediaofCelticMythandLegend:A
DefinitiveSourcebookofMagic,Vision,andLore.TheLyonsPress:pp.257;"TheSecondBattleof
Moytura"(trans.WhitleyStokes,1891)inIbid.,pp.58.
84PaganReligions,pp.154;Hutton,Ronald(1996).TheStationsoftheSun:AHistoryoftheRitualYear
inBritain.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.135.

browtotheridgepoleofthechurch.LatershebecameanAbbessandcametofounda
religious house at Kildare ("Church of the Oak Tree"), while she frequently healed
patronsandacquiredanassociationwithsaltinatleasttwoinstances. TheSaintalso
appearstohavebeenofferedthefirstmorseloffoodateachmeal.Indeed,muchlikethe
IrishgoddessMachawhomarkedouthersettlementofEmainMachawithherbroach,it
is said that Brighid also attained dominion overwhatever area ofLeinster her cloak
magicallycovered,85probablymakingherthetutelarygoddessofthatdistrict.
AtherChurchinKilkdareacollegeofnineteenwomentendedaperpetualfirewhere
theycontinuallyfedtheashlessflameeachnightandkeptitfromdying;whileonthe
twentiethdayitwasbelievedthatBrighidherselftendedtheflame.Menwereexcluded
fromenteringeventheliminalhedgethatsurroundedthissanctuary.Andlegendwarns
oftwomenthatwerefoolishenoughtodosohavingbeencursedbythegoddess:One
man,anarcher,leaptoverthehedgeandblewonhersacredflamewithhisbreath(only
bellowswereusedbytheflame'sattendants)andwentmadasaconsequence;andthe
otherwhomadeavaliantattemptwasthankfullyrestrainedbyhisfriendssothatonly
oneofhislegscrossedthethresholdofthissite,anactwhichrenderedhimlameforthe
durationofhislife.86Herperpetualflameremaineduninterupteduntil1220CEwhenthe
ArchbishopofDublin,HenrydeLoundres,issuedanedictorderingthelocalfiretemple
beextinguished.87
Throughout Irish and Scottish folktradition the Saint's feast day (1 February) was
celebratedbymakingtheannualSt.Brighid'sCross,whichwerebelievedtoprotectthe
homefromfireandlightning.Theyweremadebyweavingtogetherrushesinthepattern
of a swastikamotif, which was one of the most popular patterns, second only to a
lozengeordiamondshape.Daughterswerealsoaskedtoparticipateintheritualdramas
byenactingtheroleofBrighidwhowasbelievedtoknockatthedoorinordertogain
admittance. However,perhapsthemostpopularritualgesturewastheBrighid's Bed
custom. A bed was constructed for the Saint usually by the hearth where an effigy
fashionedfromwheatwasplacedwithawhitewandorsmallclub;afterwardstheashes
andcoalswerecarefullyrakedandsmootheddownbeforetheresidentsretiredtobed.
Whenthedawnbroketheashes wouldbescannedforasignofBrighid's fortuitous
presenceintheformofafootprintwhichwouldsignalthatthecomingyearwastobea
prosperousone.88
85UniversityCollegeCork,IrelandCELT:CorpusofElectronicTextsEditions.BethuBrigte(Trans.
Unknown,n/d).<http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201002/index.html>(Retrieved:3March,2009);
UniversityCollegeCork,IrelandCELT:CorpusofElectronicTextsEditions.Keating,Geoffrey(n/d).The
HistoryofIreland,BookIII.<http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T100054/>(Retrieved:3March,2009);
InternetSacredTextArchive.Kennedy,Patric(1891).LegendaryFictionsoftheIrishCelts.Chap."St.
Brigid'sCloak".<http://www.sacredtexts.com/neu/celt/lfic/lfic102.htm>(Retrieved:3March,2009);
UniversityCollegeCork,IrelandCELT:CorpusofElectronicTextsEditions.Stokes,Whiteley(trans.).On
theLifeofSt.Brigit.<http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T201010/text001.html>(Retrieved:3February,2009).
86GiraldusCumbrances(trans.PhilipFreeman),TopographiaHibernieinCelticHeroicAge,pp.2867.
87Jones,PrudenceandNigelPennick(1995).AHistoryofPaganEurope.BarnesandNoble:pp.102.
88Carmichael,Alexander(1992).CarminaGadelica:HymnsandIncantations.LindisfarnePress:pp.
946and5813n.70;Danaher,Kevin(1972).TheYearinIreland:IrishCalendarCustoms.MercierPress:
pp.1623.

CA'CIA or Caca was a lesser Roman firegoddess, and the daughter of Vulcan.
According to legend she betrayed the location of her monstrous brother, Cacus (a
volcanicfiregodofwar),whopurloinedfourofHercules'cattle. Asarewardforher
treacheryshewasendowedwithatemplewhereaperpetualflamewashousedinher
honor.Vesta'svirginalpriesthoodwasalsoaccustomedtoworshiphere. 89Hernameis
believed to derive from the Latin terms, calco ("to be warm/ hot") and coquo ("to
cook").90
ESTA An Estrucan deity who may be related to the Roman hearthgoddess, Vesta.
ChieflyrememberedthroughlocalfolktraditionintheareaofRomagna(Italy),Estais
nowpopularlythoughtofasthespiritresponsiblefordousinghouselights,particularlyin
thepresenceoftwolovers.91
FORNAXwasaRomangoddessassociatedwithovens;shewasinvokedtopreventspelt
andallmannerofcerealsfrombeingburntingrainstoragebins.Hernamemeansoven
or furnace; however, it has been suggested that she was invoked to explain the
celebrationoftheRomanholiday,Fornacalia.Thiswasamovablefeast,usuallyposited
on5February,whereovens(fornaces)wererituallycelebratedbecauseparchedgrains
madethebakingofbreadpossible.92Itwasthebread,bakedduringthisfestival,which
wasbroughttoacommunalfeast.93
FUCHI or Huchi probably means Fire. She is a kamui (goddess) of the hearth
worshippedbytheAinuaboriginesofJapan;andaccordingtooneaccountofhermythic
originsshewasbornefromthesparkkindledbyafiredrill.Asahearthgoddessitis
believedthatshefunctionsasanintermediarybetweenthegodsandhumankind;while,
onesancestorsarethoughttopassintotheAinuunderworldthroughthehearthflame.
BeingtheMistresswhooverseesdomesticaffairs,thepurityofthehearthisparamount
so as to avoid angering the goddess. Consequently her sacred fire must never be
intentionallyextinguished.94TheAinubelievethatthegoddessresideswithinthehearth

89Adkins,LesleyandRoyA.Adkins(1996).Caca.DictionaryofRomanReligion.OxfordUniversity
Press:pp.35;Cacus,Ibid.;Virgil(tr.DavidWest,1990).TheAeneid.BookVIII.PenguinBooks:pp.
19294.
90UniversityofMichiganLibrary:MakingofAmericaBooks.Smith,William(ed.,1849).Dictionary
ofGreekandRomanBiographyandMythology,pp.5234.
<http://name.umdl.umich.edu/ACL3129.0001.001>(Retrieved:31January,2009).
91Leland,CharlesG.(1892).EtruscanRomanRemains.PhoenixPublishing:pp.612.
92Fornacalia.Dict.ofRomanReligion.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.82;Fornax,Ibid.
93MacLennan,BruceJ.TheUniversityofTennessee:CollegeofArts&Sciences(Dept.ofComputer
Science).BibliotecaArcana.MediaHiems.<http://www.cs.utk.edu/~mclennan/BA/SF/MidWinter.html>
(Retrieved:20September,2007)
94Ashkenazy,Michael(2003).KamuiFuchi(Ainu).AHandbookofJapaneseMythology.ABCClio:
pp.191192.

(arectangularspacelocatedatthecenterofeachhome,orchise),fromwheresheextends
herblessingsuponeachclanmember.95ShemaybeassociatedwithFuji.96
FUJI/Fujiyama/SengenSamaTheJapanesehearthgoddessofthenativeAinupeople,
andpersonificationofMt.Fuji(anextinctvolcano),theapexonwhichhersanctuarywas
constructed.DuetothepredispositionoftheAinupeopletowardsanindigenousformof
shamanism,thismountainmayhavebeenregardedasanaxismundiservingtounitethe
heavenlyworldofthegodswiththeUnderworldpresidedoverbyonesancestors.97
ThroughoutthesummercalendsitiscommonforparishionerstoclimbMt.Fujiinorder
topayhomagetotherisingsun,whilewomenwereonceexcludedfromsuchsacred
processionsintheviewthattheywereimpurethissocialtabooisnolongerobserved.
However, sometime between the fourteenth and sixteenthcentury CE Fuji was
eventually superseded as the dominant spirit of the mountain, being displaced by a
goddessfromJapanesefolkreligionnamedKonohanaSakuyaHime(TheGoddessof
Flowering Trees) who was believed to keep the volcano from erupting. Fujiyamas
namemeansgrandmotherorancestress,indicatingthatshemayhavebeenadeified
tribalelder;however,ithasalsobeensuggestedthatherepithetisderivedfromthatof
thegoddess,Fuchi.98
Fujimayalsobeagoddessconnectedwithnativegameanimals,particularlythebear.
Afterasuccessfulhunt,whenawildbearwaskilled,itscarcasswasbroughtintothe
home of an Ainu tribesman and positioned next to the central hearth (which she is
thoughttoguard)wherethedeifiedanimalwouldengageinaceremonialconversion
withthegoddess,discussingtheircommonhomethesacredmountain.Thenextdaythe
creaturewasflayedandcooked,withgenerousofferingsbeingmadetoitsskull.Afterthe
observanceofthesehonorarycustomsthespiritofthebearisthenaskedtoreturntohis
foresthomeonMt.Fuji.99
GABIJA or Gabieta was a Lithuanian goddess venerated as the central hearthflame
withineachclan'shomeupuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury.Hernameisderivedfrom
theverbapgaubti,whichmeans"tocover/protect"or"topile/puttogether";bothreferto
theactofdelicatelybankingherhearthwithstonesandcoveringitscoalswithashes a
practiceknownlocallyas"makingabedforGabija". Shewascommonlyinvokedto
protectthehomefrombothfireandlightning,andhasbeenvariouslyimaginedasacat,a
95Smithsonian:NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory.TheArcticStudiesCenter.Ainu:Spiritofa
NorthernPeople."Chise:TheAinuHouse,Room4Overview".
<http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/ainu/html/room04.html>(Retrieved:15August,2008).
96UniversityofSt.Francis."MountFuji".<http://www.stfrancis.edu/ns/bromer/earthsci/student8/Joe
%20and%20Bettylou/Mount%20Fuji.html>(LastAccessed:31March,2007).
97Blacker,Carmen(1975)."TwoKindsofJapaneseShamans:TheMediumandtheAscetic"inJ.Narby
andF.Huxley(eds.),ShamansThroughTime:500YearsOnThePathtoKnowledge.Tarcher/Penguin:pp.
210;Eliade,Mecea(1964).Shamanism:ArchaicTechniquesofEcstasy.PrincetonUniversityPress:pp.
26669.
98UniversityofSt.Francis."MountFuji,"Ibid.
99Campbell,Joseph(1959).TheMasksofGod:PrimitiveMythology,vol.1.PenguinCompass:pp.338
9and395.

storkoracock,andawomanclothedinredwhoissometimeswinged. Thepagan
account ofher origins hold that she was brought toEarth either by the thundergod
Perknos(asadirectresultofhislightning),orelseshewascarriedonthewingsofa
sparrowwhowasbadlyburnedasaconsequenceofthisgesture.Asthespiritoffireshe
isbelievedtostimulatepersonalfertility,cattle,andevencrops.
Throughoutantiquity,herperpetualsacredflame(ventaugnis)wasmaintainedbyasect
ofpriestesses(Vaidiluts)whokindleditwithinasacredgrove,enclosedbyahighhill
nearariver(probablyintheSventaragisValley).Itwasthecult'sdutytoguardthefire
whichhadcometorepresentnotonlythelifeline,buttheancestryofthefamily,thetribe,
and the whole Baltic nation. Eventually, however, this tradition was moved indoors
wherewhatremainedofherriteshadbecometheexclusivedomainoftheclanmother,
foronlywomenservedGabija.
Naturally, most of these ceremonies took place around the central hearth
wherethegoddesswasroutinelygiventhefirstmorselateachmeal.Evenifawoman
wasbusybakingbreadshewouldfirstmaketimetofashionasmallloafforthehearth
flame,markingitwithathumbprint.And,ifbychance,asmallportionoffoodshould
fallintothefirewhileshewascooking,itwasdeemedcustomarytosay,"Gabija,be
satisfied." Asimilarsayingwasutteredwhenthedomesticfirewastraditionally"fed"
withanofferingofsalt "SacredGabija,besatiated."
EquallyasimportantwastheeveningdomesticritewhereGabijascoalswere
tenderlybanked,lestthegoddessbecomeangryandgo"forawalk,"leavingdestruction
inherwake.Afterwhich,toguardthehearthfromdyingout,theheadmistresswould
heapprayersontotheflame prayerspassedonfromhermother inordertoensureher
family'scontinuedgoodfortune.Indeed,itwastothisendthatamotherwouldbequeath
to her daughter a token flame from the ancestral hearth as a part of any wedding
ceremony.And,shouldanyclanmovetoanewresidenceorlocation,theywouldcarry
withthemalivingflametoberekindledfromtheirancestralhearth.
Fire was esteemed as a cleansing substance, and many taboos warn against
desecratingthehearthoranybonfire.Onemustnotspitatafire,norsteponoroverit;
andusingitasanagenttoincineraterubbishwasregardedasasin.Consequentially,it
wasbelievedthatfirehadeyes,socarewastakennottoharmher.Abowlofwaterwas
alsoplacednexttothehearthshouldthegoddessbesoinclinedtowashherself,withthe
words:"Batheandrest,FieryOne".
LikeitsancientpredecessorsGabija'shearthfirewasannuallyextinguishedonly
atSt.John'sEve(Jonins),nearthesummersolstice,afterwhichitwasrekindledfrom
thefestivalpyre.Duringanyfireritual,however,aspecialoaklogwaschosenforthe
communitybonfirewherefolksongs(sutartines)werechantedpraisingthegoddessin
supplication.Circlingthefiresunwise,threetimes,wasalsobelievedtostrengthenthe
rite.100
100DixonKennedy,Mike(1998).Gabij(i)a.EncyclopediaofRussianandSlavicMythandLegend.
ABCCLIO:pp.89;"Gabija".EncyclopediaBritannica(1991),15thedn.,vol.5;TheLivingGoddesses,
pp.203;LituanusFoundation,Inc.Richardson,MildaBakys(Summer,2001).JuozasJaktas:A
LithuanianCarverConfrontstheVenerableOakinLituanus:LithuanianQuarterlyJournalofArtsand
Sciences,vol.47,No.2:n.24.<http://www.lituanus.org/2001/01_2_02.htm>(Retrieved:12September,
2007);TheInfinityFoundation.InijaTrinkuniene(Researchfellow,InstituteforSocialResearch,

WiththecomingofChristianity whichattemptedtoextinguishtheholyfires Gabija

cametobeabsorbedintotheidentityofSt.Agnes,anItalianSaintassociatedwithsheep
(Lat.agnus)whowascelebratedon5February(Gabija'sfeastday).AftertheSaintwas
killed,avolcanowassaidtohaveeruptedinanger;eversinceshewasregardedasthe
guardianoffires.Breadthatwasdedicatedtoherwasemployedduringfolkritualsfor
protection, fertility and abundance. As a result, pieces of bread were buried in the
foundationofanewlyconstructedhousetopreventfiredamage.101
GHALAKHAN EKE was originally theMongolianhearthgoddess.Sheenjoyedworship
on one of the last days of the year when a sheeps breast bone was offered to her;
placations were also made to the goddess at weddings, the summer solstice when
libationswerepouredouttoher,andatspringrequestingthatthecamelsbeblessed.Her
namemeansFireQueenMother.GhalakhanEkecameintoexistencewhenthegodsof
HeavenandtheEarth,aswellasthoseofthemountains,animalsandtreeswere,asof
yet,inaprimordialstate.Hercultseemstounderscoregenealogicalcontinuityandthe
family,becauseshewasfrequentlyinvokedforfinesons,daughters,brides,andsonsin
law.Butterwasalsoofferedtoher, 102aswithotherhearthcults,suchasthatofAgniin
Indiawhereofferingsofghee(clarifiedbutter)aremade.TheMongolianhearthdeityis
nowgenerallyconceivedofasmale.103
GHOLUMTA EKE (HearthMother)isanotherearlyidentityoftheMongolianhearth
deity.104
HALTIA or Haltija is a FinnoBaltic domestic spirit (genus loci) who represents
individualsovereigntyoveraspecificplotofland. Consequently, haltia isthoughtto
derivefromtheGothic105termhaldansignifyingtheheadofanewlyfoundedresidence.
Like a doppelgnger this spirit will take on the manners and identity of whomever
establishesanewhomebykindlingafireatagivenlocation;so,presumably,thehaltia's
genderisnotfixed. A haltia couldalsobebroughtfromapreexistingresidenceasa
livingflametoberekindledatthecentralhearthofanewlocation. 106 Ultimately,this
deitymayserveasamanifestationoftheVotyak(Finnish)deity,KorkaMurt,whowas
Lithuania)."LithuanianfolkloreasasourceofBalticreligion:thefireritual".PresentedattheFirst
InternationalGatheringandConferenceofEldersofAncientTraditionsandCulturesinMumbay,India.
PresentationsponsoredbytheInfinityFoundation.
<http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/h_es/h_es_trink_i_fire_frameset.htm>(Retrieved:12
September,2007).
101CatholicCulture."CustomsontheFeastofSt.Agnes".
<http://www.catholicculture.org/liturgicalyear/activities/view.cfm?id=1005>(Retrieved:12September,
2007.);and"JuozasJaktas,"Ibid.
102Baldick,Julian(2000).AnimalandShaman:AncientReligionsofCentralAsia.I.B.Tauris:pp.117
103Dr.BrianWhite(Dir.oftheAmericanCenterforMongolianStudies),pers.comm:18August,2008.
104AnimalandShaman,Ibid.
105AnowextinctGermaniclanguagepreservedonlyincertainliterarytracts.
106EncyclopaediaBritannica,OnLine.Haltia.
<www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253091/haltia>(Retrieved:3February,2009).

thespiritofthecentralhearthflamewithinanygivenresidence;hisnamemeansManof
theHouse.107
InEstoniathehaltiaappearstohavebeenknownasHaldjasorHoldja.
HANNAHANNA ("Grandmother")wasamothergoddessworshippedbytheHittiteswho
inhabited Anatolia (modern Turkey) between the twentieth and eighteenthcenturies
BCE. Her cultanimal was the bee, which was firmly identified with the hearth.
According to Hittite mythology, she sent her sacred bees to rouse the fertilitygod,
Telepinu, whose absence was causing famine and devastation throughout the known
world.108
HESTIAwasthedomestichearthgoddessworshippedthroughoutGreece.Accordingto
GreekmythshewasthefirstborneprogenyofRheaandKronos.However,afterithad
beenprophesiedthatoneofhisoffspringwouldbringabouthisdownfall,Kronosmade
thedecisiontodevoureachinfantinturn.ItwasonlybeforethebirthofZeusthatthe
griefstrickenRheacontrivedtospareheryoungestchildfromthesamegruesomefate,so
shedisguisedalargerockasthebelovednewbornandpresentedthiseffigytohisfather
tobeconsumed. Theearthgoddess(Gaea)agreedtohidethegodlingawayatCrete
withinasecludedcaveuntilhegrewtomanhood.
EventuallyposingasKronos'cupbearerZeusspikedhisfather'smeadwithanemetic
potionforcingtheoldgodtospewforthhisimmortalbrood,withHestiathelasttobe
expelledfromKronos'gapingmaw.Afterwards,uponGaea'swisecouncilZeuswageda
heavenlywaragainstthetyrannicalKronos,finallystrikinghimdownwithathunderbolt
andbanishinghimtothemistydepthsofTartarus(anabysmalregionlocatedbeneath
Hades).
WiththeascensionofZeustoMountOlympus,Hestiachosetoabdicateherseat
alongsidetheothergodssothatshemighttendboththesacrificialanddomestichearth
flame after teaching humankind toconstruct homes. But, after Apollo and Poseidon
attemptedtoseducethegoddessshesoughtoutZeusvowingthatshewouldpreferto
remainavirginallherdays.Grantingherrequest,thekingofthegodsalsodecreedthat
Hestia should receive the first and last morsels in oblation at each meal throughout
Greece,aswellasthefirstsacred"victim"ofeachpublicsacrifice.109
ThedomesticGreekhearthwasnotastationarystructure,butinsteadaportablebrazier
that was kept perpetually alight. It symbolized purity and was the focal point for
marriageceremonies:anewbridewouldbeledbytorchlightfollowinghermothertothe
houseofhernewfamily.Uponarrivalabenignshoweroffruits,coinsandnuts(symbols
107KorkaMurt.RussianandSlavicMythandLegend,pp.154.
108Finegan,Jack(1989).Myth&Mystery:AnIntroductiontothePaganReligionsoftheBiblical
World.BakerAcademic:pp.121;Johnston,SarahIles(2004).ReligionsoftheAncientWorld.Harvard
UniversityPress:pp.405;Jordan,Michael(2004).DictionaryofGodsandGoddesses(SecondEdn.).
FactsOnFile:pp.111.
109Cashford,Jules(trans.2003).HymntoAphrodite.TheHomericHymns.PenguinClassics:pp.86;
ClassicalETexts:Theoi.Com.DiodorusSiculus(trans.C.H.Oldfather).LibraryofHistory,5.68.1.
<http://www.theoi.com/Text/DiodorusSiculus5C.html>(Retrieved:10February,2009);Hesiod(trans.M.
L.West,1988).TheoganyandWorksandDays.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.1618.

of abundance) were poured out uponthe bride as she was ritually introduced to the
ancestralhearthflame.110Duringthecourseoftheirmarriage,however,carewastaken
afterintercoursenottoexposeone'ssemencoveredgenitalsinthedirectionofthehearth
in a gesture of respect.111 And, when the time came to perpetuate the family line,
newbornswouldbeintroducedtothehearthwithinfivedaysoftheirbirthaftertheir
fatherhaddeterminedthattheinfantshouldbekeptorrejected.Thissimpleceremony,
knownasthe amphidromia,involvedthebabebeingcarriedaroundthehearthbyits
father.112 Although,shouldonedesiretofoundanewhomeorfamily,aparceloffire
fromtheancestralhearthflamewouldbecarriedtoanewdwellingandkindledthere. 113
However,acommonfearwasperpetuatedthattoeitherbanishordestroyarivalfamilys
linerequiredthattheirancestralhearthflamebeintentionallydoused.114
Indeed,perhapsbyextension,thedomestichearthwasrituallyextinguishedonlyonce,
withthedeathofaresident;but,aftertheproperperiodofmourningnewfirewasfetched
from the civichearth flame at the city hall to rekindle any domestic fires. 115
Furthermore, an inscription recovered from the firstcentury CE in Ephesus strongly
suggests that Hestia's civilcult may have resembled that of Vesta with a chaste
priesthood,eachofwhomtendedtheperpetualstatehearthforasetperiodoftime.116
DespitetheadventofChristianityduringthelatefourthcentury CE whichcommanded
thatallpagantemplesbeclosedordemolishedonpenaltyofdeath, 117domestichearth
worship (among other forms of folkpaganism) continued as late as the 1820s when
RenellRodd,aBritishofficerstationedinGreece,recordedthatfamilieswouldtakewith
thematokenoftheirperpetualhearthflametoberekindledwhenmovingtoanew
residence.118
HINUKANisahearthgoddessworshippedthroughoutOkinawa,Japan;sheensuresthe
safetyofeachhousehold.Herritesareconductedbytheeldestfemaleresidinginthe
home.However,itisnotdeemedcustomaryformentoprayatherhearth,probably
becausemaleshaveneverbeenassociatedwithreligiousauthorityinthisregionofJapan.
110Boedeker,Deborah(2008)."FamilyMatters:DomesticReligioninClassicalGreece",inJohnBodel
andSaulM.Olyan(eds.),HouseholdandFamilyReligioninAntiquity.BlackwellPublishing:pp.241;
Burkert,Walter(1985).GreekReligion.HarvardUniversityPress:pp.61;Mikalson,JonD.(2005).
AncientGreekReligion.BlackwellPublishing:pp.136and157n.1;Oakley,JohnH.andRebeccaH.Sinos
(1993).TheWeddinginAncientAthens.TheUniversityofWisconsinPress:pp.34.
111TheoganyandWorksandDays,pp.589.
112"FamilyMatters",pp.241;ReligionsoftheAncientWorld,pp.445.
113Guirand,Felix(trans.RichardAldingtonandDelanoAmes,1968).GreekMythologyinNew
LarousseEncyclopediaofMythology.TheHamlynPublishingGroupLimited:pp.136.
114GreekReligion,pp.170.
115FamilyMatters,pp.234;GreekReligion,pp.61.
116Lefkowitz,MaryR.andMaureenB.Fant(1992).WomensLifeinGreeceandRome:ASourcebook
inTranslation.SecondEdn.TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:pp.302;AncientGreekReligion,pp.
155.
117Kirsch,Jonathan(2005).GodAgainsttheGods:TheHistoryoftheWarBetweenMonotheismand
Polytheism.PenguinCompass:pp.2734.
118AHistoryofPaganEurope,pp.193.

Hinukanisesteemedasthemediatorbetweenthegodsandmankind.Thecultichearth
wasconstructedintimespastwiththreestonesthatwereplacedinsideabox,upona
layerofash,andthenpositionednexttoanoillamp;but,today,aceramiccenser(kouro)
isemployedtopetitionthehearthdeity.Accordingtotradition,whenthematriarchofthe
homedies,hersuccessordestroysthecensorandestablishesanewoneinhonorofthe
firegoddess.119 Of course, women have always held an honorary position within
Okinawanreligiouslifeinthebeliefthattheyarespirituallysuperiortomentheyare
the natural intercessors between mankind and the supernatural. Household rites
associatedwiththehearthareusuallycommencedonthefirstandfifteenthofeachmonth
wheretheseniorfemalepraystoHinukan,reportingtheactivitiesofthoselivingwithin
thehome;thehearthgoddessthenrelaysthismessagebacktothehighergods.Thanks
andrequestsarethenmade,oftenwithprayersofferedtotheflameofthehearthinscribed
ontopiecesofwoodorpaper.AtanearlierageinJapanesehistoryitwasthoughtthat
each household chose a virginal daughter to guard the hearth flame from being
extinguished.120HernamemeansHearthDeity.

HWEILU or Wei was originally a Chinese firegoddess, but gradually came to be

recognizedasthespiritofthehearth(Tsaoshin)bytheendoftheseventhcenturyBCE.
ThecaretakerofanancestraltempleatLuisthoughttohavefirstworshippedherinthis
form,sacrificingtothegoddesswithfirewoodthathehadsetablaze.Hercultassumeda
roleofonlymarginalimportancewithinnativefolkreligionforthenextfivehundred
years;itwasonlyuntiltheearlysecondcentury,whenanEmperorfromtheHandynasty
officially adopted Hweilu as a member of the imperialcult. Indeed, by the late
nineteenthcenturyCEthepresidingspiritofthehearthhadnowcometoberegardedas
oneofthemostpreeminentdeitiesofChina.Thegoddesswascommonlyimaginedasa
beautifulwomandressedinred;while,duringthelatethirdcenturyBCE,EmperorKao
tsu,decreedhertobeFirstCook(Sientchvei)anepithetofapparentimportancewithin
theregionofTsinregardlessofthefactthatanalternativeepithet,SpiritoftheFurnace
(Tsuanshin),wasregardedwithequalimportanceatthattime.Itwasduringthiscentury
that her gender was redefined, and her identity as the male kitchengod firmly
established. But, Chinese folkreligion has retained a germ of diversity relatively
commontothenativehearthcultsfoundthroughoutAsiaticcultures.Asaresult,some
householdsstillreverebothahearthgoddessandahearthgod,knownbylocaltitles.In
the district of Fuhtchou, for example, the Prince of the Hearth (Chau Kung) was
worshippedalongsidetheMotheroftheHearth(ChauMa)asadivinepair.
Duringthelateseventhcentury BCE,itwasdecreedthatallhearthsthroughoutChina
mustbeextinguishedforthreedaysprecedingthevernalequinoxinorderthatthey
might be annually renewed; during this period, all food must be eaten raw. The
MarquessWen(achieftainsdaughter),andhusbandtoKeWei,establishedthisedict;it
119Okinawa.Com:Religion.KeystoOkinawanCulturepub.bytheOkinawanPrefectural
Government(1992).<http://okinawa.com/content/blogcategory/35/72/lang,en/>(Retrieved:4July,2007).
120NanzanUniversity.Reichl,ChristopherA.TheOkinawanNewReligionIjun:Innovationand
DiversityintheGenderofRitualSpecialists.JapaneseJournalofReligiousStudies.20.4(1993).
<http://www.ic.nanzanu.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/403.pdf>(Retrieved:20August,2008).

wasaftertheMarquesswhomthegoddesscametobeeuhemerizedundertheidentityof
Wei. The impetus for this annual custom was the primitive notion that fire was a
substanceofpurification.Asaresult,ateachseasonalportal,largestatebonfireswere
kindledinordertowardoffanyevilinfluencesandmisfortunefromtheapproaching
quarter. Especial kindling from a certain species of wood was chosen for these
ceremonies.121
KLUMOisaTibetandragongoddess,andanindelibleaspectofthelocalhearthdeityin
theformofascorpion;howeverthetransliterationofhernamemaymeanDragon
GoddessorDragonsDaughter.Sheisusuallyimaginedasawomanofremarkable
beauty; wearing white garments she was also adorned with jade jewelry and carried
spoonsmadeofgold.However,itwasduetoheridentityasthehearthgoddessthatthe
scorpioncametoberegardedasherterrestrialincarnation.Hence,Tibetshearthdeityis
portrayedthroughouthomesasascorpiondrawnonwallsaboveonesstoveinwhite
pigmentsintimatingKluMosgarments;whilewallsthatfacedoorsaredecoratedwith
scorpion motifs scrawled ineitherredorblackpaints.This latter artistictradition is
probably an apotropaic device meant to banish baneful spirits, while encouraging
beneficialentities,inordertodrawprosperousblessingsforagenerousyieldoffoodand
beverage.122
LAMARIA wasahearthgoddessveneratedbytheSvanpeopleresidinginthewestern
Caucasusregionwhereshewastheespecialpatronessofwomenandcattle.Hername
appearstohavebeeninfluencedbylaterChristianreligiousascendancy. 123 Totheeast,
however,resideaclanknownastheOssetianswithwhomtheSvanhavebeenincontact
formanycenturies;theyworshippedapatriarchalhearthgod(Safa)whowasassociated
withthelineageoftheclan.Childrenandnewlymarriedcoupleswereplacedunderhis
care.124 ItispossiblethatthecultofLamariaeitherabsorbedortransferredanative
religiousbeliefdealingwithbothclancontinuityandmarriageritesasaconsequenceof
theircontactwiththeOssetianpeople.
LODUNA:TheScandinaviangoddesswhowasregardedasthepatronoffire,thecentral
hearth,andherdanimals.UnderthesharedSlavonicorLithuanianidentityofLadashe
bearsfurtherconnectionswithfertility(whenpairedwithhertwinbrother,Lado),aswell
astheseasonofSpring;andasaconsequenceofherassociationswithbeautyithasbeen
suggestedthatshemayrepresentaBalticvariationoftheNorsegoddess,Freyjawithher

121TerriendeLacouperie,AlbertEtienne(1894).WesternOriginoftheEarlyChineseCivilizationfrom
2,300B.C.to200A.D.AdamantMedia:pp.1603.
122ChinaTibetologyMagazine,No.06."TheEvolutionofOrnamentalDecorationinTibetan
ResidentialHousing"(trans.QinLili,2001),bySharrandbangvdus.
<http://eng.tibet.cn/culture/tibetology/200801/t20080117_355788.htm>(Retrieved:5April,2007).
123Verlag,AlfredKrmer(trans.ManfredLurker,1987).Lamaria.TheRoutledgeDictionaryof
GodsandGoddesses,DevilsandDemons.Routledge:pp.109.
124Safa.Op.cit.,pp.164.

phallicfertilitygodbrother,Freyr. Asthemanifestationoftheformer,Ladawasthe
particularpatronofSlavonicnewlywedcouples.125
MARA was a Slavonic hearthgoddess of fate worshipped until the beginning of the
twentiethcentury. She is viewed as an elderly woman sitting atop a stove at night,
spinningthethreadofonesdestiny.Itwasduringthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury
thatoneRussianmythographerrecordedtheaccountofanoldwomanwhowouldnot
leaveherspinningwithoutfirstprayingtoMaraforfearthatthegoddessmightbreakand
entangleherworkoutofspite.Thegoddesswasalsofondofhorses,anditwasbelieved
that she would braid their manes or tails and ride them furiously; although shealso
possessedtheabilitytoshapeshiftintotheguiseofamareherself. 126Maramayalsobea
localidentityoftheRussiangoddessSmert.
Smertwasconceivedofasaskeletalfigurewhoseauthoritycoveredtheprovenanceof
onesdestiny.Slavicsongsofexorcism[anativeformofworship]weresungtoher
throughoutthenineteenthcentury,castigatingherasanemissaryofdeath.Throughout
onefolksongelderlymenweredeemedtheguardiansofapreternaturalcauldronthat
servedasthefontofallLife;itwastheirdutytoheaveapotropaiccurses uponthe
goddessforherplight.127
MarasnameiscognatewiththeRussiannounmor,indicatingaplagueorpestilenceit
isultimatelyaderivativeofthePolishandSerbiangoddessMora,aswellastheSlavonic
goddessMaruchi;howeversmert,inRussian,alsoindicatesdeathordisease.
MATKAGABIAwasthePolishidentityofthehearthgoddessandguardianofthehome;
sheseemstohaveherantecedentsinLithuania.128 ThroughoutcontemporaryPoland,
however, her identity has largely been superseded by Mary,the much later virginal
motheroftheChristiansaviorgod.Accordingtolocalcustomsthathavesurvivedtothe
earlytwentiethcentury,eachhouseholdhearthisannuallyextinguishedontheChristian
festivalofEasterwhichrequiresamemberoftheresidence(usuallythehousewife)to
fetchfirefromthelocalchurchbylightingablessedcandlefromanalreadyburning
votive;thisisusedtorekindlethedomestichearthflameaswellasasmalllanternset
beforeanimageoftheMadonnacalledtheEternalLamp.129 Atanearlierstagein
Polishhistorythepositionofthechurchwascertainlyservedbythecivichearthofthe
communitywhichmayhavebeentendedbyacultofPriestesses.Eachfamilyhearthalso
featuresprominentlyinlocalweddingceremonies.Atsomepointaftertheservices,the
bridewillbeledfromherownparentsstovebyhernewmotherinlaw(ariteknownas
theprzenosiny,orremoval)tothehearthofherhusbandsfamilywheresheisformally
125Cummins,AdleyH.(October,1883).SlavonicMythology.TheChautauquan:AMonthly
MagazineDevotedtothePromotionofTrueCulture,vol.4.TheChautaquanPress:pp.35;Lada.
RussianandSlavicMythandLegend,pp.163;MotherRussia,pp.61.
126WhencetheGoddess,pp.64.
127Afanas'ev(18651869),Vol.I:pp.556567;citedinIbid.
128Parker,PhilipM.(ed.2008).MatkaGabia.Lithuania:WebstersQuotations,FactsandPhrases.
ICONGroupInternational:pp.262.
129Benet,Sula(1951).Song,Dance,andCustomsofPeasantPoland.PolishHeritagePublications:pp.
523.

introducedaskin. Fromthismomentonwarditwillbeherresponsibilitytotendthe
hearthflameandtopreventitfromdyingout.130
AnothersurvivalofIndoEuropeanpaganantiquitysuperfluouslyrelatedtothehearth
cultmaybeobservedonthenightofSaintJohnsEve(24June)whenthecelebratory
bonfireofthatfestivalmustbekindledbythefrictionoftwosticksintimatingafiredrill;
thoughflintisalsousedonoccasion.131
THEMRRGHAN Aterritoriallandgoddessassociatedwiththescaldcrowandnative
ritesofsovereignty;itwasthroughouttheeleventhcentury CEmanuscriptknownasthe
Lebor Gabla renn (Taking of Ireland) that monastic scribes identified her
unequivocallyastheIrishmothergoddess,Anann.Sheisalsothepersonificationofthe
FeastofSamhain(theonsetofwinter),whichhasbeentranslatedasSummersEnd. 132
However,herdominionalsoextendedtowardsthehearthforwenotemanytopographical
placenamesregardedasthe FulachtnaMrrgna,ortheMrrghansHearththey
wereancientcookingsitestypicallydemarcatedbyscorchedearthandmaterialremains,
though when theywereoriginally inuseasource ofwaterwas always keptnear at
hand.133 Atalefromthe Dindsenchas (LoreofPlaces)holdsthatamagicalcooking
apparatus(perhapsacauldron)bearinghernamewassaidtobelocatedattheHillofTara
(the ritual center of Ireland)it could be dismantled and reassembled, probably not
unlike the plates of the Gundestrap Cauldron from Denmark; but the device also
possessed the unique ability to cook three different kinds of meat, each at varying
temperatures.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthecookingspitmayassociateherwiththeskills
ofmetallurgy,orotherwiserevealshertobeagoddessofplenty. 134Although,herhearth
mayalsohavebeenoneoftheancienttoolsthatwererequiredbyasmith.135
Inauniquelycodifyingphenomenon,however,itwasduringthesixteenthcentury CE
that her consort, the Daghdha (a chieftaingod or sun and storm), made a regular
appearanceunderthefolkguiseofBeelzebubthroughoutBritishMummingplaysin
whichhebrandishedaclubandafryingpan.136

130Op.cit.,pp.176,1789.
131Op.cit.,pp.71,72.
132Bhreathnach,Maire(1982).TheSovereigntyGoddessasGoddessofDeath?,Zeitschriftfr
CeltischePhilologie,39:pp.243260;Cunliffe,Barry(1997).TheAncientCelts.PenguinBooks:pp.185
6;CelticHeroicAge:pp.259;MacCana,Proinsias(19556).AspectsoftheThemeofKingandGoddess
inIrishLiterature,tudesCeltiques,7:pp.76114,356413;MacCana,Proinsias(19589).Aspectsof
theThemeofKingandGoddessinIrishLiterature",tudesCeltiques,8:pp.5965;Goddesses.The
LoreofIreland,pp.2756;VictoriaSimmons.SovereigntyMyth.CelticCulture,vol.4,pp.162122.
133Hennessy,W.M.TheAncientIrishGoddessofWar.RevueCeltique,I(18701872),545.
134Clark,Rosalind(1991).TheGreatQueens:IrishGoddessesfromtheMorrgantoCathleenn
Hulihan.IrishLiteraryStudies34.Barnes&NobleBooks:pp.35.
135Hyde,Douglas(June,1916).TheCookingoftheGreatQueen:(FulachtNaMrrigna),TheCeltic
Review,10(40):pp.33550.
136Hutton,Ronald(1994).TheRiseandFallofMerryEngland:TheRitualyearof14001700.Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.8.

NANTOSVELTA(MeanderingBrook)wasaGalloRomanicravengoddessworshipped
throughoutthedistrictsofwesternGermany,easternFrance,andtheeastmidlandsof
Britain. Images dedicated to her typically portray the goddess grasping a long pole
surmounted by a small houseeffigy; while other iconic reliefs associated with
Nantosvelta include a patera (an offering dish), three honeycombs, a pot (probably
intendedtoholdwine,meadoroil),thesteeringrudderofFortuna,andpossiblyfruitora
cornucopia. However, in the Rhineland district of western Germany, the occupying
Romanlegionmayhaveequatedherwiththeirvirginalmoongoddess,Diana, 137where
sheappearsinreliefwithabowandcaninecompanion.
Asaresultofherdomesticfeatures,ithasbeensuggestedthatsherepresents(albeit
tenuously)thespiritofthehomeanditscentralhearth,whowasveneratedasthesource
ofplentyandabundance.138Moreover,NantosveltamayexemplifyaContinentalidentity
ofTheMrrghan139 committedtothefertilityoftheEarthanddomesticsovereignty.
Thisisimpliedbycarvingsthatusuallydepict thegoddesswitharaven,suchasthe
lowerregister from the Sarrebourg relief (in northeastern France) and her frequent
consort,theGalloBritishthundergod,Sucellos("TheGoodStriker");heisfeaturedwith
ashorttunicandapotoracauldron,whilewieldingagreatmalletthatservesashis
ubiquitous thunderweapon (a GermanoCeltic motif that associates the god with the
typologyofThor'shammerandTheDaghda'sclub).140Thenameofthegoddesscould
implyarelationshipwithBand,loverofTheDaghdaandpersonificationoftheBoyne
river;or,alternatively,itmaysignifythecopulationbetweenTheMrrghanandThe
DaghdawhileshewasobservedbyhimbathingastridetheUniusRiveratSamhain.
OTNisthevirginalKazakhstaniFireMotherwhoisregularlyofferedalibationof
oil;however,thespiritofthesacredflameisinvokedunderthistitleonlyonceduringthe
lifeofanygivenhomeatonesmarriagerite. 141Thelocalcommunitiesregardherasa
cronepoisedprotectivelyoverthestove,someeventestifytothebeliefthatshecan
perpetuateherselfwithouttheassistanceofamale.Hersacredflamewasalsobelieved
topurifygametrapsandhuntingclothes.142

137ThepriestessesofArtemis(herGreekcoeval)werefrequentlyreferredtoasMelissae,orbees,
whichmayunderscorethetrebledhoneycombsymbolismfoundatSarrebourg(France).
138Nantosuelta.Green,MirandaJ.(1992).DictionaryofCelticMythandLegend.Thamesand
Hudson:pp.1578;Green,Miranda(1995).CelticGoddesses:Warriors,VirginsandMothers.British
MuseumPress:pp.12831;CelticMythology,pp.389.
139PaganCelticBritain,pp.314.
140Davidson,H.R.Ellis(1988).MythsandSymbolsofPaganEurope:EarlyScandinaviaandCeltic
Religions.SyracuseUniversityPress:pp.207;CelticGoddesses,Ibid.;Sucellus.Dict.ofCeltic
Mythology,pp.393.
141Privratsky,BruceG.(2001).MuslimTurkistan:KazakReligionandCollectiveMemory.Routledge:
pp.13436.
142Monaghan,Patricia(2010).PozaMama.EncyclopediaofGoddessesandHeroines,2vols.
ABCClio:pp.144.

PANK or Panicke is a Prussian firegoddess who personified the domestic hearth

flame; her name means the little fire. 143 Throughout the Eifel Mountain region of
Prussiaafolktraditionwasrecordedthattookplaceduringanearlyspringfestival(the
firstSundayofLent)inwhichlocalyoungpeoplewouldgatherstrawandbrushwood
from house to house. Their yield was then carried to an esteemed beechtree where
planksofwoodwerefastenedatrightanglesformingasolarcross,orswastika.Itwas
thensetablazeasyouthsdancedaroundit,carryingtorchesandofferingprayers.During
the ceremonies the residents were keen to observe the direction inwhich the smoke
drifted;ifitdriftedtowardstheirparticularwheatfieldtheywouldyieldanabundantcrop
followingtheharvestseason.144 UltimatelyPank,whoseflamesymbolizedhappiness

and purity, was the Prussian manifestation of the Baltic goddesses, Uguns Mte and
Gabija. Similarly to these latter deities, local inhabitants also imagine Pank in the
ornithomorphicguiseofacockorastorkthattraditionassociateswithboththehearth
andthecommunity.145 Thesanctitybestoweduponthedomestichearthflameandits
virginalattendeeswasclearlyemphasizedwhen,uponleavingthehouseofherparents,a
youngPrussianwifewasheardtoask:Thouholyfire,whowillguardthee?146
POZAMAMAisaSiberiangoddesswholivedinthehearthwhereshekepttheextended
familyunitalivethroughherwarmth;hernamemeansMistressoftheFire. Asa
prayerrequestingfoodtheUlchitribesatiatedthegoddessbyspittingthefirstmouthful
ofnourishmentateachmealintoPozaMamasflame.147
SULTheLatviansungoddessisalsoregardedasthedomestichearth;andthehouse
snake(altys)thatresidesbehindthehearthislovedbyher. 148Accordingtotradition,
Sulfellinlovewiththemoongod(MnessorMnuo),andfromtheirunionwasborne
theearthgoddess(emyna).However,Mnesshadawanderingeye,andbegananaffair
withthedawngoddess(Aurin).Aftertheirseparationacustodybattlefortheearth
ensued,withthethundergod(Perknas)servingasarbiter.Itwassubsequentlydecided
by him that Sul would look after emyna during the day, with Mness achieving
custodyatnight.149 Balticpagansperceivedthesunas awomanridinginacopper
wheeledchariotacrossthevaultofheaven,onlyceasingherdailyjourneywhenevening
fellinordertowashherhorsesbythesea.ThroughoutBalticareasitwascustomaryto
kindleaflameatopapoleaclearsolarmotifthatwasestablishedonasacredhill.150
143TheBalts.Op.cit.,pp.204.
144Frazer,JamesG.(1890).TheGoldenBough.GramercyBooks:Vol.II,pp.2478.
145TheBalts,Ibid.
146EncyclopediaofReligionandEthics,PartIII,vol.3,Ibid.
147Diszegi,VilmosandAntalReguly(1968).PopularBeliefsandFolkloreTraditioninSiberia.
WalterDeGruyterInc:pp.471;PozaMama.EncyclopediaofGoddesses,pp.14344.
148AHistoryofPaganEurope,pp.174.
149WhencetheGoddess,pp.3940
150AHistoryofPaganEurope,Ibid.

SLIS MINERVA isaRomanoCelticgoddesswhosefamoustempleatBath(England)

concealedaperpetualflame.151Inlightofthethermalspringwhereshewasbelievedto
reside, and the anatomic votive offerings present there, she is a goddess primarily
concernedwithhealing;thoughshealsopossessedamalevolentcharacterasrevealedby
theleadcursetablets(defixiones)inscribedwithpleasbeseechingthegoddesstoconquer
one'sadversaries.152 DuringtheRomanoccupationofBritain,Slisbecameconflated
withtheforeigngoddessofwisdom,Minerva:avirginwarrioresswhowasprimarily
associatedwithtrades,crafts,andalsohealing. 153Asaresultofthisdata(includingthe
localBritishhealingcult),itisgenerallyacceptedthatSlisisalocalidentityoftheIrish
goddess,Brighid.154Thisidentityismoreclearlyillustratedwhenonetakesintoaccount
the Gorgon's headmotif that traditionally occurs throughout Roman cultimages
dedicatedtoMinervaalatecarvingofBrigantiafromDumfriesshire(England)features
this motif, as does a relief carving of a (possibly solar) male gorgon which is also
intimatelyfeaturedwiththeSliscult.155
SVASTI (wellbeing)isaHindugoddessprimarilyassociatedwiththehearth,home,
anditscontinuedprosperity.Commonlyonewillnotethepresenceofmanyritualfires
dedicatedtotheHindugods,routinelystationedwithinIndianhomes,oftenatthefour
cardinalpoints.HernameisphilologicallyrelatedtotheGermanictermswastikaandthe
Greekword euestike.The swastika ishericonoclasticreligious motif andubiquitously
associatedwiththesun,withitsyearlypassagethroughoutthesolaryear.Theswastika,
orsolarcross,isalsoassociatedwithfirebecauseitconstitutesarudimentarytoolthe
firedrillfashionedfromtwodrystickswhosecontinuedrotationwillsparkaflame.
Furthermore,hernamedenotesluck,fortune,success,andhappiness;svastiisfrequently
usedasacommonsalutation.
SYN,accordingtotheNorseSkldskaparml,wasagiantesswhopersonifiedthehearth
and who may have been associated with ones ancestry concerned specifically with
decadency.Hernamemeansrefusalordenial.Ultimately,shefiguresasoneofa
groupingoflateheathenmothergoddessesoffertilityidentifiedasthe dsir,whowere
chieflycelebratedduringafestivalcalledtheDisingatthebeginningofFebruary.156
151deVries,Jan(1977).LaReligiondesCeltes.Payothque:pp.867;CelticGoddesses,pp.94;
Markale,Jean(1986).WomenoftheCelts.InnerTraditions:pp.38.
152CelticGoddesses,pp.9399.
153Sulis.Dict.ofCelticMythandLegend,pp.20003;Ovid(tr.A.S.Kline,2004).Metamorphosis.
Borders:pp.73.
154Brigantia.Dict.ofRomanReligion,pp.334;CelticGoddesses,pp.199;StationsoftheSun,pp.
135;McCone,Kim(1990).PaganPastandChristianPresentinEarlyIrishLiterature.Maynooth:pp.
1645;CelticMythology,pp.324;Macbain,Alexander(1884).CelticMythology.TheCeltic
Magazine,vol.9:pp.212;PaganCelticBritain,pp.4523.
155Mann,Michelle.Sulis.CelticCulture,vol.4,pp.163536.
156Simek,Rudolf(trans.AngelaHall,1993).dsir.DictionaryofNorthernMythology.Boydell&
Brewer:pp.612;Disting.Op.cit.,pp.62;Syn.Op.cit.,pp.309;Sturluson,Snorri(trans.&ed.
AnthonyFaulkes,1987).Edda.Everyman:pp.30,85.

TABITIorTahitiwastheScythianhearthgoddesswhomtheGreekhistorian,Herodotus,
identifiedwithHestia.Shewasthemostimportantofallothertribaldeitiesincluding
Papus (Zeus) and his native consort, pia (Gaea or Hera)because she
representedthecontinuationofthetriballineofdescentastheScythianancestralmother.
Herodotusfurthernotedmanylocaldiscrepanciesintheworshipofthelocalgods,such
asarejectiontowardsthecustomaryuseofholyidols(aniconic,orotherwise),altars,and
temples;savefortheScythianAres,whopossessedaroughhewntempleandwas
symbolicallyrepresentedbyasword.Healsonotedthatthegodswereusuallyofferedan
oblationwhichconsistedofabeastthathadbeenboundwithcording,strangled,flayed,
andthemeatsubsequentlyboiledinacauldron;afterwhich,aportionofthemeatwould
beplacedontothegroundbeforetheofficiatingPriestintherespectivedeityshonor. 157
HernamemaystemfromtheProtoIndoEuropeanrootword*tep(behot/burn),orit
158
mayotherwisebeacorruptionoftheIndoIranianepithet*Tapit(theburningone).

TLACHTGA was an Irish hearthgoddess ofwitchcraft principally associated with the

festivalofSamhain.Accordingtolocaltraditionshewasthedaughterofthearchdruid
Mug Ruith under whom she studied magic. Subsequently she was raped by three
successivemenandboretothemthreesonsleadingtoherowndeathupontheHillof
Tlachtga(nowWardHill).ThewinterfiresofSamhainwereannuallykindledthereby
strikingtogethertwooaklogs;and,itwasfromthisflamethatlivecoalswerepassed
abouttoeveryresidentwhowouldthenreignitehisorherownhearthflamethatwas
extinguished on this night.159 Tlachtga was also credited with having constructed a
mysteriousRowingWheelfromtwostoneswhichwasreputedtofly,anditcouldeven
strikeanyobserverwhoseteyesonitwithblindness.160Thismayassociateherwiththe
sun,aswheelswerefrequentlyemployedasiconographicrepresentationsofCelticor
IndoEuropeansolarandskydeities.161
TOGMUHONI("FireSpirit")isthehearthdeityoftheEveny162people,anomadictribe
livingthroughoutnorthernSiberia. Thelivingflameisregardedas"thefoundationof
life",becauseitisemployedforbothnecessarywarmthandtheproductionofnourishing
foodintheharshcircumpolarclimate.Reverencefortheflamewasalsoextendedtothe
emigrationalhabitsoftheEveny,whowouldbesuretokindletheflameanewwithlarch
157DeerGoddess,pp.165;Herodotus(trans.GeorgeRawlinsonanded.ManuelKomroff,1943).The
HistoryofHerodotus:BookIV(c.447BCE).TudorPublishingCompany:pp.221222.
158IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth,pp.267.
159IrelandinPrehistory,pp.230;"Tlachtga".Dict.ofCelticMythology,pp.4067;Morton,Lisa
(2003).Tlachtga.TheHalloweenEncyclopedia.McFarland:pp.1745.
160OGrady,JohnSheil(1908).TheHistoryandAntiquitiesoftheDistrictsofRathcooleand
Saggart.JournaloftheArchologySocietyoftheCountyofKildareandSurroundingDistricts,vol.5:
pp.6978;Stokes,Whitley(1893).TheEdinnburghDinnshenchas.FolkLore:AQuarterlyReviewof
Myth,Tradition,Institution,&Custom,vol.4:pp.47196.
161wheel/Wheelgod.Dict.ofCelticMythandLegend,pp.22526;IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth,
pp.2013.
162"Even"isthesingularformofthistribe'sname.However,toavoidconfusionIhave(withDr.Piers
Vitebsky)adoptedthepluralform,"Eveny".

treelogs(Larixspp.)whensettinguptheirtentatanewlocation.Theimportanceofthis
customwastoultimatelysecurethepermissionofthelocallandspirits.
Stepsareroutinelytakentofeedthehearthatthestartofeverymeal,whichconsistsofa
draftofvodka;though,inpreRussianSiberia,thisofferingwouldhavebeenreindeer
meat.Evenytribesmenwhofindthemselvesresidinginanapartmentbuildingalsomake
itahabittotossasmallamountofvodkaontoanelectricburner.However,shouldone
absentlyforgettofeedthehearth,ornourishitwithonlyleftoversandscraps,theymay
bepunishedbybothnightmaresandafeelingofgeneralmalaiseinresponse.Moreover,
rubbishisnotallowedtocontaminatethehearthduetoalocaltaboopertainingtothe
purityoftheflameanditsindwellingspirit.
Tribaleldersalsospeakoftheapotropaicnatureofthehearth:inordertokeep
evilspiritsatbayoneshouldkeeptheflameperpetuallyburningthroughoutthenight,
thoughinpracticetherealitywasquitedifferent.Thehearthfireisalsobelievedtobring
messages of forewarning, either of an approaching guest, dread news, or perhaps
revealingtheoutcomeofaforthcominghuntdependinguponsoundsemittedfromthe
flame(itsspeech).
The gender of Tog Muhoni remains a matter of some personal difference: a
minorityoftheEvenyregardthespiritoffireasdistinctlyfemale,thoughmostseemto
viewitasmale,oftenimposinganidealizedmaleimageontothedeityusuallythatof
anesteemedrelative.163
UGUNSMTE isaLatviangoddesswhosenamemeansFireMother.Throughoutthe
BalticregionsofEuropetheflamewasrecognizedasasymbolforjoyandhappiness,as
wellaspurity.UgunsMteisusuallyesteemedastheLatvianidentityforGabijaand
Pank.Hence,sheisthepersonificationoftheBalticventaugnis,orholyfire,which
was kindled by priests within sacred groves, and on high hilltops, as well as near
riverbanks.Shewasalsobelievedtotaketheformofabird.164
UAS istheHindudawngoddess;shewasonceworshipedinearlierVedictradition,
however,asthespiritofthedomestichearthflamewhocoulddriveawaybothdarkness
andevilspirits.Ritualfireswerekindledinherhonoreachmorningwhendawnbroke.
WithintheSanskrithymnssheisacknowledgedasthevirginaldaughterofeitherDyaus
orIndra,therespectiveskyfatherandthundergod;thetextsalsopraiseUasforher
famousredcows,andherabilitytobestowbothwealth(perhapsintheformofcattle)
andstrongmaleheirs.Thegoddessofthedawnwasalsorenownedforbringingonage
as with her Greek counterpart, Eos, who fell in love with a Trojan prince named
Tithonus;shebeggedZeustoconferuponhimimmortality,butforgettingtorequest
eternalyouthherlovereventuallyshriveledawayintoahusk,becomingapipingcicada.
Fundamentally,Uasseemstofindheridentityasahearthgoddessofthedawn
mirroredintheIrishgoddessturnedSaint,Brighid.LikeherVediccousin,Brighidwas
siredbythenativeskyandthundergod,TheDaghdaatraditionthatwouldhavebeen
163Vitebsky,Piers(2005).TheReindeerPeople:LivingwithAnimalsandSpiritsinSiberia.Houghton
Mifflin:pp.8590.
164TheBalts,Ibid.

foreign to the Classicallyinfluenced monastic scribes who might otherwise have

understoodthenaturalfatherofthedawngoddesstohavebeenthegodofthesun,as
withEosandAurora.RedcattleisalsoatypicalfeatureoftheHindudawngoddess,a
signaturethatwemayobserveinIrelandwhenweobservethatBrighidwasnursedonthe
milk of a white Otherworld cow with red ears. More directly, however, Uas was
explicitly addressed as bhat, meaning Great Lady, serving as an IndoEuropean
cognatetoBrighidsowndesignationbythenativeBrigantestribethroughoutEurope,
*Brigant.
However, somewhat more generally, we encounter allusions within the Indo
European traditions that can be interpreted rather successfully as signifying that this
particularpanCeltichearthgoddessmayoriginallyhavesharedheridentityfaithfully
withagoddessofthedawn.Accordingly,dawngoddesseswerefrequentlycelebratedat
theonsetofSpringrecallingSt.BrighidsownfeastdateatImbolc(1February)which
was the onset of Spring within the Irish seasonal calendar. Furthermore, the Indo
Europeandawngoddesswasassociatedwithentrancesorgatewaystotheirrespective
homesprobablyconveyingtheideathattheywereviewedasanaturalbridgebetween
day and night. This would seem to have an obvious parallel with St. Brighids
miraculous birth which ensued when her mother stepped over the threshold of their
home.165 Inactuality,theidentityofBrighidasadawngoddessoughttocomeasno
mean surprise considering the Celtic obsession with the notion of transient states,
particularlywithinthenaturalworld.
UTis(orperhaps was)thechiefgoddessoftheMongolianpeoplethespiritoffire
andresidesinthedomestichearth,locatedinthecenterofeach yurt.Itwasshewho
ensuredthesafetyofeachhousehold,andbequeathedtothosewhorespectedherwith
happinessandwealth.Valuinghersocietaltaboos,andkeepingherhearthcleangenerally
assuredthis.166 TheMongoliandomicilewasessentiallyamicrocosmoftheUniverse,
surroundedbythenativezodiac,withthehearthburningatitscenter.167
Firewasendowedwiththeabilitytopurify;andthehearthwasnaturallythoughtto
confernotonlylight,butwouldrenderoneshomeavirtuousspace.Asaresult,firewas
employedtomakeinanimateobjects,personsandanimalscleaneitherbyholdinga
flameoverthatwhichwastobecleansed,walkingbetweentwoflames,orcarryingthe
itemoveralowfire.Ifapersonwastodie,havingatorchcarriedaroundtheirremains,
165Chandra,Suresh(1998).Usas.EncyclopaediaofHinduGodsandGoddesses.Sarup&Sons:pp.
3467;Kinsley,DavidR.(1986).HinduGoddesses:VisionsoftheDivineFeminineinHinduReligious
Traditions.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.7;Minard,Antone.Imbolc.CelticCulture,vol.3,pp.
95859;RigVeda,pp.57,115,152,154,161,17981,211,215,217,250;hgin,Dith(2006).
Time.LoreofIreland.BoydellPress:pp.47275;Patterson,NerysThomas(1994).CattleLordsand
Clansmen:TheSocialStructureofEarlyIreland.SecondEdn.UniversityofNotreDamePress:pp.129
35;Eos.Dict.ofClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.188;IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth,pp.218,219,
222,2234,2257.
166Znamenski,AndreiA.(2003).ShamanisminSiberia:RussianRecordsofIndigenousSpirituality.
Springer:pp.68.
167TheSilverHorde.Mendsaikhan,B.(2006)."MongolianCustoms".
<http://www.viahistoria.com/SilverHorde/research/MongolCustoms.html>(Retrieved:20August,2008).

ortheirpossessions,wasthoughttorituallypurifythemandtheirobjects.Thisbelief
denotingfireastheprovenanceofpuritywasalsoextendedtoanyforeigndignitaries
whowereaskedtowalkbetweentwofiresbeforeapproachingtheMongolcourt,inthe
beliefthatitwouldneutralizeanydesireforadversarialbehavior.
Utwaspresentedwithdailymealtimeofferingsofoil,wine,orfatbecausethese
itemswouldenhancethehearthsflame.However,anyindividualstruckdownwitha
sicknessorseriousinjurywasthoughttohaveoffendedthegoddessbyviolatingoneof
hersacredprohibitions.Amongthesetaboos,itwasnotdeemedacceptabletocastany
offeringontothehearththatmightproduceafoulscent;norwasonepermittedtostep
directlyoverthehearth,orbrandishasharpweaponinitsgeneraldirection.Moreover,
spittingonthehearthordousingitwithwaterwasconsideredthemostgrievousofsins
both gestures clearly intended to threaten or vanquish the goddess. 168 Indeed, these
prohibitions likely ensured proper respect for ones ancestral line and genealogical
continuity.Properreverenceforthehearthflamewasespeciallyimportantduelargelyto
thebeliefthat,toextinguishoneshearthfireimpliedkillinganindividual,orhisentire
family.169InMongoliantribalsocietythehearthisconnectedwiththeyoungestsonof
eachyurt,whoisbelievedtoinheritthetribalhomelandandhisancestralhearth,while
oldersonsarerequiredtofoundanewresidence. 170AccordingtoaMongolianwedding
songshewasbornbythefrictionbetweentwoelmsticks. 171Utsnameisderivedfrom
thearchaicTurkicnounot,meaningflameorfire.
VESTAwasthepreeminenthearthgoddessofRomewhoseworshipextendedasfarasthe
latefourthcentury CE whenhertemplewasofficiallyclosedbythebarbaricChristian
emperor, Theodosius I.172The Roman orator, Cicero, commented that her name was
derivedfromthatofherGreekcounterpartHestia("hearth"), 173butthishypothesishas
beendisputedbymodernIndoEuropeanlinguisticstudies.Asaresult,itisnowbelieved
thathernamehasitsoriginintheLatinterm,ves,whichissuggestiveofbrightnessora
fierycondition.174
HercultwasoriginallyexpressedwithintheatriumoftheRomanhouse:this was a
centralroomdistinguishedbywallsblackenedwithsootandarectangularopeninginthe
rooftoallowfortheegressofnoxioussmoke.Itwasherethatthemistressofthehome
168ShamanisminSiberia,Ibid.
169McalesterCollege:AnthropologyDept.MongolianLanguageProject:Fire.
<http://www.macalester.edu/anthropology/mongolia/fire.html>(Retrieved:20August,2008).
170Bulag,UradynErden(1998).NationalismandHybridityinMongolia.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.
71.
171Tyler,EdwardB.(1873).PrimitiveCulture:ResearchintotheDevelopmentofMythology,
Philosophy,Religion,Language,Art,andCustom,vol.2.Bradbury,Andrew&Co:pp.280.
172TheodosiusI(TheGreat).Dict.ofRomanReligion,pp.22223;Vesta,templeof.Op.cit.,pp.
237.
173Cicero(trans.HoraceC.P.McGregor,1972).TheNatureoftheGods.PenguinClassics:pp.150.
174GreekReligion,pp.415n.2;Univ.ofMichigan:HumanitiesTextInitiative.MakingofAmerica
JournalArticles.Howard,AlbertA.(August1809).OverlandMonthlyandOutWest.TheInstitutionsof
theVestalVirginsatRome,pp.136.<http://name.umdl.umich.edu/ahj1472.216.092>(Retrieved:15
September,2007).

tendedVesta'ssacredflamewithhermaidens,andwheretheeldestsonwasresponsible
forplacingmealtimeofferingsonthehearthstonedominatedbythegoddess. Itwas
withinthishallwherenuptialceremonieswerealsocommencedinordertointroducethe
bridetohernewfamily'sancestralflame;indeed,itwasimmediatelybehindthedomestic
hearththatthemaritalbedwaspositioned.Duringtheweddingritualshewasexpected
tobringwithherlivingcoals(presumablyfromherownfamily'shearth)andapaleof
watertoserveassymbolsofhernewdomesticresponsibilities.Itwasalsocustomaryto
receiveguestsatone'shearth;andtheonlytimewhenitwaspurposefullyextinguished
was after the death of the family's patriarch as a token symbol denoting the clan's
dismembermentandpotentialextinction.175
The formal institution of Vesta's state hearthcult was initiated by Rome's legendary
secondking,NumaPompilius(715673BCE),whoissaidtohavesucceededthethrone
afteritsmythicfounder,Romulus,inordertohanddownreligiousordersandstatecults
throughouttheburgeoningEmpire.AttheonsetofVesta'scultitwascommandedthat
fourofRome'sdaughterswouldbechosenbylot;twoeachfromtheRamnes'tribeand
the Tities' tribe. Intimethis number wouldexpandto six(though,alater Christian
commentator would speculate that the ultimate number was seven) when two more
youthswerechosenaftertheLuceres'tribejoinedtheconfederacyofRome. Vesta's
priesthoodwouldneverexceedthisnumber.176
When a priestess was chosen to tend Vesta's civic flame, a sample of twenty girls
betweentheagesofsixandtenwereselectedfromaristocraticfamilies. Theywere
requiredtoadheretostandardsofrigoroussocialproscriptionsinordertoexemplifyand
symbolizethepeopleofRomeinitsmostperfectstate:acandidatemustyieldnodisease
orphysicaldeformity,normustshesufferfromamentaldefectorhearingimpairment.
OncechosentheallottedVestalswouldservetheirpostforaminimumofthirtyyears:
during her first sequence of ten years a priestess would learn the duties that were
expectedofherasanovice;duringhersecondterm,shewouldtendVesta'sflame;and,
throughouttheremainderofhertenure,apriestesswouldteachthedutiesofherofficeto
the newly chosen priestesses. During their initiation rite it was customary for each
priestess to cut offher locks ofhair and tie it onto asacred lotus tree and don the
traditionalwhitevestmentsthatwerewovenfromlinen.
Grim consequences were meted out to any Virgin who abdicated her
responsibilities.ShouldapriestessallowVesta'sflametodieoutonherguardshewould
bestrippednakedandfloggedbyRome'spontifmaximus("HighPriest").However,the
most extreme punishment was reserved for she who broke her vow of chastity: live
inhumation,withonlybread,milk,waterandoiltobrieflypreservehermortalexistence.
Theonlyacquittalwasissuedifitcouldbeproventhatheroffspringwasconceivedby
divineprovidence.177
175VestalVirginsatRome,pp.137and138;AHistoryofPaganEurope,pp.35.
176VestalVirginsatRome,pp.139;Livy,History1.19.620.7inBeard,Mary,JohnNorthandSimon
Price(trans.,1998).ReligionsofRome,2:ASourcebook.CambridgeUniversityPress:pp.5.
177WhencetheGoddess,pp.1634;AulusGellius(trans.J.C.Rolfe,1927),AtticNights,1.12in
Kraemer,RossSheppard(ed.2004).Women'sReligionintheGrecoRomanWorld:ASourcebook(exp.
andrev.edn.).OxfordUniversityPress:pp.247;VestalVirginsatRome,pp.1402;Plutarch,Lifeof
Numa,10inReligionsofRome,2,pp.2023.

Vesta'stemplewaslocatedattheForuminRome,andwasnotmodeledaftertheusual
fashionofempiricaltemplesbutresembledanearlythatchedItalianhomewithacircular
foundationandcurvilinearwalls.MenwereforbiddenfromenteringVesta'ssanctuary.
TheVestalsofficiatedovermanymajorfestivalsinRome,includingtheNewYearat1
MarchwhenVesta'scivichearthwasrituallyextinguished.Twosticksfromfruitfultrees
wereemployedtoreignitethishearth;moreover,alllocalhearthswererekindledfrom
Vesta's official flame. At the Vestalia (9 June) and Lupercalia (14 February) her
priesthoodwasresponsibleforpreparingsaltloaves(molasalsa)asanofferingtothe
goddess.ItisnoteworthythatVesta'sflamewas,initself,alsoasymbolofpurity.178
Becauseoftheidiosyncraticrelationshipbetweenherdomesticandcivilfunctionsitis
hasbeensuggestedthatVesta'sflamealmostcertainlycametosymbolizebothphysical
andracialpurity,withspecialemphasisbeingplacedupontribalcontinuation.179
YMAMAUfigureasagroupingofWelshmothergoddesses,perhapsinfluencedthrough
contactwithAngloSaxonculture. Theytaughthumanitythedutiesofhousekeeping,
such as husbandry, hearthtending, spinning, weaving, reaping, as well as sowing.
Offeringsofbreadandmilkwereleftforthembythehearthflameeachnightwhichwas
consumedbeforemorning.However,onecautionarytalerecountshowtheruefulservant
ofonefamilydisrespectedYMamaubyleaving,instead,abowlfullofurinenexttothe
hearth;hewascursedsothathisfamilywouldalwaysbearonedunceeachgenerationin
recompenseforhiscrime.Innativefolktraditiontheycametobediminishedinstature
as simple domestic fairies, and were thought to wildly ride horses through the local
fields.180

Joseph Vendryes, Imbolc, Revue Celtique, 41 (1924), pp. 241-4.

Trans., Wade MacMorrighan, 2012
The four great seasonal feasts of the Celtic year did not leave in the Irish tradition traces of equal
importance. The two most famous are Samhain and Beltane, of which the name remains living
today to designate the 1st May (bealtainne) and the 1st November (samhain). The name of the
feast of 1st August, Lughnasadh, survived also: the expression oidhche Lughna for the British
Lammas, mi na Lughna for the month of August, itself is preserved in County Cork, Ireland
(cf. Dinneen, Irish-English Diction., s. u.); Finck and Quiggin recorded the saying as it is still

178molasalsa.Dict.ofRomanReligion,pp.158;Vesta,Op.cit.,pp.237;Vestalia,Ibid.;Vestal
VirginsatRome,pp.138and1434.
179Beard,Mary,JohnNorthandSimonPrice(1998).ReligionsofRome,1:AHistory.Cambridge
UniversityPress:pp.53.
180Rhys,John(1901).CelticFolklore:WelshandManx,vol.1.ClarendonPress:pp:19394;Siefker,
Phyllis(1997).SantaClause,LastoftheWildMen:TheOriginsandEvolutionofSaintNicholasSpanning
50,000Years.McFarland:pp.183.

extent in the Arran islands181 (lnas l lns, die Araner Mundart, p. 182) and like Donegal
(lnsn, a dialect of Donegal, 50, 132, 243, 287). These three feasts continually conflicted
with the legends of illustrious persons; they are known in the history from assemblies, ritual
ceremonies, localized in precise places and at which lore was retained (v. particularly Arbois of
Jubainville, les Assembles publiques de lIrelande in the Sances et travaux de lAcademie des
Sciencesmorales et politiques, news series, t. XIV, 1880, 2nd semester, p. 600-618). Christianity
did not abolish them; it was contended to adopt them as its own myths and to make them fit into
the skeletal framework of its own feasts (v. Czarnowski, Le culte des hroes et ses conditions
socials, p. 106 and ss.; cf. R. Celt., t. XXXVIII, p. 336).
By stark contrast the pagan feast of 1st February was completely absorbed into the
Christian feast of Saint Brigitte, fil Brighde, and the ancient name has long since gone out of
usage. There are two current forms, imbolc and oimelc, for designating the onset of spring. It is
evident that imbolc is the ancient form, and that oimelc serves only to justify a fantastic
etymology already mentioned by Cormac 182 (oimelc .i. i-meilg .i. is aimser andsin tic as cirach
ewes milk, because this is the period in which milk comes to the ewes, San. Corm. Ed. K.
Meyers, n 1000). This is oimelc that ODonovan cites in the passage of his Introduction to the
Book of Rights, where he studies the names of the seasons (Leabhar na gCeart, p. lij-liij); cf.
Joyce, a Social History of Ireland, t. II, p. 388. But one reads imbolc in several passages of
ancient literature: cossin cetin iar n-imbulc until the Wednesday after 1st February L. L. 46 a
78 (= T.C.B.1. 2473, ed. Windisch; the Stowe ms. contains ier bfel Bridge), co tait imbuilg, L. L.
82 and on 15 (ibid. 1. 3186; the Stowe ms. contains: co taitte n-earraigh from the very
beginning of spring), co taite n-imbuilc L. L. 80 and on 31 (ibid. 1. 2900) and 92 and on 49
(ibid. 1. 4593). Likewise in Acallamh na Senrach, 1. 2109: luan taite tsambna co tait[e] nimbuilg from Monday marks the onset of Samhain until the very beginning of Imbolc (cf. co
luan taite n-imbuilc Lism. 173 and on 2, quoted by Wh. Stokes, Acall. na. Sen., p. 291).
It is very unfortunate that the traditions of imbolc were not preserved as with the other
feasts. This isnt to say that the information was lost completely. Indeed, this is a small debt that
one should not neglect, because they permit us to explain the word itself and to catch a glimpse of
a rite that has analogues elsewhere. It finds itself in the quatrain dedicated to imbolc, among the
quatrains of the feasts, edited by K. Meyer (Hibernica Minora, p. 49), according to the
manuscripts Rawlinson B 512, p. 98 b and Harleian 5280, f 35 b 2. In the aforesaid quatrain one
reads the following:
fromad cach bd iar n-urd
issed dlegair i n-imbulc
dunnach laime is coissi is cinn
is amlaid sin atherim
sample each food after the decree,
behold that which is due on the 1st February;
washing of hands, of feet, of the face;

181 The Arran islands constitute three islandsInis Mr [Large

Island], Inis Mein [Middle Island], Inis irr [East Island]located
off Irelands western coast at the mouth of Galway Bay, on the cusp of
the Atlantic Ocean.
182 The Cormac of which Prof. Vendryes speaks is Cormac mac
Cuilleaninthe ninth-century monastic-king of Cashel in Co.
Tipperary, Ireland, and the author of the infamous etymological
reference work, Cormacs Glossary (or Sanas Cormaic).

hence, this is what I declare .

These quatrains, encumbered by centos and stopgaps, contain some precise facts. Thus the fire
of Beltane is mentioned there; there someone threw various mentions of drink and food samples.
Out of his way Cormac retrieved, s. u. belltaine, that at this feast one lit two fires between which
cattle was passed to be preserved from disease (cf. the Roman feasts of Plilia, 21 April, where
animals and people jumped through the flames, per flamms saluisse pecus, saluisse colns,
Ovide Fast. IV, 805). The quatrains of the feasts indicate above all the dues, the consecrated or
dedicated gifts (ada) that is imposed at each feast. It is instructive to note that at the feast of
Imbolc one accomplished a ritual taste of all kinds of food. But what is more characteristic still of
the feast is the purification ablution. It had to be the essential ritual, for the feast visibly draws
this from its name: one is allowed to interpret in effect as a compound of the prefix imb- and the
word folc, from which the verb folcaim I wash is drawn. The root is common to all Celtic
[languages], since the Welsh saying golchi to wash, to bathe, to clean and the Breton gwalchi
the same sense. In the Irish folc (later falc) also signifies shower, torrential rain (Hogan, Cath
Ruis na Rig, index) and stream (Merug. Uilix, I);
Trans. Note: Centos is a form of poetry or verse wholly constituting quotations by other authors
and the literary works of others.
Trans. Note: The original French term used here is chevilles which, physiologically, denotes
ones ankles; while, within the context of carpentry it refers to a plug or pin; however, with regard
to literature is implies a poetic device where one places rather nonsensical words at the end of a
line or stanza purely for the sake of rhyme or meter. The latter is relatively common within
certain streams of French poetry.
the adjective folcmar, which is drawn from it, applies to tears that flood: cs dra folcmaracor
bo fliuch bl 7 brunni d (L. L. 171 a 19 = Cath Ruis na Rig, ed. Hogan, 3), rochiestar dra
folcmara firtruagha gur bh fliuch bli 7 bruinne dh (Acall. na Sen., II. 1520 and 1951), to blood
that flows (do bebarnatar fuili folcmara fair, L. L. 116 a 23), to torrents that pour (dognitis
marbhucht tairismech dona buinnibh folcmara, Cath Cath., 3928), etc. But the verb folcaim (later
falcaim) means only to wet, wash, since the Old Irish (gl. humecto, Sg. 145 a). With time
folcad seems to have specialized itself towards the sense of to wash the face, whereas for to
wash the hands one says tonach or innmat and for bathe the body, fothracad (cf. Ir. Text., III,
241 and 271). But the specialization is in every case of secondary origin; the ancient sense of the
term relates to washing in general.
However it is a well-known fact that in Rome February was the month of the purifications. The
very name that is received, of dialectal origin, according to Varron (L. L. VI, 13; cf. Ernout, lm.
dial. 162), would bear witness to it: februa Rmn dxre pimina patrs (Ovide, Fast. II 19) and
the verb februre is equivalent to lustrre (Paul. Fest. P. 60 Th.) The purification ceremony fixed
on the feast of Lupercales to the date of 15 February (Pauly-Wissowa, t. VI. 2 col. 2096 and
Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 298). This day was the dies februtus the
(Dion. Hal., Antiqu. I, 80); tuin februbtur populus, said Varron L. L. VI., 34.
This purification, which appears as early as the first ages of Rome, was complicated with various
rituals which (witnessed Ovide, loc. cit., Plut. Rom. 21 and Num. 19); it took on a new name on
Italic soil [ie. Italy] and the date perhaps moved somewhat. But it certainly goes back to a
Romano-Celtic tradition; the name of imbolc in Irish is sufficient to prove it.
As for the prefix imb- that precedes the word folc in the composition of this name, within could
be its concrete value, some sense of about occasionally passed to that of completely, wholly;
but a more precise explanation is permissible. The prefix imb- particularly developed in Celtic
languages to express reciprocity. However, the idea of a contest, or an emulation would seem
to fit the name of the spring festival rather well which appears to have had an agonistic
character** throughout antiquity (v. Dumzil, le Festin dimmortalit, p. 275 and ss.). One can
translate imbolc into purification rival or competitor.

TheMysteriesofMabon:AHistoryoftheRitesofAutumn
[Author]
OLady,yourbreastisyourfield.
Inanna,yourbreastisyourfield.
Yourbroadfieldpoursoutplants.
Yourbroadfieldpoursoutgrain.
Waterflowsfromonhighforyourservant.
Breadflowsfromonhighforyourservant.
Pouritoutforme,Inanna.
Iwilldrinkallyouoffer.
FromTheCourtshipofInanna&Dumuzi
IntheUnitedStatesofAmericaithasbeenourfashionthatthepremiereHarvestSabbat
consigned to the Autumn Equinox should be called by the nearubiquitous name of
Mabon.Thisname,however,ratherthanrepresentinganywellknowntraditionaltitlefor
this respective holiday is actually the name for a character from medieval Welsh
literature.
According to The Mabinogionwhich recounts the prose tale Culhwch ac Olwen
Mabon(Maponos,DivineSon)featuresasoneofthechiefcharactersrequiredtohunt
down and slay the monstrous boar, Twrch Trwyth; a task that was set down before
Culhwch by his prospective fatherinlawthe giant, Ysbaddadenif he is ever to
secureOlwenshandinmarriage.ButMabonwasabductedfromhismother,themother
goddess Modron, when only three nights old by some unknown perpetrator; as a
consequence Culhwch was charged with the duty of rescuing him. On his quest,
accompaniedbyabandofArthurianknights,thefellowshipissuccessfulinlocatingand
liberatingthemissinggodfromhismysteriousprisonwiththeaidofseveralveryancient
animals;thelastandmostancientofwhichisasalmonwhoswimsupriverwithtwo
knightstothelocationofMabonscell.183
ThistextappearstohavebeeninfluencedbyGrecoRomansourcesinordertoestablish
itsrenownedplotdeviceinvolvingtheepicthemeoftheHerosQuest. Thisisnotan
improbableinterpretationinviewofthefactthatthereareapparentsimilaritiesbetween
CulhwchschargeandthatofthefatedloverstaleinvolvingJasonandMedeainwhich
theheromustsurmountseeminglyimpossibleobstaclesinordertosecurethethroneof
Iolcoswiththepromisedaidofhisbeloved;184orevenHeraklesandhisinfamousTwelve
Laborsintendedtoabsolvehimofhisguiltforhavingmurderedhiswife(Megara)and
theirchildrenundertheinfluenceofLyssa(theFurryofMadness)whowassetonhimby
thevengefulHera.185Indeed,thismedievalWelshnarrativealsosharesdistinctcommon
183Gantz,Jeffrey(trans.1976).TheMabinogion.PenguinClassics:pp.1589,1646,and174.
184Mabinogion,Op.cit.,pp.134;Price,SimonandEmilyKearns(2003).Jason(1).TheOxford
DictionaryofClassicalMyth&Religion.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.2934.
185Guirand,Felix(trans.RichardAldington&DelanoAmes,1959).GreekMythologyinNew
LarousseEncyclopediaofMythology.HamlynPublishingGroupLimited:pp.170;Heracles.Oxford
Dict.ofClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.2513.

threadswiththeannualpursuitofPersephonbyhermotherDemeterincommencement
oftheirAutumnalMysteries.186
RegardlessofhowthisnarrativemayhavebeeninfluencedbyClassicalsources,ithas
successfullyretainedwellknowndetailsoftheubiquitousCelticdeity,Maponos,inthe
guiseofhisriverboundprisonandhiscultstretchingfromGaultoBritainwhichalso
featureseveralaquaticplacenamesthroughouttheexpanseofhisnativeworship.While
itwasduringtheRomanoccupationofthesesamedistrictsthathewasassimilatedwith
theforeigngodApollo,187whichisperhapssuggestiveofthisdeitysstatusasasolargod
oftheUnderworld.188
If,aswehaveseen,theparallelsbetweenMabonandthebiannualMysteryprocessions
ofAutumnismerelyasuperficialone,thanitmustbeaskedhowthenameofthisCeltic
deitycametobeattributedtoanexplicitlynonCelticseasonaltransition? Thisisa
question that has not gone unnoticed by certain American Elders within the Craft.189
Thankfully,ourmysterymaynowberesolvedbyAidanKelly,aGardnerianHighPriest
fromCalifornia,whofirstproposedusingMabonasthenameforthefallequinox
Sabbatin1973. Itwasduringthistimeperiodthathewasfashioningaspecifically
Pagancalendarsystemwhenhewasstruckbyhowaestheticallydispleasingitseemed
thatneithertheSummerSolsticenortheAutumnEquinoxhadanameequivalenttothat
of Yule or Ostara amid the burgeoning Pagan community. Because Yule is
philologically Saxon in antecedent, Kelly was able todeduce throughthe work ofa
monasticscribe,theVenerableBede(asJ.R.R.Tolkienhaddonebeforehimin The
LordoftheRingsnovels),thatlithawasthemostprobableSaxontermfortheSummer
Solstice. Furthermore(accordingtohisresearch),itwasthecelebrationofDemeterat
theEleusiniaduringtheperiodoftheWaningMoon(thefinaltendaysofthemonthof
Demetrion),whichcommencedneartotheAutumnEquinox,190 thatinspiredKellyto
namethefallSabbatafterMabon(meaningtheSon)whoseemed,tohim,tohavebeen
rescuedfromhisnativeUnderworldimprisonmentandservedasaroughdiametrical
equivalenttoDemetersowndaughter,Kor(theMaiden).191 Ultimately,however,
MabonasafigurefromWelshmedievalliteraturehasnothingtodowithauthenticpre
Christianfallequinoxcustoms.
186Mabinogion,pp.17.
187Koch,JohnT.(ed.2006).Maponos.CelticCulture:AHistoricalEncyclopedia,vol.4.ABC
CLIO:pp.1259.
188Naturalpoolsofwater,rivers,andoceantidesarefrequentlyobservedinCeltictraditionasportalsto
theOtherworld.
189Nichols,Mike(2005).TheWitchesSabbats.AcornGuildPress:pp.57.HarvestHome.<
http://webspace.webring.com/people/wm/mike_nichols.geo/>(Retrieved:7February,2010).
190TheGreekcalendarineverycitystatewas,atleastoriginally,lunarbased;andthecalendarmonths
weretypicallynamedinhonorofthedeitiesorfestivalsthatwerecelebratedduringagivenlunarperiod
(Calendar,Greek.OxfordDict.OfClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.945).Hence,themonthof
DemetrionwascommencedattheNewMoonheraldingtheonsetoftheGreekanalogtoSeptember.
However,accordingtotheparticularAtheniancalendar,whichhappenstobethebestknown,thismonth
wasalsoidentifiedasBoedromion;itwasestablishedinhonorofarelativelyminorcelebrationofApollo
(Ibid.;Boedromia,Op.cit.,pp.86),perhapsbecausethegodfavoredtheAtheniansduringaperiodof
warorsomeothercalamityatthistime.
191AidanKelly,pers.comm.:26October,2009.

Indeed,thevastIndoEuropeantraditionsseemtohavepreservedasuperficiallynative
mythologicalandculturallyendemicthemeexpressingasimultaneouslycontentiousand
vitalfacetofhumanagriculturalsocietyrecallingthefallowfieldsofwinterthatannually
givewaytospringgrowthandthesubsequentharvest. Withoutthisuniqueseasonal
rhythm,humankindcouldnothavebeenexpectedtohavesoeasilythrived.Oneofthe
mostfamiliarbiannualthemesremainsthatofDemeterandthequestforherbeloved
daughter,Persephon.ShewaschieflycelebratedduringthelunarperiodofDemetrion
(September)whichwasaswiththeopeningofthelocalcognateforOctoberwhen
Greek religious observances shifted rather dramatically as they turned to the wide
venerationoftheCornMotherandotheragriculturallyrelateddeities.192
AmongtheancientGreeksandtheMycenaeans(apreGreekculturelocatedatCrete)
Demeter was the personified expression of botanical gestation and fruition, perhaps
markingtheshiftfromanomadichuntergathererculturetoasedentaryone. 193Whileto
theRomansherfunctionwasexpressedintheguiseoftheirnativecorngoddess,Ceres,
whosecultultimatelypredatedthatofDemeter.194
Demeter,thebringerofseasonsandbounty,wastheprogenyoftheTitans
KronosandRheawhomherbrother,Zeus,impregnatedaftershapeshiftingintotheform
ofabull(asymboloffertilityandprosperouswealth);asaresultofthisunionshebore
her mostcherished daughter, the eventual Queen of the Underworld, Persephon.195
Within antique Greek scripture, mighty Zeus secretly decreed that Hades may seize
Demetersfairdaughterforhisbridethroughtreacherousmeans:
When Persephon and her attendantsthe daughters of the seagod Okeanoswere
culling wild flowers at the plain of Nysa, Gaia (Mother Earth) set a snare for the
unsuspectinggoddessinthefashionofawondrousnarcissusflower.Ultimately,when
she plucked this blossom from the soil, the earth gaped open and the Lord of the
Underworldspranguponhertoclaimhisnewprize.Distraught,shecriedoutinanguish
forhermother,Demeterandtoherfather,Zues.ButnonesaveforDemeter,Hekatand
Heliosheardherwails.
WorriedthatPersephonmayhavebeenraped,Demetersetoutinsearchforher
child. However,shecouldfindnobeast,man,norgodwhocouldbringhimselfor
herselftoadmitwhathadhappenedonthatlonesomeplain.Tendayshence,however,
torchbearingHekatemergedfromhercavetoconfessthatshehad,indeed,heardpoor
Persephoneslaments,butknewnotwhohadseizedthechild. Ontheadviseofold
HekatourbereavedLadysetofftoenquireofHelios,theallseeingsungod.Standing
beforehissacredsteedsthegoddessfinallylearnstheterribletruththatherownbrother
hadcosignedherdaughter,unwillingly,tothearmsofHades.
192TheUniversityofTennessee.Dept.ofComputerArts&Sciences.ApolloniusSophistes(1995).
AequinoctiumAuctumnale(FallEquinox,Mabon,c.Sept.21):Gk.HeIsemeriaPhthinoporine.<
http://www.cs.utk.edu/~mclennan/BA/SF/FallEq.txt>(Retrieved:25February,2010).
193Demeter.OxfordDict.OfClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.15961.
194Beard,Mary,JohnNorth,andSimonPrice(1998).ReligionsofRome:AHistory,vol.1.Cambridge
UniversityPress:pp.70.
195ShewasalsoknownbythenameofKor,whichmeansmaiden,thefemininecognatetotheGreek
nounkoros,orsprout(Gimbutas,Marija[1999].TheLivingGoddesses.EditedandSupplementedby
MiriamRobbinsDexter,Ph.D.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.160).

Horrifiedatthelossofherdaughter,Demetersubsequentlywithdrewintoher
TempleatEleusisandblightedtheEarthinretaliation:
shemadeamostterribleandcruelyear
forhumanbeingsonthedeeplynourishingearth.
Theearthdidnotsendupseed,
forrichcrownedDemeterkeptithidden.
Manytimestheoxendraggedthecurvedplow
acrossthefieldsinvain,andmanytimes
thewhitebarleyfellupontheearthfruitlessly.
Soshewouldhavedestroyedutterly
themortalraceofhumanbeings,starvingthem
todeath,anddeprivedthosewholiveonOlympos
oftheglorioushonourandofgiftsandsacrifices
This,shevowed,wouldbethefateofmortalandimmortalalike,untilshesethereyes
oncemoreuponthesweetfaceofherchild.Relenting,Zeusintervenedonbehalfofthe
gods,ultimatelycommandingHermestofetchthedispassionatepairfromthedepthsof
theUnderWorld.
Atlastreunited,Demeterembracedherdaughterand(suspectingfurtherdeceit)
enquiredifPersephonhadtastedanyfoodfromtheLandoftheDead.Herfearswere
realizedbyherinnocentchildswords:
Mother,Ishalltellyouthewholetruth.
secretly[Hades]slippedintomymouthaseed
fromapomegranate,thathoneysweetfood,
andforcedme,mademetasteitagainstmywill.196
SoitwasthatZeusdecreedwithanodfromhisheadthatfairPersephonmustresidefor
threemonthsoftheyearintheGreatBelowastheconsortofdarkhairedHades,fornone
mayconsumetheFoodoftheDeadandreturn. Afterward,Demeterdeclaredthatthe
Earthshallblossomandbefruitfuloncemore,savefortheperiodofherdaughtersthree
monthabsence.197
As a goddess of the abundant soil her socioreligious sphere of dominion
primarilyencompassedthecerealcrop,anditwasforthisreasonthatgrainbins,aswell
asthreshingfloors,wereheldinparticularesteembyDemeter.
SheeventaughtaselectfewcitizensfromEleusisherholyMysteries,rituals,and
theproperuseofthehiera(sacredimplements),suchasparticularritualblades. 198Ithas
evenbeensuggestedthatthismythprobablyservedasthebasisforaritualdramaduring
196Cf.OvidrecountsthatitwasPersephonherselfwhoimbibedsevenpomegranateseeds,thussealing
herownfate(Dexter,MiriamRobbins[1990].WhencetheGoddess:ASourceBook.AtheneSeries.
TeachersCollegePress:pp.240241n.136).
197Homer(trans.JulesCashford,2003).TheHomericHymns.HymntoDemeter,II.Penguin
Classics:pp.1718,7584,30512,406,and41113.
198Op.cit.,pp.14.

whichInitiatescelebratedhersolemnrites,annuallyengaginginatorchlitsearchfor
Kor,themaidenofSpring.199Agrarianritualsinvolvingasexualunionwiththegoddess
mayalsohavebeenperformedinherhonor,200perhapsinviewofherhymnaltexts,so
thattheEarthcouldprosperandflourishinabundance:
Demeter, noble among goddesses, gave birth to Wealth [ie. grain
stores],inunionwithintimatedesirewiththeheroIasiusinathrice
turnedfallowfieldintherichCretanland201
ItisalsothoughtthatIasiusmayhaveintroducedhercultintoSiciley. 202 While,the
GreekwriterHesiodtaughtthatthenaturalrhythmsbywhichreapingandplowingwere
calculatedweretimedinaccordwiththeinfamousstarsystemknownasthePleiades:
WhenthePleiadesbornofAtlasrisebeforethesun,
beginthereaping;theploughing,whentheyset.203
ItwasduringtheonsetofthisperiodthatDemeterwasbeseechedinthehopethather
holygrain[would]ripenheavy.204Thoughitwaslater,duringtheappearanceofOrion,
inthelatterhalfofJuly,thatthelaborersnourishingyieldofgrainwasthreshed.205
TheGreekmodelmaybeviewedasstereotypicalofthisSpringandAutumnalmotifin
theWest,butEasternparallelsareevidentinthesubcontinentofIndiawhereHindu
scriptureinformsusofthenativevegetationgoddessSt(anidentityofthegoddessof
wealthandabundance,Lakm),whowasbelievedtobeafertilitydeityintrinsically
associated with the function of agriculture. It is in the Rmyaa that we find the
preeminenttextthatrecountsthisyounggoddessssacrednarrative.
AccordinglyshewasbelievedtobethedaughteroftheEarthMother,Bhma
Dev,fromwhomshewasborneofaseedfurrow(st)thathadbeenploughedbyher
father,Janaka,thekingofVideha. Whenthedemon,Rvaa,eventuallyspiedonthe
beautiful deity as she was roaming through a deserted forest after her mate, he
determinedtoprovehissexualprowessandabductedtheredgarbedgoddesswhenhe
lured her husband away in pursuit of an Otherworld gazelle; she was imprisoned in
Rvaashousewitharaceofdeformeddemonesses(rkasas)forseveralyearsashe
199Farrar,Janet&Stewart(1978).TheWitchesGoddess:TheFemininePrincipleofDivinity.Phoenix
PublishingCo.:pp.214;Persephone/Kore.OxfordDict.OfClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.417.Cf.
Kernyi,Carl(trans.RalphManheim,1967).Eleusis:ArchetypalImageofMotherandDaughter.
BollingenSeriesLXV.PrincetonUniversityPress:2627.Kernyidisputesthisthesis,although,his
polemicisrootedinphilosophicaldeduction.HemerelybelievesthattheverynatureofaMystery
Religiondenotesabsoluteinviolablesecrecy.Despitethisspecioushypothesis,numerousdocumented
sourcescommentuponseveralrenownedaspectswithinDemetersMysterycult.
200Hesiod(trans.M.L.West,1988).TheogonyandWorksandDays.OxfordUniversityPress:n.969.
201TheogonyandWorksandDays,pp.32.
202GreekMythologyinNewLarrouseEncyclopediaofMythology,pp.152.
203TheogonyandWorksandDays,pp.48.
204Op.cit.,51.
205Op.cit.,5455,and78n.598.

attempted to seduce her. St, however, was steadfast and faithfully observed her
marriagevowstoRm,theseventhincarnationofthesolargod,Viu(or,somesay,
Ka);buttheruthlessRvaadecidedtotakehervirtuesbyforceandrapedher.
AfterRmhadexhaustedhissearchforSt whichtookhimtothefarthest
endsoftheEarth hefinallysucceededinrescuinghisbridewhenhewagedwaragainst
thedemonwhoabductedhisconsort,resultinginRvaasdeath.SuspiciousofSts
motivesduringherimprisonment,shewasimmediatelycalledbeforeRmscourtwhere
shewaspubliclyrebuked.Defyingtheseinsultingcharges,tearyeyed,Stproclaimed
herinnocenceandinsistedthatshebeconsignedtothepurifyingflamesofthefiregod,
Agni,toproveherfaithfulness;forsheknewthatthegodcouldacceptnothingimpure.
UltimatelyheartbrokenoverRmstreatmentofher,anddespitehiseventual
remorse,thegoddessexiledherselfbacktothecomfortingwomboftheEarthMother
fromwhomshehadbeenborne.206
AsaconsequenceoftheseparticularIndoEuropeanmythologicalstructures,ithasbeen
foundthatboththeGreekandHindupoetsappeartohavebeendrawinguponmotives
directlyinheritedfromamuchearlierMesopotamianimpetus.207 Indeed,wenotethis
familiarseasonalrhythmrecordedoncuneiformtabletsfromancientSumerwhichhave
comedowntousasInannasDescenttotheNetherWorld.
WhenInanna,theHighPriestessofthegods,learnedofthedeathofhereldersisters
husband,theBullofHeaven,shesoonsetofftotheabodeofhiswidow,Erekigal,to
witnessthefuneralrites.However,ErekigalcontrivedtostripInannaofherdignityby
orderinghersentriesnottopermitthegoddesstoenterevenoneofthesevengatestoher
realmwithoutfirstrelinquishinganarticleofherroyalgarmentsateachdoor. Finally
naked,andbowedlowbeforeherdreadsister,Erekigalcastuponhertheeyeofdeath
andstruckInannatransformingherintoacorpse apieceofrottingfleshthatwashung
fromahookonawall.
Afterthreedayshadpassed,herfaithfulservitor,Ninubur,commencedwiththe
customarymourningritessignifyingthedeathofInanna. Though,unwillingtoaccept
thatshemightneverseeherbelovedgoddessagain,shesoughtoughttheaidofthree
successivegodstofindthatallbutEnki,thegodofcivilization,consignedtheQueenof
Heaventoherfate.
From the dirt beneath his fingernail Enki fashioned a pair of androgynous
beings kurgarraandgalatur andinstructedthemtoentertheUnderWorldwherethey
mustgainErekigalsfavorsbyintimatingherbirthpangs.Impressedbytheirempathy,
theQueenoftheDeadsoughttorewardthemwithanygiftthatwasinherpowerto
bestow. They asked only for Inannas decomposing corpse which they revived by
sprinklingherremainswiththefoodofLifeandthewaterofLife,eachinturn.
206Danilou,Alain(1985).TheMythsandGodsofIndia:TheClassicWorkonHinduPolytheism.
InnerTraditions:pp.173;MassonOursel,P.andLouiseMorin.IndianMythologyinNewLarrouse
EncyclopediaofMythology(ed.F.Guirand),pp.3734.;OFlaherty,WendyDoniger(1975).TheHindu
Myths:ASourcebookTranslatedfromtheSanskrit.PenguinClassics:pp.197204,198n.24;Turner,
PatriciaandCharlesRusselCoulter(2000).Sita.DictionaryofAncientDeities.OxfordUniversity
Press:pp.434.
207West,M.L.(2007).IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.23.

But,beforeInannacouldascendfromtheNetherWorldshewasseizedbyoneof
theimplacableJudgesoftheDeadandinformedthatnonemayreturntotheLandofthe
Livingwithoutprovidinganothertotakeherplace. Perhapssuspectingdeceit,several
galla(demons)weresenttoaccompanythegoddessassheoncemorewalkedamong
ustochoosewhowouldserveherfate. Eventuallyshecameupontheshepherdgod,
Dumuzi,whowasnotinastateofmourningandseemedtobeusurpingherthrone.She
castuponhimtheeyeofdeathandheimmediatelyfledfromthemurderousattemptsof
thegalla.
Thegallapursuedhimacrossthegrasslandsandthecountrysideuntiltheyfound
himinastateofpanicandswarmedupontheyounggod,killinghim.ItwasInannawho,
in her mercy, extended a saving grace to Dumuzi and decreed that his
sister Getinanna mayannuallysharehisfateforhalftheyear. 208Thesehymnshave
beenanalyzedandinterpretedasconclusivelysignifyinganancientimageofvegetation
thatdisappearsduringthescorchingheatoftheNearEast,onlytoreappearlater,during
thecoolseason.209
ThisseasonalrhythmisagainemphasizedthroughouttheparticularlyBritishcultofSaint
George whose personal hagiography has dominated districts of northern Africa, the
MediterraneanandtheMiddleEast;indeed,highlyvariedlocaltalesoftheSainthave
beenrecorded,eachofwhichrecountseeminglyfixedthemes. Afewaccounts will
sufficetoillustratethegeneralbeliefsassociatedwiththeSaintslifeanddeeds:
WhilehewasservingasahighrankingRomansoldierhedesecratedaTempleto
Bacchusandrefusedtosupplicatehimselfbeforethegodinworshipresultinginhis
mercilesstorture;thoughheremainedunscathedthroughthewilloftheChristiangodhe
wassubsequentlymartyredandcelebrated. AnothertalefromtheIslamicworldholds
thatGeorgewaschargedbyhisgodwiththemissionofconvertingalocalpaganKingto
Christianity.Whenheaddressedthecourtoftheking,Georgewassummarilyexecuted
forhisobstinacy,onlytoberevivedonthreeconsecutiveinstanceswithinstructionsby
hissaviorgodtodispatchtheKingandhissubjects.210
Yet,GeorgesmostmemorabletaleoccursinSilene,adistrictofLibya,wherethelocal
peasantswerebesiegedbyawaterdragon.Forsometimes,theyhadbeenconsignedto
satiate the beasts appetite with sheep; but, their stock having dwindled, the Lybian
villagers were forced to offer up their own citizens to the dragon by public lottery.
Eventually,theKingsowndaughterwaschosenbylot,andshewasledtotheshoreof
thelaketoawaitherappointeddoom. SaintGeorgesoonhappensuponthemaiden
whereheinquiresastothesourceofherterror,atwhichheresignstosavetheprincess
fromherfate. Hebattles,butdoesnotkillthebeast;insteadhesubduesitwiththe
princesssgirdleandsheleadsitbyonlyawispofcordbacktoSilene.TheretheSaint
threatens the assembled citizens that, unless they convert to Christianity, he would
208Kramer,SamuelNoah(1963).TheSumerians:TheirHistory,Culture,andCharacter.Universityof
ChicagoPress:pp.15360;Wolkstein,DianeandSamuelNoahKramer(1983).QueenofHeavenand
Earth:HerStoriesandHymnsfromSumer.Harper&Row:pp.5289.
209Bottro,Jean(trans.TeresaLavenderFagan,2001).ReligioninAncientMesopotamia.University
ofChicagoPress:pp.151.
210InotherdistrictswherethisresurrectionmythevolvedSt.GeorgeissaidtohavebeenrevivedbySt.
Michael,theArchangelor,somewhatlessoften,bytheVirginMary.

unleashthedragon.Fearingfortheirlives,theyvowfealtytotheChristiansaviorgod
andGeorgedispatchesthecreature.
Despitebeingapreeminentwarriorfigure,St.Georgewasfrequentlyinvokedas
aniconforfertility;anditmaybethathisdevoteessawinhismartyrdomawilling
sacrifice,notunliketheSacrificialKingmotifinwhichasovereignannuallylaiddown
hislifetoamorevirileandyouthfulsuccessorrepresentingspringfertility.Indeed,St.
GeorgeseemstohavehisantecedentsinapreChristianfertilitycultpresidedoverbya
deitywhoseidentityhasnotsurvivedinanysortofdemonstrablefashion.
Perhapstheclosestonecancometosuchanidentificationisthroughanalysisof
his preChristian form in the Green Man carvings these ornate foliate figures,
sometimes knownlocally as Green George,are generallyextentin certaintemple
palacesfromIraqtothemedievalcathedralsofEuropeandtheBritishIsles.Moreover,a
variantoftheSt.GeorgefigureseemstobefoundintheIslamicprophetAlKhir,whose
numeroustitlessignifythecolorgreenandperpetuallifeasintheGreenOneorthe
EvergreenOne.InvokedasahealerlikehisChristiancoeval,heisalsoreputedtohave
beennumerouslykilled,onceontheordersofapaganKing;buthewasresurrectedeach
time.TheprophetevenlocatedamiraculouswellorFountainofYouthwhilewondering
throughtheMediterraneanwhichconferredimmortalityonwhomeverdrankitswater;it
wasbybathinginthesepoolsthathisskinandclothingwasdyedgreen,marringeventhe
footstepsleftinhiswakethesamedeepverdanthue.Ultimatelythischaracterhashis
originsinthepropheticGreekseaspirit,Glaucus(theGreenOne),whowasadeified
fishermanthatwasrenderedimmortalasaconsequenceofimbibingasacredherbthathe
noticedrestoredhisfishtolife.
The historical status of St. George as the Patron Saint of England remains
shroudedinsomemystery;though,theBritishMummingPlaysthatflourishedandwere
celebrated on the date of his martyrdom are derived from ancient vegetation rites.
Indeed,likelyunderscoringhisvegetativemotifwasthepopularbeliefthatspringcould
notofficiallycommenceuntilhisFeastDatewhenitwasbelievedthatwinter(sometimes
epitomizedashisadversarialdragon)stillreigned,andthatthegroundwasstillfrozen
untilSt.GeorgesDayhadarrivedon23April.211
NearthenorthernextentofScotland,alongtheOrkneyIsles,furtherevidencecanbe
disclosed for the seasonal battle between the warmth of spring, and autumns chill.
According to local tradition the benevolent Sea Mither who gave fertility to the
denizensofheroceanicabodeand,somesay,couldevencreatelife! annuallymadeher
summerhomejustoffthecoastoftheOrkneyarchipelagosbeginninginmidspring.
But,itwasnotwithoutastruggle,forshehadtovanquishthecurrentlordofthose
waters, a cruel wintergod whose name Teran is suggestive of anger and fury;
211EstonianFolklore.Hiieme,Mall(trans.KaiVassiljeva).SomePossibleOriginsofSt.Georges
DayCustomsandBeliefsinFolklore,vol.1(June1996).<http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/nr1/georg.htm
>(Retrieved:22February,2010);Hole,Christina(1992).EnglishFolkHeroesfromKingArthurto
ThomasBecket.DorsetPress:pp.10320;Glaucus(4).OxfordDict.OfClassicalMyth&Religion,
pp.2289;Riches,Samantha(2000).St.George:Hero,MartyrandMyth.SuttonPublishing:passim.;
UniversityCollegeCork.Woods,David(May2002).St.George.<
http://www.ucc.ie/milmart/George.html>(Retrieved:22February,2010).

perhapsitisevencognatewiththeGallicthundergod,Taranis. 212Theirseasonalbattle,
knownasaspringstruggle(Voretullye)gaverisetotorrentialgalesanddestructive
seasonalstorms. However, only when Teran had been bound and shackled, and
imprisonedatthebottomofthesea,wouldthesummercalmreturn.AstheSeaMither
reigned,hercalmwasinterruptedonlyonoccasionbytheconstantwrithingofherbitter
rivalinanefforttobefreefrombondage;indeed,asautumndrewnear,thegoddessgrew
wearyfromherdutiesandmaternalobligationstoensurethattheseasremainedcalm,
thatthewaterswereteamingwithlife,andthatherprisonerremainedsecure.Itwasthen
thatTerantookadvantageofherexhaustedstateandbrokefree,exilingtheSeaMither
from his domain in a great battle known as the harvest destructive work (Gore
vellye).213
Anotherrelatedharvestthemethatcanbeteased,atleastinpart,fromtheethnographic
andhistoricalrecordisthatoftheIndoEuropeanvegetativecornspiritwhoselifeand
eventualdeath(chieflythroughreaping)madethebakingofbreadpossible adietary
stapleformostculturesintheWestandtheNearEast. Themostwelldocumentedof
thesetraditionsseemstohavebeenmanifestedintheformofthecorndolly images
craftedfromthefinalsheafofthefieldattheclosetotheharvestseason.
These ubiquitous figures while they have achieved quite diverse local
variants share remarkably common characteristics and identities. Among the basic
commonalities of the corn dolly include a name signifying the effigy as the Old
Woman or Witch (an identity familiar throughout most regions of Europe); an
animisticbeliefthatatteststotheapparentspiritofthefield,eitherthroughtheguiseof
ananimaloraspectralhag,thatisdrivenfromthecornstalksusuallybythereaping
blades; the corn is often bound and fashioned into an anthropomorphic female, and
occasionallyadornedwithribbons,flowers,orscrapsofclothing;corndolliesarechiefly
hungwithinalocalchurchandthehome,oftenoverthefireplace,oreveninthebarn.
Harvestgamesalsofeatureprominentlyincorndollyfolkpracticesbecausethere
wasanadmonitionagainstdirectlycontactingthesheaf;itwasconsideredthesourcefor
someillomen,sometimesassociatedwithsterility. Inmanyregionstheseinvolvethe
throwingofsicklesfromadistancetobringdownthefinalsheaf;inotherareasscythes
aresometimesusedafterblindfoldingthebladeswielder. CertaindistrictsofBritain
retainedtheessentialfeatureofthesegamesintheformofacustomknownasCrying
theNeck.Oneobserverreportedthatacompanywouldsurroundacentralfigurewho
heldthefinalsheafaloft,briefly,beforeseveringitwithhissickle.Theassemblywould
thenbowandcry,aneck,aneck,wehaveone!214
212PaulaPowersCoe.Taranis,CelticCulture,vol.5(ed.JohnT.Koch),pp.1659.
213Hallen,A.W.Cornelius(ed.1891).TheScottishAntiquaryorNorthernNotes&Queries,vol.5.
EdinburghUniversityPress:pp.701.
214Frazer,JamesG.(1890).TheGoldenBough:TheRootsofReligionandFolklore.Gramercy:pp.
i.33243;Hazlitt,W.Carew(1965).MellSheaf.FaithsandFolkloreoftheBritishIsles,vol.2.
BenjaminBloom:pp.407;Hutton,Ronald(1996).TheStationsoftheSun:AHistoryoftheRitualYearin
Britain.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.33539;Opie,IonaandMoiraTatem(1989).CornDolly,hungup
inhouse.OxfordDictionaryofSuperstitions.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.967;Pickering,David
(1999).CornDolly.TheCassellDictionaryofFolklore.Cassell:pp.63;Simpson,JacquelineandSteve
Roud(2000).CornDollies.ADictionaryofEnglishFolklore.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.79.

Ultimately these local effigies likely represent earlier deities from pagan antiquity
associatedwithananimisticIndoEuropeanvegetationcustom,forwenoteSt.Eligius
whoissuedaproclamationcensuringthepracticesoftheGermanicpagansthatwere
inhabitingFlandersduringtheseventhcentury C.E. forfashioningcertainfiguresofan
OldWoman,amidotherpracticesthathefoundtobecontroversial:
[Donot]make[figuresof?]vetulas,215littledeeroriotticosorsettables
atnightorexchangeNewYears'giftsorsupplysuperfluousdrinks.No
Christian believes impurity or sits in incantation, because the work is
diabolic.NoChristianonthefeastofSaintJohnorthesolemnityofany
othersaintperforms solestitia [solsticerites?] ordancingorleapingor
diabolicalchants.NoChristianshouldpresumetoinvokethenameofa
demon,notNeptuneorOrcusorDianaorMinervaorGeniscusorbelieve
intheseineptbeingsinanyway.NooneshouldobserveJove'sdayin
idlenesswithoutholyfestivitiesnotinMayoranyothertime216
Of the manifold European harvestmotifs on record a scant handful of these related
customsmayfurtherillustratetheantiquityofthisfieldspirittradition:
Among the most wellknown of these corneffigies is the Cailleach (expressed with
numerous local identities), who chiefly dominates Ireland and certain districts of
Scotland.ThroughoutIreland,inparticular,itwasbelievedthatthishagtransformedinto
ananimal(usuallyahare;anepiphanyoffertilityattheHarvest)asshefledfromthe
reapersblade.Shewasdriveninthismannerfromfarmtofarm,untilcomingtoinhabit
thelastsheafoftheseason.Thefarmerofthisfieldwasthenchargedwiththedutyof
supportingthisbundleofcorn(wheat)somewhereonhispropertyforthenextyear. 217
TheCailleachwasawellestablishedterritorialhaggoddesswithatripleidentityandthe
statusofamothergoddess. Arelationshipwithfertilityandabundantwealthisalso
evidentinviewofthefactthatherOtherworldbullcouldcauseanycowthatheardhis
bellowtocalvewithintheyear,ascattleweredeemedthemeasureofoneswealthin
Iron Age Celtic society. As a territorial deity who embodied the land she was the
personificationofSovereigntyrenownedforherconsumptionofmeadinthecompanyof
kings(arenownedmotifoftheritesofsovereignty);withoutherthetribalChieftain
couldnotlegallysucceedthethrone. Sheevenfulfilledtheroleofthespiritofthe
Harvest:
Accordingtoonetale,whentheCalleachwasmindingherhouseatIveragh(apeninsula
ofCo.Kerry,Ireland),hersister(alsocalledtheCailleach)fromtheadjoiningpeninsula
ofBharracalledouttoherandwarnedherthatheresteemedbullhadmanagedtoget
intohercornfieldjustoutsideherhome.InanothernarrativeaccounttheCailleachis
againsaidtopossessahugecornfield,andthusissuedareapingcompetitionagainsther
215Lat.vetulas=OldWoman.
216FordhamUniversity.InternetMedievalSourcebook,ed.byPaulHalsall.TheLifeofSt.Eligius,
trans.byJoAnnMcNamara:16.<http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/eligius.html>(Retrieved:22
February,2010).
217Danaher,Kevin(1972).TheYearinIreland:IrishCalendarCustoms.MercierPress:pp.1901;
Newall,Venetia(1971).DiscoveringtheFolkloreofBirdsandBeasts.ShireClassics:pp.346

skilltoallablebodiedpersons. Eachmanwhotookupthechallengeagainstherwas
roundlydefeatedthroughherharelikeagilityandhadhislegsseveredfromhisbodyasa
consequenceofhisfailure,utilizinghersickle.Oneclevermaneventuallyapproached
andtookupthisdangerouschallenge;but,hehadspiedablackbeetlehiddenwithinthe
handleofhersickle.Realizingthatthismustbeacharmandthesourceofhertalent,he
killedtheinsecttherebyassuringhisownvictory.218
Englandalsoretainsoneveryimportantpersonificationofthecerealcropintheguiseof
JohnBarleycorn. Afolksong,ofwhichnumerousvariantsexist,tellsthestoryofthe
life,deathandresurrectionofthisfolkfigure:
Sownfromlastseasonsremains,JohnBarleycorngrew againthroughspring
untilthefollowingharvestwhenhewasfullyripe.Atthisperiodhisenemieshunted
himdownwithsharpenedsicklesastheycuthimdownathiskneesandbundledeach
loadofgrain,cartingitaway.FromthenonJohnBarleycornwastorturedunmercifully
intheprocessofexcisingthecornfromthechaff,andfurtherwhenbeerwasbrewed
fromhisremainstoyieldhisintoxicatingblood,orwhenhewasgroundbetweentwo
millstonesintheproductionofflour. 219 TheultimateantecedentsofJohnBarleycorn
seemtolieintheAngloSaxonbarleygod,Beow,whoalsoexperiencedtorture,suffered
death,resurrection,andwasnotoriousfortherevivingeffectsofconsuminghisblood. 220
Furthermore,BeowisethnographicallycognatewiththeOldNorsefieldspiritByggvir
(grainman), who is the servitor of the Vanir fertilitygod, Freyr. In one stanza
recountedbythe Lokasenna,LokiadmonishesByggvirspretensetoheroismwhenthe
confrontationalgoddeclaresthatByggvirwas,infact,wonttohideamidthestrawonthe
floorwheneverdangerthreatened.221
A similar theme involving straw or wheat is again found in direct association with
Byggvirs legendary English persona, Sceaf (sheaf), who was said to have
miraculouslycomeashoreasaboyinaboatwithoutoars,cradledonasheafofgrain.
ThissametaleislatertoldbythescribeswhorecordedtheearlyEnglishepic,Beowulf&
Grendel,detailingtheaccountofhowBeowulfsownfatherhadarrivedatScaniainan
oarlessboatpiledwithweapons. ThenameofhisfatherisvariouslygivenasScyld
ScefingorSceaf,affirminghisoriginalidentityasagodwhopresidedoverafieldcult. 222
AsaresultofthepaternalrelationshipbetweenScyldScefingandBeowulfwhichexactly
mirrorsthatbetweenBeowandSceaf,thereremainsaremotepossibilitythatanearly
AngloSaxonbarleygodmayserveastheantecedenttothispowerfulBritishfolkhero.
218hgin,Dith(2006).CailleachBharra.TheLoreofIreland:AnEncyclopaediaofMyth,
LegendandRomance.BoydellPress:pp.5860.
219JohnBarleycorntranscribedin:Grigsby,John(2006).Beowulf&Grendel:TheTruthBehind
EnglandsOldestLegend.WatkinsPublishing:pp.668.
220Herbert,Kathleen(2007).LookingfortheLostGodsofEngland.AngloSaxonBooks:pp.16;
Simek,Rudolf(trans.AngelaHall,1993).Beow.DictionaryofNorthernMythology.Boydell&
Brewer,pp.34.
221Bruce,AlexanderM.(2002).ScyldandScef:ExpandingtheAnalogues.Routledge:pp.28;
Hollander,LeeM.(trans.1962).ThePoeticEdda.UniversityofTexasPress:pp.901,99;Byggvir.
Dict.ofNorthernMythology,pp.501.
222Sceaf.Dict.OfNorthernMythology,pp.27677;ScyldScefing.Op.cit.,pp.277.

Eastern Europe also houses a proliferation of vegetationdeities associated with the

harvestofthecerealcrops.IncontemporaryEstonia,PellonPekko(meaning,thePekko
ofthefield)isthedeityofagriculturewhooversawthegrowthofgrain,particularly
barley;infact,hisnamewasthoughttoderivefromthatoftheOldNorsebarleygod,
Byggvir.223 Alargecommunaleffigyofthegodfashionedfrombeeswaxwasburiedin
grainbins.Thisimagewasbroughtoutevery1Octoberduringaspecificritualtoensure
abountifulharvestthefollowingyear.Afterthefeast,brutalgamesoffencejumpingor
wrestling ensued to determine who would host the image of the god during the
forthcomingyear,andhisannualcelebratorycult. JustliketheirGreekcoevalsinthe
worshipofDemeter,thevillageworshipersofthisEstoniancorngodalsoevincealocal
Mysteryreligionthroughtheestablishmentofasecretsociety.224
TheSlavonicpeopleinhabitingdistrictsofRussiaoncereveredawatergoddessnamed
Rusaka,whowasintrinsicallyassociatedwiththecornfieldsattheHarvest. Sheis
occasionallyportrayedasabeautifulyoungwomanwithlongflowinghairandrunning
withabandonindistrictssituatedamidtreesandlakes;thoughsheislessoftenportrayed
asanextremelygrotesquehag.Indeed,shecouldbeacapriciousdeitywhocouldwreak
havocontolocalcropswithravagingstorms,oftenasadeathwieldingwitch.Toabate
suchcatastrophicsituationssprigsofwormwood(Artemisiaabsinthium)weresometimes
issuedasaprotectivecharmagainsthermalfeasance.OftencorneffigiesofRusakaare
producedinthelikenessofmermaidsor,lessfrequently,intimatingyoungmaidens.Itis
customaryfortheseimagestobeburned,withtheashesthentobescatteredoverfields;
or, alternatively, these effigies are also buried in an effort to sustain the powers of
vegetation.Rusakaseemstohavebeeninvokedforanabundantyieldofbuckwheator
othercerealcropsasafertileEarthMother;anditwasbelievedthatgrassgrewthickeror
thewheatmoreabundantwhereshewaswonttodance.Hercultloreresemblesthatof
farmorewellestablishedvegetationdeitiesthatwerethoughttovanishandreappear
duringtheannualtransitionoftheseasons,forshewasbelievedtoremainicebound
beneathcertainrivers throughoutthewintermonths,andonlyreemergedduringthe
springwhenshecouldclimboutontodrylandwhereshelingereduntilautumn.225
Harvestgamesofasomewhatdifferentsortwereplayedbylocalvillagersatthistime.
TheywouldchooseayounggirltoimpersonateRusaka,andshewouldleadaprocession
througharyefield(Rusakasfavoritecrop)inwhichthevillagerswouldbangpotsor
crackwhips,etc.inanefforttodrivethespiritbacktoherwateryhome.226
223Thishascomeundersomecriticism,however(.DictionaryofNorthernMythology,pp.).
224Doniger,Wendy(ed.1999).Peko.MerriamWebstersEncyclopediaofWorldReligions.
MerriamWebsterInc:pp.847;Hastings,James(2003).EncyclopediaofReligion,Part11.Kessinger
Publishing:pp.25.
225Alexinsky,G.SlavonicMythologyinNewLarrouseEncyclopediaofMythology(ed.F.Guirand),
pp.293;Hubbs,Joanna(1988).MotherRussia:TheFeminineMythinRussianCulture.Indiana
UniversityPress:pp.856;Ivanits,LindaJ.(1989).RussianFolkBeliefs.M.E.Sharpe:pp.10,7980;
Paxson,Margaret(2005).Solovyovo:TheStoryofMemoryinaRussianVillage.IndianaUniversityPress:
339;OleszkiewiczPeralba,Magorzata(2007).TheBlackMadonnainLatinAmericaandEurope:
TraditionandTransformation.UniversityofNewMexicoPress:pp.17,26;Warner,Elizabeth(2002).
RussianMyths.TheLegendaryPast.TheBritishMuseumPress,pp.424.
226RussianMyths,pp.44.

Moreover,theRussiansalsopreservedafarmoredistinctvegetativefolkspiritofpagan
antiquitywhoisknownasKostroma;shewasananthropomorphicimagefashionedfrom
sheavesofcerealgrain,andclothed. Thiseffigywasmarchedthroughthecommunity
where she was annually buried in an effort to secure the rebirth of the following
seasons crops. In cult, Kostroma was a fertilitygoddess and a stereotypical witch
associatedparticularlywiththeflaxharvest(kostra)whosedeathwasmerelyarestful
sleepfromwhichsheawokenextspringreinvigorated.ARussianfolksongrecountsthe
ritualactivityoriginallyassociatedwiththegoddesswhocouldonlybeawokenbyher
Priestess,theyounggirl:
Underthebeach/LayourKostroma./Shehasbeenkilled;butwasnot
killed,/Coveredwithcrepe./Ayounggirlcametoher/Uncoveredthe
crepe,/Lookedintoherfaceandasked:/Doyousleep,dearKostroma,
Do you feel nothing? / Your horse the crow flies in the field. / The
beautifulgirlbroughtwater/andaskedtheraingiver:/Giveusrain,
Lady, / much rain / So that the grass grows / and blunts Kostromas
braid./Behindtheriver,/Kostromabraidsthehay./Shethrowsher
braid/Inthemidstofthehaymakers.227
This ritual gesture, like other IndoEuropean beliefs and practices that have been
presentlyexplored,seemtoinvolveaspringriteofawakeningintendedtoabrogatethe
fallow season of winter as the Earth flourishes with wild abandon, allowing the
nourishingHarvesttosustainourfragilelives;foritisonlythroughthedeathofthe
reborn corndeity in autumn that we may live. Grain is the Staff of Life, and we
acknowledgethisthroughoutourjoyoussolemnitiesaswecelebratetheannualpassingof
ourfertilegodsduringthefeastofHarvestHome.
Keepers of the Cauldron: The Potion in the Mythological-Tradition
Isingofthecauldronariverofwisdom
Anestuaryofhonourwithstreamingsoflore
Anoblevesselinwhichisbrewedthesourceofeverygreatknowledge
Anenduringpowerwhoseprotectiondoesnotperish.
TheCauldronofPoesy
WeareallfamiliarwiththestereotypethatwascrystallizedinthemindbyWilliam
Shakespearesquillinhistragedy,Macbeth;duringtheonsetofActIV,scene1gather
threewitchesatthemouthofacaveastheychant,danceabout,andheaveintotheir
fabulousCauldronallmannerofnoxiousandvilesoundingingredients,suchasatoad,
rottingentrails,andaserpent.228 Indeed,thisimagemayhavecometoinfluencethe
227MotherRussia,pp.778;RussianFolkBeliefs,pp.11;RussianMyths,pp.28.
228TheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.TheCompleteWorksofWilliamShakespeare.The
TragedyofMacbeth.http://shakespeare.mit.edu/macbeth/full.html(Retrieved:10November,2009).

conceptofthe fictional witchfigureinpopulardepictions. Forexample,inthefilm

Hocus Pocus (Walt Disney, 1993), three fictional seventeenthcentury witches from
Salem,Massachusettsareobservedbrewingequallyloathsomeingredientswithintheir
own gigantic Cauldron as they contrive to rob children of their individual lifeforce
hopingtoregaintheiryouth,beauty,andvitality.
Instead,theancientwitchspotiondrewuponfarmoreendemicconcernsasweshall
observe, aside from mere pharmaceutical medicines, centered chiefly upon psycho
spiritual transformations within the native pagan religions or the base desire to
triumphantlyseducealover.Infact,thehistoricalrootsofthepotion,largelythough
not exclusivelythroughout the Eurasian west seem to find its antecedents in the
psychotropictraditionsofnativepaganshamanism.However,tonavigatetheremains
of this mysterious Cauldron we must first survey the literary texts which are, in all
likelihood,themostaccuratemethodatourdisposalwithwhichtoexaminethistradition
ofancientmagic.229Thefollowingcatalogfromthemythologicaltraditionshallserveas
the baseline with which to draw our preliminary conclusions as we maneuver from
regiontoregion.
Aphrodite(foamarisen)originallybeganhercultastheSemiticgoddessAstartewho
wasimportedtoCyprusthroughcontactwiththeseafaringPhoeniciancultureduringthe
DarkAgesofancientGreeksociety.230
She was born when Kronos hacked off his fathers genitalsthe skydeity
Ouranosand cast them into the sea, the combination of two male elements within
Hellenistictradition.Thefraternallovegods,Eros(desire)andHimeros(yearning),
wereestablishedasherattendantsandescortedthegoddesstohercultcenterontothe
shoresofCyprus.231Thismyth,however,findsadirectparallelinaMesopotamianepic
involvingtheSumeriangoddess,Itar, whomitwastoldfellfromHeavenintothesea
(presumablyasastar)andwasbroughttotheshorebylocalwatergodsorfishwhereshe
was,afterwards,tendeduponbydoves.232
HellenictraditionrecordedonantiquevasesmaintainthatAphroditeswingedattendants
notonlycarriedherlovepotionsinrituallibationvessels(phiale),butthatthegoddess
herselfofferedouthersacredphiltrestotheheroJasonaswellastotheGreekpoetess
Sappho.233 Herassociationswithwitchcraftwerefurtheremphasizedunderanidentity
with the Dark Moon (as Aphrodite Melaina, the black one); it was through this

229Luck,Georg(trans.,2006).ArcanaMundi:MagicandtheOccultintheGreekandRomanWorlds:
ACollectionofAncientTexts,2ndedn.TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:pp39.
230Puhvel,Jaan(1987).ComparativeMythology.TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:pp.130.
231Hesiod(trans.ApostolosN.Athanassakis,1983),Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield.TheJohns
HopkinsUniversityPress:pp.178;Provencal,Vernon(2005).GlukusHimeros:PederasticInfluenceon
theMythofGanymedeinSameSexLoveandDesireinGrecoRomanAntiquityandintheClassical
TraditionoftheWest.BeertC.VerstraeteandVernonProvencal,eds.HaworthPress:pp.87136.
232Cashford,Jules(2003).TheMoon:MythandImage.Cassell:pp.80.
233Patton,KimberleyChristine(2009).ReligionoftheGods:Ritual,Paradox,andReflexivity.Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.136and151.

aspectthatshetaughtJasonhowtoinvokeherinfernalnaturewhenhewasinneed
ofmagicpowers.234
Artay Vrf is a Zoroastrian (Iranian) Messianicfigure who, after he was properly
clothedandpurifiedwithincense,consumedthreecupsfilledwithavisionarypotion
madeofwinelacewiththemysteriousnarcoticofVishtspwhichimmediatelylulled
himintoadeepslumberforsevendaysandsevennights. Duringthisperiodhissoul
journeyedtotheMazdeanparadiseandtheUnderworld. Whenheawokeheimparted
ontothereligiousfollowersofAhuraMazdahandhissevensisterstheblessingsoftheir
godandthearchangels,beforeorderingtheassembledhoststofeedthepoorandthe
hungrywithalavishmealincludingconsecratedcakes.
Afterwards,herecountedhismarveloustaleofhavingbeengreetedbytwoangelswho
ledhimacrossanOtherworldbridgetoablissfulandfragrantParadise;there,hewas
escorted among various souls who taught him lessons in morality and religious
observations. But, it was in the Underworld where he learned the fate of the non
believers;itwaspopulatedwithdemonsandtheZoroastrianantigodwhotormented
thesoulsofthedamnedbymetingoutmostironicpunishmentsuntilthesesoulswere
eventuallyreborn.
Hisjourneycontinuedashefoundhiswayontoastellarstartrack,eachglittering
footholdleadinghimtoanotherplainintheOtherworld:ThefirstwascalledHmat,
whichiswheregoodthoughtsarereceived;itispeopledbyglitteringsoulswhodidno
gooddeedsandwereunabletoreadtheGs,butwereglorifiedingooddeedsofsome
othersort. Thenexttrackwasthatofthemoon,calledHkht,wheretheresidents
achievedthegloryandradianceofthemoonthroughcertaingooddeeds,despitehaving
never offered prayers, chanted the Gs, or arranging any nextofkin marriages.
Afterwardshewasescortedtoanotherplaneofexistencepresidedoverbyanarchangel
whobroughthimintothebrilliantpresenceofAhuraMazda.Thegodcommandedhis
angelicservantstoshowtheprophetthefatesofnotonlythewicked,butofthosewho
faithfully maintain the Mazdean religious traditions. He encountered the souls who
chantedtheholypassages,whoarrangednextofkinmarriages,andwhowerewiserulers
of their kingdoms on Earththey were dressed in fine garments embroidered with
precioussilverandgold,aswereanywomenwhosubmittedtotheruleoftheirhusbands
andveneratedthenaturalforcesandbeastscreatedbytheirgod.
Then,manyfarmoreinfernallevelswereencounteredbytheprophetinwhich
heencountered numerous damnedsoulonlytoenquirethearchangeloftheirsinsand
theirrequisitepenancebeforefinallyaskingthegodofhisleaveandreturningoncemore
tohisbody,thusillustratedforhimtheimmortalsystemofrewardandpunishmentthat
awaitthe Iranian followers ofZoroaster, andevenestablishing asystemofreligious
proscriptions,similartothelabyrinthinenightmareencounteredwithinthepagesofthe
fourteenthcenturyCEepicpoemDantesInferno.235
234TheMoon,pp.29192.
235Jamaspji,DesturHoshangji(trans.MartinHaug&E.W.West,1872).TheBookofArdaViraf:
ThePahlaviText.GovernmentCentralBookDepot:pp.149204.

ArtemiswasthetwinsisterofApollon,themoontohissun,borneofasexualencounter
betweenZeusandtheTitaness,Leto.Whenthegoddesswasanimmortalyouthshewas
askedbyZeuswhatitwasthatshedesiredmostwithinallcreation.Inreplyshedeclared
thatshewantednothingmorethantoremainavirgin,andrunwithwildabandonamid
theverdantforestshuntinggame.236
MuchlikeindigenousshamanstheThessalianwitcheswereadaptatrecallinglost
soulsfromthelandofthedead,andthisshamanictraditionincludedinvokingor
drawingdownthespiritofthemoongoddessontoEarth,sometimesintothevessel
ofalivecow.Asaconsequenceofthismagicalrite,astrangefoamorslimeknownas
lunarevirus wasreputedtoappearonvariousplantsandgreenherbs. Thissubstance
wouldthenbegatheredupandusedintheproductionoflovepotions.237
However,thismysterioussubstancealsofoundanoccasionaluseinNecromancy
aformofdivinationthatrequiredhumanremainsinwhichthespiritattachedtothem
wasconjuredinordertoforetellcertaincomingevents.AccordingtoLucanamurderous
witchfromThessaly,oneErichtho,wascommissionedbySextusPompiustoraisethe
deadsothathemightknowhisimmediatedestiny.Shedidsobyinvokingthemoon
goddessandcollectingtheresultingfoamlikesubstance,whichwasthenblownintothe
corpse.Thespiritonlymaterializedonceshehadfinishedbrewingaloathsomepotion
andchantedamenacinginvocationtotheghostinordertocompelitsappearance.But,
becausetheapparitionwasafraidtorejoinitsbodyErichthothenentreatedthegodswith
threatsinordertocommandthespiritbackintoitsformervesselsothatSextuscould
receivehisprophecy.238
AsklepiusisanoracularGrecianhealinggod,thesonofApollonbyKoronis.Whenhis
motherdiedthepunishmentforanamoroustransgressionagainstherdivineloverthe
infantwasrescuedfromherburningpyreandsenttothecentaur,Chiron,withwhomhe
wasfostered.Ashegrewintomanhood,hecametolearnhisinfamoushealingarts,as
wellashowtobrewmagicalpotionsandtoreciteincantations,allunderthetutelageof
hiswisementor;thiswasatraditionhewouldlaterpassontohisownsons,Podilirius
andMachaon. Indeed,sogreatwasAsklepiushealingabilitiesthat,withtheaidofa
potion crafted by Athena fromgorgons blood,he began to revive the deadan act
contrarytotheimplacablewillofthefatesso,Zeussealedhisdoomwithafatalstroke
fromhismightythunderweapon.239
236Callimachus(trans.AlexanderWilliamMair&GilbertRobinsonMair,1955).HymntoArtemis.
HymnsandEpigrams,2ndedn.HarvardUniversityPress.Cambridge,Massachusetts;Theogony;Works
andDays;Shield,pp.36
237Collins,Derek(2008).MagicintheAncientGreekWorld.BlackwellPublishing:pp.523;Gordon,
Richard(1999).ImaginingGreekandRomanMagicinWitchcraftandMagicinEurope:TheMiddle
Ages,vol.3.BengtAnkarlooandStuartClark,eds.ContinuumInternationalPublishing:pp.223;Jevons,
J.B.(1891).ReportonGreekMythology.FolkLore:AQuarterlyReviewofMyth,Tradition,
Institution&Custom,vol.2.FolkloreSociety:pp.227;Ogdon,Daniel(2002).Magic,Witchcraft,and
GhostsintheGreekandRomanWorlds:ASourcebook.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.23739.
238Baroja,JulioCaro(trans.O.N.V.Glendinning,1964).TheWorldoftheWitches.TheUniversity
ofChicagoPress:pp.312;ArcanaMundi,pp.210.

AfamoushealingcultattendedbypriestphysicianswasestablishedatEpidaurus(his
mythicalbirthplace),situatedwithatheatre,gymnasia,andincubationchambersinthe
altarroomoftheTemple.Thesefeatureswereintendedtonourishthepatientsphysical
andemotionalwellbeing,butintheincubationchambersweretherbedsonwhichthe
sick or grievous slept awaiting the gods revelation where he would prescribe the
appropriatetreatmentthroughtheirdreams,sometimesintheformofamagicpotion.240
Shouldanepidemicplaguethelandthegodscultsnakewouldbesummonedtothe
afflictedcitystateinneedofsalvation.Thecreaturedwelledfreelywithinthealtarroom
of the sanctuary, flexing and coiling its length along a flowerstrewn floor of the
antechamber. Along the sojourn from Epidaurius the procession of the snake was
punctuated by local harbors with festivities in praise of the god; when, at last, the
epiphanyofthedeitylandeduponthecoastofthecitythathadsummonedhim,hewas
usheredintoalocaltemplewhereheresumedhisdivineformandbroughtanendtogrief
andrestoredhealthtotheresidents.241
Athena istheGreekgoddessofwisdomwhocametoepitomizethetechnologicaland
culturalartsofMycenaeancivilization.OriginallyshewasknownasAtanaPotnija,the
MistressofAthensduringtheBronzeAgeatKnossos(Crete);242but,laterpatriarchal
Greekmythographersrecordingtheeventsthatledtoherbirthmayhaveattemptedto
subverttheroleofthisoncemightygoddessunderthedominionofherpaterfamiliasin
accordwiththesocialvaluesofClassicalGreeksocietyatthetimeinwhichthesesacred
narrativeswereconsignedtohistory.243
Accordingly, Zeus took as his first wife the goddess Metis (cunning
intelligence);however,whenitwasforetoldthatoneofherprogenywoulddeposehim
aschiefamongtheimmortalgodsZeusswallowedherwholewhileshewasstillwith
child. Induecourse,ninemonthslater,greyeyedAthenawouldspringforthfromthe
skullofherfather,fullyarmedforbattle.244
ForallofwiseAthenasgreatdeedscentereduponinnovation,littlehasbeen
broachedintermsofherassociationswithwitchcraftandsorcery.Forexample,whenthe
beautifulpriestess,Medusa,wasrapedbydarkhairedPoseidoninAthenastemplethe
239Bonnefoy,Yves(trans.WendyDoniger,1991).GreekandEgyptianMythologies.TheUniversityof
ChicagoPress:pp.149;Burkert,Walter(trans.JohnRaffan,1985).GreekReligion.HarvardUniversity
Press:pp.147and201;Cashford,Jules(trans.,2003).HymntoAsklepios.TheHomericHymns.
PenguinClassics:115;Guirand,Felix(trans.RichardAldington&DelanoAmes,1968).Greek
MythologyinNewLarousseEncyclopediaofMythology.Hamlyn:pp.163;Homer(trans.RobertFagles,
1990).TheIliad.PenguinClassics:pp.123and152;Price,SimonandEmilyKearns(eds.2003).
Asclepius.TheOxfordDictionaryofClassicalMythandReligion.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.624.
240ArcanaMundi,pp.18485;Mikalson,JonD.(2005).AncientGreekReligion.Blackwell
Publishing:pp.44.
241Ovid(trans.A.S.Kline,2004).Metamorphoses.BordersClassics:pp.27477.
242Budin,StephanieLynn(2004).TheAncientGreeks:AnIntroduction.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.
257;Athena.OxfordDict.ofClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.6870;ComparativeMythology,pp.129.
243Dexter,MiriamRobbins(1990).WhencetheGoddess:ASourceBook.TeachersCollegePress:pp.
109.
244Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield,pp.34,35.

virginalgoddesspreservedthemaidensmodestybycursingherwithhideousfeatures
ringletsofwrithingsnakesforhairandapetrifyinggaze.Thegorgonwouldlatermeet
herdoomatthehandsofthehero,Perseus,whoslewMedusaasshesleptbygaugingher
reflectioninhisshieldofpolishedbronze.245
ThegoddessofwisdomthengavetoAsklepius,theGreekgodofmedicine,a
magic potion culled from the blood ofMedusa; if drawn from the righthalf of the
Gorgonsremainsitdestroyedthepatientutterly,butapotiondecantedfromthelefthalf
ofhercorpsewouldhealanypatientindireneedofsalvation. 246ThesnakesinMedusas
hairwerebelievedtoyieldmagicalproperties,andmayhavepreservedthememoryof
earlysocialtaboosalignedwithonesmoonbloodandtheactofmenstruation;onthe
otherhand,however,thismythmayhavealsorecountedcertainmaleritesofpassagein
which Greek youths were instructed to gaze at a mask mirrored in a silver vessel
intimatingthemythofPerseus,auniquecustomthatrecalledthepresentationofthe
gorgonsowndramaticmaskswhichweredisplayedasapartoftheirrespectivecult
activity.247
CerridwenisaWelshgoddessidentifiedwiththeMysteriesofinitiationandtheharvest
rites;sheisthepossessorofthegreatCauldronofKnowledge,Awen.
According to the sixteenthcentury CE text Hanes Taliesin Cerridwen is the
motheroftwochildren,abeautifuldaughternamedCreirwy,andahideouslyuglysonby
the name of Afaggdu (utter darkness). Together, the siblings may have come to
personifythemythologicalrelationshipbetweendayandnight,summerandwinter,or
the heavens and the underworld of the shamanic cosmology. Concerned that her
grotesquesonwouldnotbewelcomedamongtheWelshnobility,Cerridwenconsulted
hergrimoireandcontrivedtobrewaspecialpotiondistilledwiththewisdomofthe
worldthatwouldtransformherprogenyintoarenownedseer.
ShescouredtheexpanseoftheEarthsearchingfortheherbswiththespecialproperties
that she required; culling them on certain days and specific hours of the week, the
goddesscarriedthembacktoherCauldronwhereshemixedthemintothevesselwith
waterandplaceditontothefire. InherabsenceCerridwenhiredananonymousblind
mantostirthepotionandtendtheCauldronwithayouthGwionBachwhowas
chargedwiththetaskofcontinuallystokingthehearthfirebeneaththekettle.
Overthecourseofayearandadaythegoddessregularlyaddedastockoffresh
waterandherbstotheCauldronasshebrewedthepotentdecoction.Whenatlast,weary
fromherlabors,shestationedAfaggdunearthepotiontoreceivehisgiftofwisdom
beforefinallyconsigningherselftorest.But,asthedraftbegantofomentGwionBach
chasedoffherwretchedsonandclaimedthewisdomforhimself. Threedropsissued
forthfromtheCauldronandlandedonGwionshandwhereuponheimbibedthescalding

245Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield,pp.20;Metamorphoses,pp.74.
246GreekandEgyptianMythologies,pp.149.
247Gimbutas,Marija(1999).TheLivingGoddesses.EditedandSupplementedbyMiriamRobbins
Dexter.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.26;Kernyi,Carl(1951).TheGodsoftheGreeks.Thames&
Hudson:pp.48and50.

liquid.Theremainderofthepotion,however,wasrenderedsuchanunimaginablytoxic
substancethatitbegantohissamightywailandshatteredthevessel.
Cerridwenawokewithastartand,enragedbyhisbetrayal,pursuedtheyouth
whomshehademployed.However,knowingthatdeathnowawaitedhim,Gwionhoped
toevadethepitilessgraspofthegoddess.Heassumedtheshapeofahare(anepiphany
offertilityandthespiritofthegrainduringtheharvestrites)asourLadygavechasein
theformofablackgreyhound;fleeingintothelakethatsurroundedCerridwenshome,
Gwiontookontheshapeofafish,butthegoddessvigilantlycontinuedherpursuitasa
swiftotter;evasivelytheboytookflightfromthewaterydepthsandcleavedtheskiesin
avian form as Cerridwen again gave chase as a predatory hawk. Finally the lad
descendedontoathreshingfloortakingontheshapeofanunassumingstalkofwinnowed
grain,butwiseCerridwendonnedthelikenessofablackhenandswallowedGwionin
hisnewvisage.
Forthenextninemonthsherbellygrewroundandlargewithchilduntilshegave
birthtothelegendarybard,Taliesin(radiantbrow).But,whenshelookeddownupon
thenewprince,shefoundthatherbloodlusthadabated.Insteadsheorderedtheinfantto
beboundinacoracleorahidecoveredbasketandthrownintothelake,orthesea.
ItwasontheEveofSamhainwhenElphinthesonofacourtesanintheservice
of the Welsh King, Maelgwnjourneyed to his fathers weir to fish for salmon (an
animal traditionally associated with great knowledge and the gift of prophecy). He
found, to his astonishment, that the waters were bare; but, in their place was the
miraculousinfantcastasidebythegoddess,Cerridwen,whomElphintooktoraiseashis
own.248
ChangoistheYorubadiasporicthundergod.249Onemythholdsthatwhenthegodwas
thechieftainofOyobeforehisburialhehadacquiredfromhisfatherapotionof
invisibility. Inpreparationforacongregationamongtheimmortalgods,however,he
gorgedhimselfontheelixirandfoundtohisastonishmentthat,ashebegantospeak,fire
issuedforthfromhismouth!Changowasimpressedbythisphenomenon,andtookitas
asignofhispreeminenceamongtheothergods.Asaconsequenceoftheseevents,the
colors redandwhiteforfireandtheflashlightning,respectivelyweredeemedas
sacredtothegod;indeed,hiseffigyisadornedwithgarmentsofthesehues.250

248Ford,Patrick(trans.1977).TheMabinogiandOtherMedievalWelshTales.CaliforniaUniversity
Press:pp.15966;Green,MirandaJ,(1992).Salmon.DictionaryofCelticMythandLegend.Thames
&Hudson:pp.18485;Green,Miranda(1995).CelticGoddesses:Warriors,VirginsandMothers.British
MuseumPress:pp.689;MacKillop,James(2004).Ceridwen.OxfordDictionaryofCelticMythology.
OxfordUniversityPress:pp.85;Newall,Venetia(1971).DiscoveringtheFolkloreofBirdsandBeasts.
ShirePublications:pp.36.
249Gates,BrianEdward(1980).AfroCaribbeanReligion.WardLockEducational:pp.20.
250Pradel,Lucie(2000).AfricanBeliefsintheNewWorld:PopularLiteraryTraditionsofthe
Caribbean.AfricaWorldPress:pp.612.

Circe(shefalcon)251isawitchgoddesswhoresidesonthemysteriousislandofAeaea,
attheextremeeastoftheworld.252AccordingtotheOdyssey,Odysseussmenhappened
uponherestateandnotedthatitwassurroundedbyanunusualarrayoftamebeasts;
mountain wolves and lions. The goddess emerged from her looma mythic trope
signifyingtreacheryordeceitandinviteshismentopartakeofhercomfortsandfeeds
tothemapharmaceuticalpotionthatmakesthemforgettheirnativehomelandofIthica
(Greece)whenshestrikeseachmanwithhermagicwandtransformingthemintoswine,
but with human intelligence. Only Eurylochus, their shipmate, escaped this fate by
remainingbehind;hesoondepartstofetchOdysseusattheirlandingpostandreports
thesehorrificevents.
Odysseusimmediatelysetsouttorescuehiscomrades,but,whenCircesmanor
comesintoviewhewasapproachedbyHermeswhoinstructedhimonhowtoovercome
theguileofthebewitchinggoddessafterconsumingamedicinalherbknownas mly,
whichthegodhadculledforhimtocounterthewitchspotions.
Ashehadbeenwarnedbythegodsmessenger,Circefashionedthesamepotion
forhimthatshehadfedtohismen,containingamixtureofPrambianwine,clearhoney,
cheese,barley,andsomehallucinogenicherbswhenshealsostruckhimwithhermagick
wand.Causingnonoticeableeffects,CircegrewsuspiciouswhenOdysseusfollowing
Hermescouncildrewhisswordandthreatenedher.Graspinghiskneesinagestureof
supplication the hero ordered the goddess to return his men to their former state of
existence,whichsheaccomplishedbyanointingtheswinewithawitchssalve. Once
Circehadbeenconquered,Odysseusdemandedsheswearanoathoffealtytohimbefore
sleepingwithher.Withnomoredevioustacticsatherdisposal,shesentthevoyagerson
aquesttotheUnderworldtoretrievethetransgenderedseerTiresiassothattheymight,
atlast,findtheirwayhome.253
Demeter (earthmother?)foundedapopularmysterycultbaseduponthelegendary
searchforherbeloveddaughter,Kor,whomhadbeenabductedandrapedbyHades,the
LordoftheUnderworld. AfterblightingtheEarth,Zeusrelentedanddemandedthe
returnofKor;but,becauseshehadeatenafewpomegranateseedswhileresidingin
Hadeskeep,itwasdecreedbythekingofthegodsthatshemustresideforthreemonths
oftheyearawayfromhermotherintheUnderworld.Thiswellknownmyth,ofcourse,
mayhavecometointimatethetransitionalseasonsbetweenautumnandthereturning
vegetationofspring.254
251Yarnall,Judith(1994).TransformationsofCirce:TheHistoryofanEnchantress.Universityof
IllinoisPress:pp.28.
252Circe.OxfordDict.ofClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.120.
253Faraone,ChristopherA.(1991).MagikaHiera:AncientGreekMagicandReligion.Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.139;ArcanaMundi,pp.936;Naiden,F.S.(2006).AncientSupplication.Oxford
UniversityPress:NewYork,NY;Ogden,Daniel(2008).NightsBlackAgents:Witches,Wizardsandthe
DeadintheAncientWorld.HambledonContinuum:pp.79,10,11;Circe.OxfordDict.ofClassical
Myth&Religion,Ibid;Tiresias.Op.cit.,pp.554.
254HymntoDemeter.HomericHymns,pp.526;Demeter.OxfordDict.ofClassicalMyth&
Religion,pp.15961.

Attheinitiationritesofhersolemnreligiousceremoniesthe Eleusinian Mysteries

postulants would consume a possibly hallucinogenic and sweettasting ritual potion
called kykeon (mixture) which was blended from roasted barleywater, young
pennyroyalleaves(Menthapulegium),andmilk,amongotheringredients;thisgesture
intimatedthemythicconsumptionofthepotionwhichwasimbibedbyDemeterinorder
totemporarilyfallowheroncefertilewomb,anactthatpreventedtheEarthfromyielding
any grainthe Staff of Life. A pennyroyal potion was frequently employed by
MidwivesfromantiqueGreeceinordertoabsolveanunwantedpregnancy; 255 and,by
consumingapotionconcoctedwiththisfamedabortifacientthePriesthoodofthegoddess
mayhavebeensharinginoneoftheprincipalMysteriesassociatedwithDemeterscult
duringSeptemberbarrenness.
DianaistheRomanmoongoddessofthehuntwhosemythicdeedsareidenticaltothose
ofherantedatedGreciancoeval,Artemis. However,duringtheMedievalperiodshe
becameagoddessofwitchesanightflyerwholedadiabolicretinueoffollowersin
thewildhunt.256
In one record of the witch Canidia from the Romanera, Diana is invoked in the
formulationofquiteagruesomepharmaceuticallovepotioncontaining,amongother
ingredients:wildfigfoundgrowingonatomb,funerealcypressleaves,toadsblood,the
bonesandfeathersofascreechowl,andpoisonousherbsfromthecitystatesofIolchos
andHiberia(bothrenownedfortheirstockofpoisonousplants).Canidia,however,may
originallyhavebeenaperfumerworkinginNeapolitanwhosuffereddefamationatthe
handsofHorace,theauthorofthischronicle,duetoanunsettledaccount.257
Because of the medical profession that arose in connection with Dianas cult, thus
extending her worship well into the Christian era, pharmaceutical dispensaries
(Unguentaria) sprung up around her sanctuaries where they made and sold both
medicinalointmentsandmagicpotionschieflyforthetreatmentofskindisease.258
Haumea is a Polynesian goddess of fertility and childbirth worshipped primarily
throughoutHawaii;sheisthepersonificationofPapa,theEarthMother.Legendholds
255MagikaHiera,pp.14445;Kernyi,Carl(trans.RalphManheim,1967).Eleusis:ArchetypalImage
ofMotherandDaughter.PrincetonUniversityPress:pp.40,60,66,88,and144;Encyclopediaof
PsychoactivePlants,pp.56970.
256Desmond,MariilynnRobinandPamelaSheingorn(2003).Myth,Montage,andVisualityinLate
MedievalManuscriptCulture:ChristinedePizansEpistreOthea.UniversityofMichiganPress:pp.118
23;Filotas,Bernadette(2005).PaganSurvivals,Superstitions,andPopularCultureinEarlyMedieval
PastoralLiterature.PontificalInstituteofMedievalStudies:pp.746;Ginzburg,Carlo(trans.Raymond
Rosenthal,1991).Ecstasies:DecipheringtheWitchesSabbath.UniversityofChicagoPress:pp.10102;
Ginzburg,Carlo(trans.John&AnneTedeschi,1992).TheNightBattles:WitchcraftandAgrarianCults
intheSixteenthandSeventeenthCenturies.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:pp.40;Lidnow,John.Wild
Hunt.MedievalFolklore:AGuidetoMyths,Legends,Tales,Beliefs,andCustoms.CarlLindahl,John
McNamara,andJohnLindow,eds.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.43233;Zika,Charles(2003).Exorcising
OurDemons:Magic,Witchcraft,andVisualCultureinEarlyModernEurope.BRILL:pp.38789.
257TheWorldoftheWitches,pp.323;ArcanaMundi,pp.60.
258Green,CarinM.C.(2007).RomanReligionandtheCultofDianaatAricia.CambridgeUniversity
Press:pp.29495.

that,withtheaidofhermagicstaff(Makalei)sheisabletotaketheformofawretched
oldhag,oranubileyoungwomaninordertoseduceoneofherseveralchildren(gods),
therebyperpetuatingthehumanrace.
Onetale,inparticular,recountshowthegoddessheardtheagonizingbirthpangsof
Muleiulathedaughterofafamouschieftainandobservedhowhumanbeingswould
givebirthbycuttingopenthemotheranddeliveringthechildinafashionidenticaltothe
modern cesarean. So, moved by Muleulas grief, Haumea devised a special potion
draftedfromtheflowersoftheKanikawitree(Spondiasdulcis)whichalleviatedher
painandallowedthedeitytohelpherpushoutthebabyinthenormalmanner,thereby
teachingchildbirthingtomankind.259
HerbWoman AmongtheCherokeenationisthetaleofagreatintertribalwarovera
choicehuntinggroundthatwaswagedacrosswoodedhilltops,steepvalleys,andcreeks,
untilthebattleeventuallyspreadtoalocalvillagedecimatingallbuttwosurvivingyoung
girlswhofledintotheforests. HerbWomanspentherdaysgatheringherbsforboth
magicandmedicine,andsoknowledgeablewasshethatthegodsgrantedtoherthegift
ofmagic.But,whenshecameuponthesleepinggirlsonedressedinagoldenyellow
doeskinwithfringe,andtheothervestedinaskirtwithlavenderbluetrimsheforesaw
onlysorrowintheirfuture.Soshecoveredthemwithablanketofleavesandsprinkled
uponthemamagicpotion,transformingthemeachintoafloweringplantintheirlikeness
ayellowgoldenrod(Solidagospp.),andthelavenderblueaster(Asterspp.).260
Hekat(thedistantone)261wastheenigmaticGreekgoddessofwitchcraft.Shehasno
known mythology of her own, save for an established genealogical dynasty as the
daughteroftheTitansAsteriaandPerses,andasinglecameoappearanceintheprinciple
hymntoDemeterinwhichsheheardpoorPersephoneslamentofanguishduringthe
younggoddesssabductionandrape.
ZeushonoredherbygrantingtoHekatsovereigntyovertheEarth,thestarryheavens,
andthebarrensea.262 Shewasroutinelyworshippedduringthenightatnaturalcross
roadswherethreemaskswerehunginherhonor,263 principallywithwildandecstatic
dancing.Indeed,truetohernocturnalandinfernalnature,thegoddesswasbelievedto
hauntgraveyardswhereshewouldcollectpowerfuldeathwieldingherbs.264

259Craig,RobertD.(2004).Haumea.HandbookofPolynesianMythology.ABCCLIO:pp.12829.
260Quinn,Vernon(1938).Roots:TheirPlaceinLifeandLegend.FrederickA.StokesCompany:pp.
223;Quinn,Vernon(1939).StoriesandLegendsofGardenFlowers.FrederickA.StokesCompany:pp.
10.
261GodsoftheGreeks,pp.35.
262Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield,pp.23;HymntoDemeter.HomericHymns,pp.526;
Hecate.OxfordDict.OfClassicalMyth&Religion,pp.24244.
263GreekReligion,pp.171;WhencetheGoddess,pp.125.
264LivingGoddesses,pp.155.

Hekatboretheidentityofthemoon, 265andassuchshecouldbedrawndownwiththe
resultingfoamservingtoenhanceanylovepotion. 266 Leadcursetablets(defixiones)
datedtothethirdcentury BCE beseechthegoddessinhomoeroticlovespellsaimedat
securingthedesireofonemanforanother. 267 WhilerecordsfromClassicalantiquity
attestthatshewasalsoinvokedtoaidintheconstructionofpowerfulloveandbinding
philters:
InonesuchaccountSimaetha,awitchfromAlexandria,contrivedtosecuretheloveof
theathleteDelphis,whohadbehaveddistantlytowardsher.However,tofulfillhergoal
shecompoundsapharmaceuticallovepotionanointmentblendedfromburnedbay
leaves,lizardflesh,andcoltfsfootandentreatsHekattoensurethatherformulationis
aspowerfulasthepotionscraftedbybothCirceandMedea, 268goddessestowhomshe
taughtherarcanemagic.269
Hermes, the Messenger of the Olympian gods, has an abiding association with
witchcraft,foritwashewhoneutralizedtheeffectsofCircesenticingspellsandpotions
whenhegavetotheheroOdysseusthemysteriousplantknownas moly.However,he
wasalsoreputedtohavetaughttheEgyptianmothergoddess,Isis,howtoconstructlove
potions.270
Hyndla is a giantess who, according to Hyndlulj, seems to be the keeper of
genealogicaltracts.Freyjasprotg,ttar,beseechedthegoddessforaidbysacrificing
toheronasimple,makeshift,altarofpiledstonesbecausehehadwageredthathis
ancestryisnoblerthanthatofAngantr.Upontransforminghimintoaboartheymake
offforHyndlascavewheretheyaskedhertorecounthisforbears. Sothathecould
rememberthenamesofhisrelatives,however,Freyjademandsthatthegiantessgiveto
ttar a special potion, a minnisl (memory ale) to ensure that his newly acquired
knowledgewouldnotfailhimforthreedaystime. Hyndlaunwillinglybringshimthe
beerthatshehadbrewedwithvenom(ie.poison),whenFreyjaneutralizesthedraft,
makingitsafetodrink,byblessingitbeforeservingittottarwhoisstillintheshapeof
aboar.271
Hypnos(sleep)istheyouthfulblackwingedgodofslumberwhocausesmankindto
sleepbytheuseofhismagicwandorbyapoppybasedpotionthathepoursoutfroma
265Johnston,SarahIles(1990).HekateSoteira:AStudyofHekatesRoleintheChaldeanOraclesand
RelatedLiterature.ScholarsPress:pp.36.
266GreekReligion,pp.171.
267Gager,JohnG.(1992).CurseTabletsandBindingSpellsfromtheAncientWorld.Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.20809.
268ArcanaMundi,pp.10508.
269Oswald,SabineG.(1969).Hecate.ConciseEncyclopediaofGreekandRomanMythology.
Collins:pp.123.
270GreekandEgyptianMythologies,pp.254.
271Hollander,LeeM.(trans.,1962).ThePoeticEdda,2ndedn.,rev.UniversityofTexasPress:pp.
12936;Simek,Rudolf(trans.AngelaHall,1993).Hyndla.DictionaryofNorthernMythology.Boydell
&Brewer:pp.169.

horn.HispalaceislocateddeepwithinavastcavernbeyondthelightoftheSunoutside
of which poppies and other hypnogogic herbs are wont to flourish; in fact, images
traditionallydepictthegodholdingpoppypodsorcapsulesinhislefthand.Itisperhaps
thepotentialdangerinopiumthatledtoHypnosbearingsuchanintimateassociation
withdeathintheancientGreekimagination.
One myth tells how the god fell in love with Endymion, the king of Elis.
However,whenZeussentencedEndymiontoperpetualslumberHypnosensuredthathis
beautiful eyes were always to remain open so that he could gaze into them. Other
commentatorshavesuggestedthatEndymionseyeswereallowedtoremainopensothat
hecouldgazeupatthemoongoddessSelene,withwhomhehadsiredseveralchildren.
HisRomancoevalwasnamedSomnus;hewaspopularlyfeaturedcrownedwitha
chapletofpoppiesandhealsocarriedwithhimachaliceofpoppyjuicesothathecould
sendmortalsintotheirslumber.272Hisnamesurvivesinthegenericbotanicalidentityof
the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum which means sleep bearer. It has been
suggested that the Christian patron saint of dreams, Simeone, came to displace the
RomangodafterChristianityspaganculturalgenocide.273
Idris wastheleastfavoredwifeofakingfromblackAfrica. Despiteherhardwork,
however,shewascontinuallyabusedbyhercowives;allthewhileherhusbandrefrained
fromprotectingher.
Becausethekingwassterilehesoughtoutamagiciantobrewforhimapotionthat
wouldcauseallofhismanywivestobearchildren.But,theyweregreedyandcoveted
thekingspowerastheyfoughtoverthepotion. Idris,ontheotherhand,timidlyout
stretchedherhandandimbibedthefinalportionofmedicinethatprovedjustenoughto
quickenherbellywithlife. Aspunishmentfortheirgreed,allsaveforIdrisgave
birthtomonsters;but,whenIdrischildwasbornshewasquicktorealizethethreatthat
hercowivesposedherdaughterslife,andsoshesentherintofosterage.
Whenherdaughtergrewintomaidenhoodhergreatbeautyattractedthedesireof
herownfatherwhosoughtherashisnewestbride.But,shecouldnotmarryhimbecause
shewashisonlylivingheir.Surprisedthathehadadaughterofwhomheknewnothing,
hedemandedtoknowwhichofhismanywiveswashermother;theprincesswasunable
tonametheidentityofhermother,soatestwasdevised:eachwifewouldfashionadish
272 Apuleius (trans. P. G. Walsh, 1994). The Golden Ass. Oxford
University Press: pp. 111; Guirand, F. (trans. Richard Aldington and
Delano Ames, 1968). Greek Mythology in Larrousse Encyclopedia of
Mythology, pp. 166; Kernyi, Carl (1951). The Gods of the Greeks.
Thames & Hudson: pp. 198; Littleton, C. Scott (2005). Gods,
Goddesses and Mythology, vol. 1. Marshall Cavendish Corporation: pp.
709-10; Mattusch, Carol C. (1996). Classical Bronzes: The Art and
Craft of Greek and Roman Statuary. Cornell University Press: pp. 15455; Ovid (trans. A. S. Kline, 2004). Metamorphoses. Borders: pp. 198200; Hypnos. Oxford Dict. of Classical Myth & Religion, pp. 275.
273 Leland, Charles G. (1892). Etruscan Roman Remains. Phoenix
Publishing: pp. 247.

offoodforhertoselectfrom,thusrevealinghermother,whowouldthenberaisedabove
allotherwivesmarriedtotheking.Eachwife,inturn,ransackedthekitchenpreparing
thebestdishshecouldfromthefood,there.ThisleftonlyscrapstochoosefrombyIdris
whowasonlyabletofashionaverysimplymeal. Itwasthismealthattheprincess
chose,devouringeverymorselofit!274
IezhibabaorJeibabaisaneastSlovanicfolkdeitywhoisanidentityofthecannibal
witchgoddess,BabaYaga.TwofolktalesrecounthowIezhibabarevealedaprophecyto
apeasantwomanthathersonisdestinedtomarryaprincess.Toguardagainstthis,and
tosecurebondsofpoliticalpowerthatarevestedinhisdaughterasheir,thekingsends
theboyaletterwhichheistodeliverthequeen.Theletteris,inactuality,asummonsfor
hisexecution!However,thegoddessinterceptsthemessagedruggingtheboywitha
sleepingpotionandrewritesthelettersothatthequeen,instead,hastheboymarrythe
princess.
Inanothertaleaheroicfigurediscoversanenchantedbirdwingwhichhethenswallows.
Thiscuriousobject,unbeknownsttohim,leavesacacheofmoneyunderhispilloweach
morningwhichIezhibabasoondiscovers. Thegoddessconferswithotherwitchesand
decidestogivetheyouthapotioninordertocoughupthebirdswing.Shethengives
theobjecttohermistress,theprincess,andsummarilyremovestheherotoanislandin
thebloodredseaasacaptive.Withtheaidofadragonheisabletoescapehisfateand
seekhisjustatonement:
Hefindsgrowingtwomysteriousappletrees;onewhichgrowshealingapples,
and another whose apples will make horns grow on any person who eats them.
Disguising himself he manages to sell the princess and her witch the latter apples,
causingthemimmensepain.Onlywhentheyhaveconfessedtotheirmisdeedsdoeshe
givethemthehealingapplestoendtheirgrief.Hesoonmarriestheprincess,andlater
comestoforgiveIezhibaba.275
IlmarinenisaFinishsmithgodcreditedwithmasteryoverthefivepreciousmetalsof
theEarthgold,iron,copper,silver,andbronze.Allofhiscreations,however,savefor
anenchantedgrainmill,wereunintentionallywroughtwithanadversarialdisposition
towardshumanity. Indeed,hebrewedfortheshamanicbardVinminenahealing
potionundertheauspicesoftheindigenousthundergod,Ukko,whichhethenusedasa
medicinal salve to treat the wounds that wereinflicted bythe smiths unfortunately
forgedaxeduringaloveordeal.
As it happened, Vinminen came upon the enchantress Louhi, a haglike witch
goddessfromPohjola(theNorthlands).Hesoughttowintheheartofthegoddess,but
shewouldhavenoneofituntilhecompletedtwoseeminglyimpossibletasksthatsheset
before him. He had to first carve a set of fencepoles from ice without any debris
274Monaghan,Patricia(2009).Idris.EncyclopediaofGoddessesandHeroines.ABCCLIO:pp.
1213.
275John,Andreas(2004).BabaYaga:TheAmbiguousMotherandWitchoftheRussianFolktale.
PeterLang:pp.64,667;Verlag,AlfredKrmer(trans.ManfredLurker,1987).BabaYaga.The
RoutledgeDictionaryofGodsandGoddesses,DevilsandDemons.RoutledgePress:pp.29.

scatteringnorasinglechipbreakingoff,thenfromherdistaffandspindlehewascharged
withthefeatofcarvingforheranelegantboat;butonhisthirddayofcarvinghisaxe
suddenlyturnedagainsthimandmercilesslyhackedawayathisflesh.276
IndraistheHindustormgodwhosesemenisepitomizedbythefertilizingrainsthatfall
fromtheheavens.277
AccordingtotheRigVeda,aservantofthegodpressedforhimaquantityofthe
mysteriousliquorthefoodofthegodsSoma,whichIndrathenimbibesasabattle
fortifyingpotion,278perhapsduetoitsinebriatingormindalteringeffects.
Isis or Aset (throne?) was the most popularly worshiped goddess from Egyptian
antiquitytotheextentthateveryTemplereservedashrinedevotedtoherveneration.She
wasbelievedtobeauniversalGreatGoddesswhowasassociatedwiththeEarth,the
moon,fertility,motherhood,sovereignty,andwitchcraft. 279 Legendhasitthatshewas
taughttobrewlovepotionswitholiveleavesandbeatjuice,usingoliveoilasabase,
underthetutelageoftheGreekgod,Hermes; 280apracticeforwhichshewasgenerally
quiterenowned.
KlMa(blackmother)isadeeplybelovedHindugoddess(inspiteofherfearsome
reputation)whopersonifiesnihilismandthecontinuouscycleofcreation;281itisshewho
willbringabouttheendoftimethroughherecstaticdance. Indeed,accordingtoher
principalnarrativesheconqueredthedemonking,Raktabja.
Duringanepicbattleagainstabandofdemonicenemies,twoadversarialupstarts
(CandaandMunda)approachthemothergoddessDurgwithweaponspoisedtoattack.
OutofangerDurgs facecontortsbecomingblackasinkwhen,suddenly,KlMa
springsforthfromherforeheadfullyarmedwithaskullchoppingstaff. Durgsnew
manifestationoraspectwasblackskinnedandadornedwithagarlandofhuman
arms and a tiger pelt. Kl immediately went into a bloodrage and eviscerates the
demonichostbytearingthecrusadersapartandcrushingthemwithherjaws.Eventually
KlwasfacedwiththedemonRaktabja,whoisabletoreplicatehimselffromeachdrop
ofbloodthatwasspilledbyanattackingbattalionofpowerfulgoddesseswhofighthim
tonoavail.Shevanquishesthisdemonicfoebydrainingthebloodfromhisbodyand
devouringeachduplicateinturn.282
276Lnnrot,Elias(trans.KiethBosley,1989).TheKalevala:AnEpicPoemafterOralTradition.
OxfordUniversityPress:pp.79119.
277West,M.L.(2009).IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth.OxfordUniversityPress:pp.24546.
278InternetSacredTextArchive.Griffith,RalphT.H.(trans.,1896).HymnXXIV.RigVeda,7:
http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/rigveda/rv04024.htm(Retrieved:21January,2011).
279Watterson,Barbara(1984).GodsofAncientEgypt.SuttonPublishing:pp.724.
280GreekandEgyptianMythologies,pp.254.
281Bansal,SunitaPant(2005).HinduGodsandGoddesses.SmritiBooks:pp.64;Chandra,Suresh
(2001).Durge.EncyclopaediaofHinduGodsandGoddesses,2ndedn.SarupandSons:pp.7986;
Leeming,DavidAdams(2010).Kali.CreationMythsoftheWorld:AnEncyclopedia,vol.1,2ndend.
ABCCLIO:pp.445.

Throughout the Pacific, however, Kl bears an association not only with the
acquisitionofwealththroughritualmagic,butsheisalsoassociatedwithwitchcraftand
thecreationofpowerfullovepotions.283AccordingtocontemporaryHinduworshipersof
thegoddess,Klisparticularlydisposedtoofferingsofveryfragrantandheadyincense,
suchasthescentofrose,lily,andvanilla.284
Kurukull (RedTara)istheBuddhistgoddessoflovemagic,sexualdomination,and
bewitchment. Her mantras were traditionally invoked over foods and potions for
centuriestosecurelove. Onetalerecountshowaqueensoughttheaffectionofher
disinterestedking:
Shesentoneofherhandmaidsoutintothemarkettopurchaseanelixirthatmightarouse
herlordslagginginterestswhenshespiedasorceresswithredtingedskin,anindication
thatshewasanemanationofthegoddess.ShesaidtheMantraofKurukulloversome
food,whichthehandmadethentookbacktotheroyalcourt.There,thequeendisposed
ofthefoodintothelake,believingittobeunworthyoftheking.However,aserpent
kingfoundthemorselsoffoodandbecameenamoredwiththequeen;hesnuckintoher
bedroomandlaywithher,conceivingachild.Furious,thekingsentforthewitchfrom
themarket,butwhenshearrived,thekingsawwhatanextraordinarywomenshewasby
virtueofherredtingedskinandbadehertoblesshimandteachhimtheMantraof
Kurukull.TothisdaylovepotionsarestilltobefoundinIndianbazaars,soldunderthe
auspicesofpractitionerswhoconsecratetheminthenameofKurukull.285
Mydev isaBuddhistmothergoddesswhocametoreartheyouthPradyumna(the
JewelofMankind)asherownson.ThechildwasconceivedofLordKrishna,butwhen
onlysixnightsoldhewasabductedandcastintotheoceanbythedemon,Sambara,
wherehewasconsumedbylargeafish.Hesurvivedthisordealandwasrescuedbya
fishermanwhogavethenewborntothegoddesswhoservedhishome.Uponreaching
adolescence, Mydev taught to the boy her spells and enchantments, including her
illusivearts.286
AmidthearchaeologicalremainsofTilaurakotisthepresentdayTemplesiteof
thefertilitygoddess,Samaima.However,thissiteoriginallyhousedthecultcenterof
Mydevasevidencebyawoodiconportrayingthemothergoddessgraspingatree.In
previouserasitwascustomaryforChinesepilgrimstoscrapethisholyimageinorderto
brewafertilitypotion.Though,smearingtheidolwithvermilionandsacrificinganimals
toherhavebeendiscontinued,now,forseveraldecades.287
282Kinsley,DavidR.(1987).HinduGoddesses:VisionsoftheDivineFeminineintheHinduReligious
Tradition.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.11819.
283Knappert,Jan(1995).PacificMythology:AnEncyclopediaofMythandLegend.Aquarian/
Thorsons:pp.145.
284Pers.Comm.:n/d.
285Shaw,MirandaEberle(2006).BuddhistGoddessesofIndia.PrincetonUniversityPress:pp.432
47.
286Wilkins,WilliamJoseph(1882).HinduMythology,VedicandPurbnic.ElibronClassics:pp.215
16.
287BuddhistGoddessesofIndia,pp.53.

Medea was a stereotypical witch by profession in GrecoRoman literature whom

Classicalauthorsclearlyunderstoodtobeagoddess.288 TheancientGreektext, The
Argonotica,holdsthatsheexcelsatthecreationofpharmaceuticalpoisons,aswellas
manymiraculouspotionsandointments.
HerjourneybeganwhenJason,herlover,requestedtheaidofhermagicduring
thelegendaryquestfortheGoldenFleece.Sheusedherknowledgeofherbstoformulate
drugsthatwouldpreserveJasonfromharm,aswellastoconqueraraceofbronzemen
afterengaginginasortofshamanicformofecstaticfrenzy. But,whenatlastthey
arrivedatthelocationoftheGoldenFleeceatthefarendsoftheworld,shehandedto
Jasonapotionshehadmadetoputtheguardiandragonintoadeepsleepsothatthey
couldclaimthefabulouswool.
However, when they had returned home to Iolchis they found Jasons father,
Aeeson,inadvancedageandneardeath.Refusingtostandby,helplessly,Medeatook
flight on her dragondrawn chariot to scour the wideranging Earth in search of the
magicalherbsthatGaeagrew.Oncefinishedthewitchgoddessimmediatelysetherself
tothetaskofbrewingthecomplexrejuvenatingpotionwhoseveryfoamcausedfresh
greengrasstogrowanewwhereveritlandedupontheground.Shethentookherbronze
sickleshapedbladeandslitthekingsthroat,draininghimofhisblood,andreplacedit
withthepotionimmediatelyrestoringthekingsformeryouthandvitality.
UnderthepretenseofspousalabuseMedeadeviouslysoughtcounselinthehome
ofPelias,whohadusurpedthethroneofthekingandhadsetthemontheirdangerous
questinordertoeliminateJason,therightfulrulerofIolchis. ThereshepliedPelias
daughterswithwondroustalesofheryouthrestoringenchantments;and,asproofofher
magicshetossedaslaughteredsheepintohergreatcauldronthatemergedanubileyoung
lamb.Medeawenttoworkagainconstructinganotherpotion,onlythistimeshepicked
ineffectualherbsand,aftersheslicedthroughPeliasthroatanddisposedofhisremains
withinhervessel,shefledtoKorinthwhereshemurderedherownchildreninretaliation
for Jason marrying another woman in her absence. 289 Another tradition maintains,
however,thatMedeadidnotmurderherownchildren,butthatsheplacedtheminstead
undertheprotectionofHera. ItwastheinvadingKorinthianswhodidnotrespectthe
sanctityofHerastemple,andsotheykilledherchildrenwhowerefoundhuddledbehind
thealtarofthemothergoddess.Eversincethistreacherousact,theKorinthiansraised
Medeaschildrentothestatusofgodsandhonoredthemassuchinrecompensefortheir
deeds.290
MedeaisalsobelievedtohavemadeanattemptonthelifeofTheseus,shortly
after, in Crete when she served to him a cup laced with the poison of the aconite
(Aconitum napellus or A. anthora)culled from the spittle ofCerberus, the houndof
288Theogony;WorksandDays;Shield,pp.37;Edmond,J.M.(trans.,1922).LyraGareca,vol.1.
HarvardUniversityPress:pp.10599;Farnell,RichaerdLewis(1896).TheCultsoftheGreekStates,vol.
1.ClarendonPress:pp.202.
289ArcanaMundi,pp.1024,12326;Metamorphoses,pp.10918;Pelias.OxfordDict.ofClassical
Myth&Religion,pp.413.
290CultsoftheGreekStates,pp.2023.

Hades. Itwasonlywhenhisbiologicalfatherrecognizedhimbysomesymbolonhis
bladehiltthatheslappedthedeadlydrinkfromhishandandMedeaagainfledfrom
sight.291
Osain isthe orish (deity)ofherblorerenownedforbrewingpotionsandhisskillsin
witchcraft. Heisoftencalleduponintimesofwartopreparethepotions,spellsand
charmsthatareusedindefense,aswellastohealthewounded.292
Heisthepatronoffolkhealersandherbalists(curanderos),andallmedicinal
plantsarethoughttofallunderhiscareanddominion. 293 Asevidenceofhissympathy
forthosesufferinganaffliction,Osainisdepictedaslame,withoneeyeandonearm;he
ishousedinabottlegourdthatistypicallyhungonawallwithinaTemplehut. 294
Another tale from Brazil holds that Osain may have been Gay, or that he was a
hermaphrodite,anindividualwithfemalebreastsandthemaleorgan.Accordingtothis
localtradition,thehuntergodOchossimistookhimforawoman,andrapedhim,leading
eithertoOsainsdeathorhismetamorphosis.295
shn(sweetwater)istheAfroCaribbeangoddess(orish)oflove,pleasure,beauty,
luxury,marriage,anddiplomacy;shepersonifiestheshnRiverandisbelievedto
governtheoceans,andbodiesoffreshwater.
Heraptitudeforseductionislegendary:oneaccountholdsthatshecharmedthe
primaldivineblacksmith,Oggun,fromhisferalforestlifeintothecity. 296Whileanother
sacrednarrativetoldbytheYorubapeopleofWestAfrica(Nigeria)recountshow shn
contrivedtosecuretheloveofChango,thenativethundergod,bymanipulatinghiswife,
theeponymousrivergoddessOba.
Oneday,whenObawasbusystirringakettleofyamporridge(amal),which
washerhusbandsfavoritefood, shncametovisittheirhome. Shewascarryinga
bowl ofmushroom soup,with a concealing kerchief boundabout her head. It will
pleasehimmoreifithasoneofyourears,thebewitchinggoddesssuggestedtoOba,
perhapsundertheguisethatsuchaningredientmightcompelthegodtostayathome
morefrequently;andasproof shnshowedhercoevalthepotofsoupthatshehad
brought with a large mushroom floating at the top fit to resemble an ear. So Oba,
291Metamorphoses,pp.11819.
292Edwards,GaryandJohnMason(1985).BlackGodsOriaStudiesintheNewWorld.Yoruba
TheologicalArchministry:pp.29.
293ParavisiniGebert,Lizabeth(2005).HeoftheTrees:Nature,Environment,andCreole
ReligiositesinCaribbeanLiteratureinElizabethM.DeLoughrey,ReneeK.Gosson,andGeorgeB.
Handley,eds.CaribbeanLiteratureandtheEnvironment:BetweenNatureandCulture.TheUniversityof
VirginiaPress:pp.18298.
294Barnet,Miguel(trans.ChristineAyorinde,1995).AfroCubanReligions.MarkusWeiner:pp.66.
295Conner,RandyP.(2004).QueeringCreoleSpiritualTraditions:Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,and
TransgenderParticipationinAfricanInspiredTraditionsintheAmericas.HarringtonParkPress:pp.149;
Murrell,NathanielSamuel(2010).AfroCaribbeanReligions:AnIntroductiontotheirHistorical,
Cultural,andSacredTraditions.TempleUniversityPress:pp.67.
296Lynch,PatriciaAnnandJeremyRoberts(2010).Oshun.AfricanMythologyAtoZ,2ndedn.
ChelseaHouse:pp.102;AfroCaribbeanReligions,pp.111.

believingthetempestuousgoddess,cutoffherleftearandcookeditwiththeporridge.
WhensheservedittoChangosheremovedherownkerchieftorevealwhatshehad
doneoutofloveanddevotion.Ratherthanreturnherdevotion,however,Chango,ina
capriciousfurry,leftObainherdisfiguredstatefortheseductiveembraceofthebeautiful
shn.297
shnisalsoassociatedwithfertilityandmedicine.Itisnotuncommonforher
femaledevotees,whenbarren,tomakeofferingstothegoddessinordertoconceive.Itis
alsosaidthatthebirthofnumerouschildrenandabountifulharvestservesasasignto
herpresence.Accordingtolocaltradition,thepeopleofOshogboinsistthattheywere
placedatthelowestlevelof shnssacredrivertoensurethattheymightalwaysyield
anabundanceoffish.Theirfirstchieftain,Laro,routinelyfedtheriversfish;and,for
thisgooddeedhewasrewardedwithaspecialpotioncraftedby shntobestowthe
womenofhistribewithfertility.Eversince,thetitleoftheOshogbosancestralchieftain
hasalwaysbeen ataoja,theonewhoacceptsthefish. Villagelegendsevenrecount
miraculouseventswhichtakeplaceattheriver:Larosdaughterwasbathingintheriver
whenshesuddenlydisappearedfromsightonlytoreemergeashorttimethereafter,
beautifullydressed.Shetoldhowshehadbeenreceivedby shn,andtreatedkindly.
Inthanksgiving,Laromadeatributetothespiritoftheriverbyceremoniallyfeedingthe
fish,whenalargefishemergedandspurtedwaterathim.Larocaughtsomeofthiswater
inacalabashanddrankitforginganalliancewith shn;hethenstretchedouthishand
andthefishleapedintohisgrasp.Thisancientpactisrenewedannually,tothisday,by
thepresidingchieftainwhomakesapilgrimageonthefeastdateof shntofeedthe
rivers fish.298 Shouldmodern medicine fail inestablishingacure forsomemalady,
however,suchasinthecaseofpatientsafflictedwithHIV/AIDS,sheissaidtobring
salvation to her children with miraculous cooling waters, while barren women are
thoughttobefednourishinghoney.299
Duringhersacredrites aPriestess wouldchannelthegoddess duringafitof
ecstaticdancinggracefullywhirlingtotranceinducingdrumbeats. Shewouldthen
turntoaddressherdevoteeswhoareadornedwithsevencopperbraceletsandwearing
clothes and beads of her favorite coloryellow. The festivities culminate in a
celebratorymealofwhitehen,succulentfruits,goat,andsheep. Andasevidenceof
shns extravagant tastes, she is typically adorned with a valuable elekes (sacred
necklace)andadoresjewelryfashionedfromyellow copper. Herfavoritefoodstuffs
include:peacock,rooster,turtle,duckmeat,canary,spinach,pumpkins,yellowfruits,
oranges, and sweet potatoes. Five yellow roses (her sacred number) and honey are
frequently offered to shn at her shrine (in the form of adun, a mixture typically
composedofhoney,cornflower,andsweetoil),alongwithanarrangementofyellow
copperbracelets,fans,andriverpebbles.Though,dobesuretotasteanyhoneybeforeit
297Bascom,WilliamRussell(1992).AfricanFolktalesintheNewWorld.IndianaUniversityPress:
pp.12;Beier,Ulli(1980).YorubaMyths.CambridgeUniversityPress:pp.xiii.
298Bonnefoy,Yves(1993).American,African,andOldEuropeanMythologies.UniversityofChicago
Press:pp.146;Page,WillieF.(2001).EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryandCulture:Fromconquestto
colonization(1500to1850),Vol.3.FactsOnFile:pp.205.
299QueeringCreoleSpiritualTraditions,pp.149;AfroCaribbeanReligions,pp.35.

isofferedtothisgoddess.Legendhasitthatanemesisoncetriedtopoison shnby
slippingsomevenomintoanofferingofhoneywhichmadethegoddessphysicallyill.300
Sheiscertainlyatransfunctionaldeitywithmultifacetedcharacteristicsandshe
assumesvariousidentitiesoraspectshoweverherworshipershaveneedofher.Asa
witchgoddesssheisarenownedsorceress(shnKoleKole)whoisexceedinglyskilled
atbrewingdeadlypotionsandpowerfullovephilters(as shnAkuara).301Sheisalso
theespecialpatronofprostitutesandGaymenbecauseofherappealforsensualityinall
its forms and her coquettish personality. Some contemporary practitioners also
contendthat shnisalesbian;loreatteststhatsheadoreswomenand,infact,sheand
thegoddessYemayarethoughttohaveenjoyedanintimaterelationship. Sheisalso
associatedwithfemaleborntransgenderedindividualsundertheidentityof shnYeye
Kareand shnPanchagarra.302Whenbrewingapotionundertheauspicesof shnit
isconsideredappropriatetoensurethattheingredientsnumberinsomemultipleoffive,
whetherthechoseningredientsarefiveinnumber,orthateachbotanicalfragranceis
addedbytheproportion(eg.drops,teaspoons,etc.)numberingfiveinquantity.
InCuba,however,thegoddessiscelebratedasthematernalpatronSaintofthat
country, la Virgin (Our Lady of Regla) de la Caridad del Cobre, whose festival is
consummatedon7September.303
Ososi isthe orish whoisregardedastheultimatemagician;hisnameisfrequently
synonymouswithwitchcraft,aswellastheinnateconceptofbothmagicpotionsand
pharmaceuticalpoisons.304
PurtoisanArmenianfolkherowhowasadoptedandmadewealthyduetothekindness
hehadshowntoShahMar,thesnakeking(astrangelookingcreaturewiththebodyofa
snakeandagrownmanshead).
Meanwhile, the king of Adana had grown gravely ill with painful ulcers that were
consuminghisbody;heimmediatelysentforPurto,whomheknewtobetheprotgof
ShahMar,andcommanded theyouth tosendforhis mentor, the snakeking. Purto
refused, undergoing unspeakable tortures until, at last broken by the barbarous court
physician,heconsentedtothewilloftheKing.
WhenPurtoarrivedtoShahMarscaveheknewimmediatelywhathadbefallen
theyounghunter,sohesetoffwithhimtoAdana.However,ontheirjourney,thesnake
kinginstructedPurtotocollectavarietyofdifferentflowers,andtobrewthemtogether
inordertocomprehendthepropertiesofeveryflowerandherb. Upondrinkingthis
300American,African,andOldEuropeanMythologies,pp.14647;QueeringCreoleSpiritual
Traditions,pp.172;GonzalesWippler,Migene(1989).Santeria:TheReligion.Llewellyn:pp.20910;
AfroCaribbeanReligions,pp.35and111.
301BenitezRojo,Antonio(trans.JamesE.Maraniss,2001).TheRepeatingIsland:TheCaribbeanand
thePostmodernPerspective,2ndedn.DukeUniversityPress:pp.15;Fox,RobertElliot(1995).Mastersof
theDrum:BlackLit/oraturesAcrosstheContinuum.GreenwoodPress:pp.107;Thompson,RobertFarris
(1984).Flashofthespirit:AfricanandAfroAmericanArtandPhilosophy.RandomHouse:pp.53.
302QueeringCreoleSpiritualTraditions,pp.734and110.
303AfroCaribbeanReligions,pp.111.
304BlackGods,pp.234.

potion,theladquicklysuccumbedtoitssedatingeffectsandawokeimpregnatedwiththe
medicinalknowledgeofeveryherbandflowerinexistence.ThenhegavePurtosome
graveinstructions;first,hemustmakethesnakekingdrunkonwinethatisnolessthan
sevenyearsold,thenhewascommandedtoseverhisheadandbrewasinglepotionfrom
eachhalfofhisbrain.Thepotioncraftedfromtheleftsideofhisheadensuredhealing
effectsontothepatient,whilethesecondpotioncraftedfromtherighthemisphereofhis
brainwasalethalpoison.
WhenPurtoarrivedbackattheKingsresidencehegavetothedoctorthepotion
that had been culled from the righthalf of ShahMars brains in order to test its
effectivenessbeforepresentingittotheKing. Thedoctorletoutasuddenscreamand
wasdeadbeforehelandeduponthefloor. TotheKing,however,hegavethehealing
draft;thekingwassorelievedbythishealingmagicthathebestoweduponhissubject
thetitleofLoqmntheWise,theFatherofMedicine.
OutofgrieftheremainingsnakeswhoserveduponShahMardecidedtoattack
Adana;so,theKingcommandedPurtotohandlethesituation.FromShahMarsliverhe
brewedanotherpotionandsetofftowardtheserpentsencampmentwearingtheprayer
beadsoftheirformersovereign.Whentheyobservedtheprayerbeads,andimbibedthe
potionhehadmade,thesnakesnowacceptedtheyouthastheirnewkingandtooktheir
leave.
Anothertalerecountshowtheformerhuntertookadeafanddumbyouthashis
assistant. Purto was soon requested to treat a man who suffered from intolerable
headachesandbrewedforhimasleepingdraft. Thisallowedhimtolookinsidehis
patientsheadwherehefoundaneightleggedcreaturethatmovedwithsuchspeedthat
he couldnotproperlygraspholdofit. Breaking his deceptivesilence, his assistant
instructedthatPurtoshouldfirstheathispincers.Thisadviceprovedwellreceived,and
itresultedinthecureofhispatient.Theassistant,whohadcontrivedtosecurePurtos
wisdomandsecretsforhimself,fledforhislife!
PurtosassistantwasnotseenforseveralyearsuntilthegreatHealerwasatlast
closetodeath.Hecounseledtheboysmothertofindherson,assuringherthathemeant
himnoharm.WhentheyouthatlastarrivedhewasinstructedtobrewforPurtoalife
restoringpotion.However,whenhegavethepotiontohisMastertodrink,hegavehim
onlyasingledropcausingPurtotogaspforbreathanddie.Afterwards,theyouthwas
besetwithnightmaresasapunishmentforhiscrueldeed.305
Rangda(widow)istheBalinesegoddessofsorceryanddeathwhoseeducationinthe
blackartswouldhaveincludedthepreparationoflovepotionswhich,unlikeherbal
medicines,fallunderthedesignationofmaleficarum.306Sheisbelievedtobestowupon
themenandwomenwhohonorthegoddessatherTemplethroughmeditationwithmagic
powers,307thusestablishingRangdasidentityastheQueenofWitches.
305DixonKennedy,Mike(1998).Purto.EncyclopediaofRussianandSlavicMythandLegend.
ABCCLIO:pp.22930.
306Slattum,Judy,PaulSchraub,andHildredGeertz(2003).BalineseMasks:SpiritsofanAncient
Drama.TuttlePublishing:pp.84.
307Fossey,Claire(2008).Rangda,BalisQueenofWitches.UniversityofMichiganPress:pp.31.

Royot istheheroineoftheJaraipeople. AccordingtotheirmythictraditionRoyots

brotherconsumedapotionthatwasintendedforanotherboy.Thetwofellinloveand
conceivedachild,however,Royotdiedinchildbirth. Withherdeath,itissaid,the
Universewas tornapart,andafterwardnoonecouldunderstandthelanguageofthe
animals. Thegodsweresomovedbythistragedythattheyimmortalizedthedoomed
pairbytransformingthemintoasetboulders.308
Rup(toad)isthedivineepiphanyoftheLithuaniantoad;aspiritofdeath,healing
andregeneration,hernameispresentlyinvokedasacommonBalticprofanity.Thetoad
isconsideredthepresageofdeath;adreadomenofimpendingdoomwhethercrossing
onespathorcroakinginafarmershomesignalingthatsomeoneisabouttodie. A
healingpotion(orrupin)istraditionallyblendedbymaceratingatoadinabottleof
vodka; this panacea is currently imbibed as a general healthgiving tonic against all
ailments. A similar potion called gyvatinsignifying the gyvate, or snakewas
commonlyobservedinLithuanianvillagemarketsinwhichsnakeswerebottledwith
whiskeyorvodkaasacureallforwhateverailsyou.Toadsalsofeatureascommon
healing charms and were reputed to absolve a sore or cancerous growth merely by
carryingthecreature(whetherlivingordead),orholdingitagainsttheafflictedarea.
Thefrogisevenbelievedtorepresentfemalecenteredsexualityandfertility,whichin
turncouldgeneratebothprosperityandhappinesstothelocalvillageagriculturalists.309
ThisamphibianisalsothoughttoepitomizethedreadLithuanianwitchgoddess,
Ragana(regti,todivineortoforesee).Shewasbelievedtoshapeshiftintoawide
varietyofbeasts,andhernameiscognatewithanancientdescriptionforthecrescent
moon(ragasmnulio,moonshorn).Indeed,muchlikeagorgon,ifthegoddesswere
todieherhairwouldsuddenlycurlintoamassofslitheringsnakes.310
auka(themagnificentone)wastheHurrianequivalentofItarandAstartewhowas
givenofferingsofwalnutsandprincipallyworshipedatNinevahalongwithherAssyro
Babyloniancounterparts.311ShewasthepreeminentHurriandeitytheLadyofHeaven
associatedwithbothloveandfertility.312

308Bonnefoy,Yves(1993).AsianMythologies.ChicagoUniversityPress:pp.210;Royot.
EncyclopediaofGoddessesandHeroines,pp.224.
309Gimbutas,Marija(1974).TheLithuanianGodVelniasinMythinIndoEuropeanAntiquity.
GeraldJamesLarson,C.ScottLittleton,andJaanPuhvel,eds.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.8792;
LivingGoddesses,pp.207and228n.13.
310LivingGoddesses,pp.205.
311Astour,MichaelC.(1987).SemitesandHurriansinNorthernTranstigrisinGeneralStudiesand
ExcavationsatNuzi9/1,vol.2.MarthaA.Morrison,ed.StudiesontheCivilizationandCulturesofNuzi
andtheHurrians.Eisenbrauns:pp.367,52;Sharlach,Tonia(2002).ForeignInfluencesoftheReligion
oftheUrIIICourtinGeneralStudiesandExcavationsatNuzi,10/3,vol.12.StudiesontheCivilization
andCulturesofNuziandtheHurrians.DavidI.OwenandGernotWilhelm,eds.CDLPress:pp.94and
105;Wright,DavidP.(2004).Anatolia:HittitesinReligionsoftheAncientWorld:AGuide.SarahIles
Johnston,ed.HarvardUniversityPress:190.

AccordingtoasurvivingHurrianepic(theSongofHedammu),thegoddessdiscovereda
threateningseacreaturewhothreatenedtheworld. But,whenherbrotherTeub(a
stormgod)refusedtoconquerthebeastoutoffear,aukastrodeintobattlewearingher
finegarmentsandseducedthemonsterbyuseofalovepotion. Thismayhavebeen,
however, an intoxicating beverage that simply rendered the beast more docile tothe
seductivedanceshewasengagedinalongtheseashore.Oncethebeastwassedate,itis
believedthatthegoddessdispatchedit;although,thetabletisdamagedatthispointand
remainsunclear.313 ThistalehasavastIndoEuropeanpedigreetoanobviousextentin
whichaheroicstormgodsubduesaserpentineandchaoticdragonfromwhoseremains
creationunfolds.314
Vc (speech)istheBalinese/Hindugoddesswhopersonifiedroyalspeechand,ina
talethatparallelsthatofIndraandSoma,wassentbythedeitiestoacquiretheirsacred
potionofimmortality,soma.315
Venus was the Roman goddess who originally dominated the season of spring and
gardenvegetationbeforebeingconflatedwiththeGreekgoddessoflove,Aphrodite,who
was herself a later Phoenician import under the identity of their fertilitygoddess,
Astarte.316
During the rites of Venus Verticordia (Changer of Hearts) on 1 April the
priestessesandwomenwithinhercultwouldimbibeasweetpotionbrewedfrommilk,
honey,andbruisedpoppiesinanefforttomakethemmoresexuallyappealingtomen
whoweretheprimaryfocusofthisfestival.FortheaverageRomanwomanthisserved
oneoftwofunctions:tostrengthenonesmarriage,ortoattractamateanddrawoneself
towards the prospects of marriage which was of particular importance if she were a
prostituteoraplebian.Thisritualgesturewasbelievedtointimatetheestablishedtribal
loreinwhichVenus,herself,alsoconsumedthissameaphrodisiacalpotioninorderto
arouseherconsortupontheirweddingday.317 Indeed,thepoppymayhaveheldsome
significance within her cult as a goddess of vegetation (through her Greek coeval,
312Nissinen,Martti,et.al.(2003).ProphetsandProphecyintheAncientNearEast.Societyof
BiblicalLiterature:1823.
313Beckman,Gary(2005).HittiteandHurrianEpicinACompaniontoAncientEpic.JohnMiles
Foley,ed.BlackwellPublishing:pp.261.Sauska.EncyclopediaofGoddessesandHeroines,pp.75;
Sertapsuruhi.Op.cit.,pp.76.
314Graf,Fritz(2004).MythinAncientReligions.SarahIslesJohnston,ed.HarevardUniversity
Press:pp.49.
315Lidova,Natalia(1994).DramaandRitualofEarlyHinduism.MotilalBanarsidass:pp.74;
Wolters,O.W.(1999).History,Culture,andReligioninSoutheastAsianPerspectives,rev.edn.SEAP:
pp.82.
316Adkins,LesleyandRoyA.Adkins(1996).Venus.DictionaryofRomanReligion.Oxford
UniversityPress:pp.232;Fairbanks,Arthur(1907).TheMythologyofGreeceandRome:Presentedwith
SpecialReferencetoItsInfluenceonLiterature.D.AppletonandCompany:pp.2078;Ovid(trans.
HenryT.Riley,1869).TheFasti,Tristia,PonticEpistles,Ibis,andHalieuticon.H.G.Bohn:pp.138.
317DAmbra,Eve(2007).RomanWomen.CambridgeUniversityPress:pp.17376;Salzman,Michele
Renee(1990).OnRomanTime:TheCodexCalendarof354andtheRythmsofUrbanLifeinLate
Antiquity.UniversityofCaliforniaPress:pp.86n.99

Aphrodite)becauseitwashertearsoverthedeathofAdonisthatweresaidtohave
createdthisspeciesofflora,whileCypruswasfamedforitscultivationofthissacred
entheogen.318WealsonotetheappearanceofthismotifadorningherRomancultimages
such as one renowned ivoryandgold idol, rendered by Canachus the Sicyonian,
depictingthegoddessclutchingapoppyinonehandandanappleintheother.319
Thereisnosuggestionastowhatspeciesthepoppiesrenderedinthis potion
mighthavebeen;butifithadbeentheopiumpoppy(Papaversomniferum),thenarcotic
qualitiesofthissubstancemayhavecausedinebriatingeffectsnotunlikethatofwine,or
a sense of extraordinary gaiety. Those who have imbibed this entheogen have also
reported an amorous encounter with the spirit or goddess of the flower replete with
enchantingbeauty.320
Venusalsolenthernametotheword venenum,denotingwhatwascertainlya
toxic form of love potion (cf. the cognate English noun venom); though the same
foundationalrootisalsoobservedintheLatinverbvenerari(tovenerateortosolicitthe
goodwillofagod),veneratio(theactofworshiporveneration),andvenia(akindly
orcharmingdispositionorforgivenesssoughtfromagod),eachLatintermimplyinga
charmthat,itwashoped,mightcaptureadeitysgoodgraces.321
YiisaChinesearchergodassociatedwiththesun.Hislegendrecountshowhespared
thedenizensoftheEarthfromannihilationwhenhevanquishednineoftenblazingsuns
withhisbowandarrows. HisconsortwasthemoongoddessChangOwhopurloined
hispotionofimmortalityforherselfandtookrefugeinthemoon, 322thusassociatingthis
divine beverage with the cognate Hindu moongod Soma who personifies this Indo
Iranianelixir.
CONCLUSIONS
Aswehaveobservedabove,thetraditionofthewitchspotionwithinthecontextof
indigenouspaganmythologieswouldcertainlyseemtounderscoreitspredominancein
the psychospiritual transformation of the shaman as he was initiated into his native
vocation.
There are generally two methods by which a shaman is typically called to his
profession:hereditarytransmission,aswithsometradeorskill,unlessonehasnoheirto
choosefrom,therebyleavingtheshamantopassonhisteachingstoaclosefriendora
disciple;andthespontaneousvocationwhichofteninvolvessomeinitiatoryordealofa
psychospiritualnature.Inthelatteritisnotuncommontoobserveaneophyteundergoa
strangesicknessoranepilepticseizure(thesocalledsacredillness)thatmaybringthe
318Abel,ErnestL.(2006).IntoxicationinMythology:AWorldwideDictionaryofGods,Rites,
Intoxicants,andPlaces.McFarland:pp.19.
319Pausanias(trans.UvedalePrice,1780).AnAccountoftheStatues,Pictures,andTemplesinGreece.
T.Evans:pp.53.
320Rtsch,Christian(trans.JohnR.Baker,2005).TheEncyclopediaofPsychoactivePlants:
EthnopharmacologyandItsApplications.ParkStreetPress:pp.410.
321Litleton,ScottC.(2005).Gods,Goddesses,andMythology:Volume1.MarshalCavendish:pp.
1409.
322ChangO.Dict.ofAncientDeities,pp.122;Yin.Op.cit.,pp.516.

postulanttotheveryprecipiceofdeath.Indeed,thedreamsorvisionaryexperiencesthat
followofteninvolvenotonlydirectcontactwiththetutelarygodsofthecommunity,but
they also involve the theme of dissolution and reconstitution or rebirth as with the
traditionalneardeathexperienceitself.Alternatively,mentalderangementisalsoviewed
as a cue to shamanship; afterwards the neophyte is then evaluated and trained by a
shamanasanapprentice,lookingforanysignsastohisinitiatoryprogressionintothe
Mysteriesofshamanismsuchasspeakingintonguesorsingingsacredhymns.Onlyafter
recoveringfromtheseordealsistheshamansuddenlygiftedwithshamanicpowers,
chieflyasamediatorbetweentheworldoftheliving,andtheworldofthegodsandthe
departedancestors. Thisliminalcharacteristicmayalsobeobservedintheanimistic
costumesorthehomosexualorientation(twospirit)possessedbytheshaman,both
being relatively common global features in tribal religious traditions. But, without
authenticecstaticexperiencestheclancould,generallyspeaking,renounceaparticular
shamaniccandidate.323
During this initiatiatoryprocess, which may last forseveral days, it was common to
undergoathematicvisionarydismembermentofthecandidatesbodywhetherbythe
shamanstutelarydeity,tribalancestors,orevenanimalistichelperspirits(familiarsor
socalledtotemanimals)thusleadingtothedeathofthepreviousSelf.Rebirth,on
theotherhand,wasachievedtypicallythrougharenewalorreplacementoftheinternal
organs, by these same Otherworld entities or through automatic regeneration
(neogenesis).Indeed,wehavealreadywitnessedhowMedeadrainedthebloodfromher
ailingfatherinlawandreplaceditwithhermagicpotioninordertorenewhisyouthful
vitality.HerinfamousCauldronevenservedasthepretensetoavesselthatcouldrestore
onesmortalityasitenvelopedtheremainsofaslaughteredsheep.But,theCauldron(a
commoncookingpot),wasdeeplyrenownedalsoincertainshamaniccommunitiesasthe
devisethatcouldrendthefleshfromthecandidatesdismemberedlimbs,andfromthis
vesseltheywererebornanew.324Thissametheme,ofcourse,isfoundagainintheWelsh
epicstoafarlessgruesomeextent:
AccordingtothesecondbranchoftheMabinogi,theeleventhcenturyCEtextBranwen
ferchLyr,BranwenisthedaughterofBrn,therulerofBritain.Sheagreestomarrythe
king of Ireland, Matholwch, without her halfbrothers approval and incites a war
betweentheseneighboringregents. BrnplacatesIrelandskingwithgifts,including
amongstthemanenchantedCauldronofrestorationwiththepowertoreviveanyfallen
soldiertolifewhenheiscastwithinit;however,whentheyareresurrected,thesesoldiers
lackthepowertospeak,indicatingthatthewarriorsarestillengagedwiththeworldof
323AldhouseGreen,Miranda&Stephen(2005).TheQuestfortheShaman.Thames&Hudson:pp.
1213,94,16270;Campbell,Joseph(1983).TheWayoftheAnimalPowers,vol.1.HistoricalAtlasof
WorldMythology.Harper&Row:pp.1745;Edson,Gary(2009).Shamanism:ACrossCulturalStudyof
BeliefsandPractices.McFarland:pp.197203;Eliade,Mircea(trans.WillardR.Trask,1964).
Shamanism:ArchaicTechniquesofEcstasy.PrincetonUniversityPress:pp.13,1520,33;Fried,Robert
(1993).BreathingTrainingfortheSelfRegulationofAlveolarCO2intheBehavioralControlof
IdiopathicEpilepticSeizuresinTheNeuralbehavioralTreatmentofEpilepsy.DavidI.Mostofskyand
YngveLyning,eds.PsychologyPress:pp.19;Roscoe,Will(1995).QueerSpirits:AGayMensMyth
Book.BeaconPress:pp.657,81100,11017,12325,13842.
324Shamanism(Eliade),pp.3862.

thedead. HeacquiredthismysteriousvesselwhilevisitingIrelandwhenheobserved
twoOtherworldgiants(probablygods)emergingfromtheLakeoftheCauldron.The
giganticcoupleentreatedBritainskingforhishospitalityandlodging,buttheysoon
made a grave nuisance of themselves and were asked to leave. Because of their
imposition,andungraciousbehavior,theyleftthisCauldroninkeepingwithkingBrn.
Ultimately, this Cauldron shares the same fate of Awen in Cerridwens keep and it
shatteredafteritsgoalwasfulfilled.325
EchoesoftheinitiatoryschemamaybefurtherobservedwithinthesorceryofCerridwen.
Thethemeofrebirthandtheconnotationofshamanismareobviousintheidentityof
thebard,Taliesin. However,whatnatureisthepotionthatshebrews? Thepossibly
entheogenicvalueofthepotionisperhapssuggested,albeitspeculative,bythenotion
thatthecontentsofherCauldronwerealethalpoisononcethethreedropdosagewas
imbibed,andtheherbsshespentayearandadaygatheringwereapparentlyuncommon
and possessed special properties. Moreover, those three drops from this wisdom
inducing draft further underscore clear IndoEuropean parallels within the Germanic
mythictradition,asaconsequenceofthemethodemployedforacquiringthisformof
clandestineshamanicproficiency.
Inthe Skaldskaparmal sagaweencounterthemiraculousbirthanddeathofthe
greatshamanicbard,Kvasir,whowasendowedwithallthewisdomoftheworld.He
wasformedwhenthegodsofthesirandthegodsoftheVanirsealedapactbyspitting
intoavessel;and,itwasfromthisaccumulatedspittlethatthebardcametobefashioned.
Eventuallyhehappenedupontwoghoulishdwarveswhoslaughteredhimandbrewedthe
infamousMeadofPoetrybyfermentinghisbloodwithaportionofhoney. Anywho
drank of this mead was endowed with the wisdom of the ages; and, so, it was the
dwarvesprizedpossession.Thatis,untiltheirvilenaturegotthebestofthemandthey
murderedtwogiants,theparentsofSuttung. InrecompensefortheircrimesSuttung
exiledthedwarvestoanislandathightidewheretheypartedwiththeircherishedmead
ifthegiantwouldsparetheirlives.
Suttung took this mead back to his mountainous stronghold and charged his
daughter,Gunnl,withthetaskofguardingit. But,shewasnocontestagainstthe
treacheryofinnwhosoughttoliberatethepreciousmead.Thechiefgodcreptinto
thegiantsestateandcoupledwithhisdaughterforthreedays,untileventuallyaskingher
forameresipoftheMeadofPoetry.Takinghisadvantagehesummarilygorgedhimself
onthewholevatandtookflightfromthemountainintheformofaneagle.Whenheat
lastcametoAsgard(theabodeofthegods)heregurgitatedthemeadintothreeseparate
Cauldronsinordertobedoledoutasthefoodofthegods. But,inevadingSuttungs
graspasapredatorybird,threedropsofmeadfelltoEarthforwhoevermightclaimtheir
sacredwisdomknownastherhymestersshare.326Anidenticalmythictropeisfound
intheVedichymnsinvolvingIndrasinsatiableappetiteforthemoonselixir(semen),
thedeifiedherbSoma(sometimesimaginedashoney)whichhebearsbacktoEarth
withtheaidaneagle;but,inthecourseofhisstrugglewiththedemonickeeperofthe
325QuestfortheShaman,pp.185;Davies,Sioned(2006).Mabinogi/Mabinogion.CelticCulture:A
HistoricalEncyclopedia,vol.IV.JohnT.Koch,ed.ABCCLIO:pp.120708;TheMabinogi,pp.5964.
326Sturluson,Snorri(trans.AnthonyFaulkes,1987).Edda.Everyman:pp.614.

plant,Garuda,aportionspillsontothegroundwhereitislappedupbyamassofsnakes
renderingthemimmortal.327 Whiletheidentityofthismysterious herbhasnotbeen
unequivocallydetermined,ithasbeenspeculatedthroughconflationwiththeZoroastrian
psychedelicdivinefood,Haoma,thatitmayhavebeenanentheogenfromtheEphedra
species.328
IrishtraditionalsomaintainsthataspecialBardicpotionwasbrewedwithaspecialherb
ofwhichonlyanInitiatedBardwascognizant;thispotionwouldthenleadonetothe
vocationoftheBard. Whileitispossiblethatthismysteriousherbmayhavebeenan
entheogen,itisunlikelyasitwasfrequentlyadministeredtochildrenatbirthunderthe
beliefthatitwouldbestowuponthemasweetsingingvoiceintheiradultlives.Sucha
voicewasoftenattributedwithOtherworldyphenomenon,suchasthepowertomake
eachheartwithinearshotfeellove,sadness,theurgeforwarandbattle,orjoy,andtolull
anaudiencetosleepastheBardsowilledit.AmongtheBardsfromCelticlegendwho
wereattributedtoavoiceofthiscaliberwastheinfamousCourtMinstrelofFionnMa
CoulwhoalwayssatbesidehissovereignatAlmhuin.329
Indeed, we know that it was not uncommon for shamans from various indigenous
societies to consume psychotropic potions in order to engage an altered state of
consciousnessastheyfulfillthedutyoftheircalling,suchastheZoroastrianprophet
ArtayVrf.Itwasonlynaturalthat,amongtheNativeAmericannations,J.W.Powell
observedthat[e]verytribehasitspotionorvegetabledrug,bywhichtheecstaticstateis
produced,andtheirvenerablemedicinemenseevisionsanddreamdreams. 330 Ithas
alsobeenspeculatedthatthefermentedritualpotionimbibedundertheauspicesofthe
Initiates at the onset of Demeters Mysteries may have included a mysterious
psychoactiveingredientthatallowedtheneophytestohaveavisionaryexperienceafter
ninelongdaysoffasting.Whilethistheoremisonethatisnotuniversallyaccepted,it
certainlyremainsatenablehypothesis;Demeterissaidtohaveboastedquitesuggestively
thatshewasexceedinglywellversedinthepowerfulgreatherbsthataregatheredand
thetalismanplantsthatwardoffpossession.Someofthesesuggestedentheogenshave
includedpennyroyal(whichyieldstraceamountsofapsychoactivealkaloidfoundonly
intheEssentialOil),theopiumpoppy(whichwascloselyassociatedwithDemeters
cult), ergot (which would have been largely unknown to the ancient Greeks), and a
psychoactivemushroom(whichseemtohavebeeneatenasadivinefoodbytheadeptsof
the Eleusinian,Samothracian,andCretanMysteries). Ofthese suggestions themost
plausible is the psychedelic psilocybin mushroom (Psilocybe spp.) for a variety of
reasons:itproducesfabulousecstaticexperienceswithnoknownsideeffects,whichisof
primary concern whenthousands ofInitiates were indoctrinated withthe kykeon and
reportingwondrousexperiences;theGreekswerewellawareofthisfungi;theyareeasy
togrow,harvest,anddryintheMediterraneanclimate;andfinally,becausethevisionary
327OFlaherty,WendyDoniger(trans.1981).TheRigVeda:AnAnthology.PenguinClassics:pp.128
31;Garuda.Dict.ofAncientDeities,pp.18788.
328EncyclopediaofPsychoactivePlants,pp.227.

329Wild,Lady(1919).Legends,CharmsandSuperstitionsofIreland.Dover:pp.182.
330Powell,J.W.OutlinesofthePhilosophyoftheNorthAmericanIndians.ScientificAmerican,
Supplement,vol.VIII.JulyDecember,1879:pp.3087.

experiences they produced are far more stable then those of the other theoretical
ingredients listed, or even other entheogenic mushrooms. Furthermore, it is even
possiblethatthisritualpotionsharedcertaincommonalitieswiththeParseehaoma,and
theIndicsoma.331
Visionarypotions,onthewhole,werenotaltogetherunknownthroughoutantiqueGreco
Romanritualmagic. TheGreekmagicalpapyri,forinstance,outlines apurportedly
effectivepotionforreceivingadivinerevelationfromthemysteriousgod,Besas:one
wasadvisedtocompoundaformulaforinkbymixingtogetherredocher,bloodfroma
whitedoveandablackcrow,mulberrysap,wormwoodjuiceandcinnabar,mixedwith
rainwater.Theritualistwastowriteamagicformulaontheirlefthandandwrapitwith
blacklinenfromagarmentusedinthecultofIsis.Whenonebeginstorousefromsleep,
theyshouldexpecttohearthedeityspeakingtothem.332
However,pharmaceuticalmethodswereratheratypicalwhencomparedtothefarmore
prevalentgesturesforalteringtheindigenousEurasianshamansconventionalstateof
consciousnesswhichusuallyinvolvedthefollowing:lackofsleep,sensorydepravation,
rhythmic sounds (chanting, drumming, rattling, and music), repetitive or exhaustive
physicalactivity(dancingorjumping),breathcontrol,andisolation.333 Thatbeingsaid,
Cerridwens vessel, in particular, might in a very generic sense seem to recall a
traditionalshamanicscenefromthePeruvianAmazoninvolvinganassemblyofshamans
gatheredaroundaCauldronwhothenproceedtoboilahallucinogenicherbinwhichthe
kettleisunderstoodastheultimatesourceofsacredwisdomandinspiration.334
FurtherparallelsbetweentheWelshandtheGermanictraditionsmaybefoundinthe
method of the acquisition of the shamanic wisdom and insight, thus establishing a
foundationalIndoEuropeanpedigreeorratheramereInsularnarrativebroughtfromthe
ContinentbyinvadingNorseculturalinfluences. Wehavealreadyobservedhowthe
shamanicbard,Taliesin,undergoesaninitiatorytransformationafterstickinghisfingers
tohismouthandconsumingthreedropsfromasacredpossiblyentheogenicpotion;
however,thisclearlyinvolvesanesotericthemerootedinantiquityinwhichathumbor
fingerissingedintheconsumptionofsomeportionofasacredfood.335
AccordingtotheGermanicsagas,theheroSigurengagesinaquestinwhichheslays
thedragonFafnirandroastshisheartoveranopenflame;butwhenheinspectsthe
muscletoensurethatitisfullycookedsomebloodoozesoutscaldinghisfinger.When
hesuckleshisburnedandbloodlaceddigittoabsolvethepainhefindsthathecan
understandthespeechofbirdswhowarnhimthatRegin,hiscompatriot,isplottingto
murderhiminordertoseizethedragonsgoldforhimself.AfterSigurdispatcheshis
331Eleusis,pp.17780;EncyclopediaofPsychoactivePlants,pp.76769;Wasson,R.
Gordon,AlbertHofmann,andCarlA.P.Ruck(2008).TheRoadtoEleusis:Unveiling
theSecretsoftheMysteries.NorthAtlanticBooks:pp.75and91.
332Betz,HansDieter(1992).TheGreekMagicalPapyriinTranslation,Includingthe
DemoticSpells,VolumeOne:Texts,secondedn.TheUniversityofChicagoPress:pp.
122.
333QuestfortheShaman,pp.12.
334Op.cit.,pp.187.
335Op.cit.,pp.186.

formerallyhesuccumbstoyetanothershamanictraditionandmanagestoshapeshift
intothelikenessofGunnarshorse,andviceversa,inordertosurpassanordealandwin
thehandoftheValkyrieBrynhildforhisfriend. 336Nevertheless,Irishloreatteststothe
thematicfigureofFionnmacCumhaill.HewasaCelticwarriorseerwhowasreputedto
havegainedhisOtherworldywisdomasaboyofsevenyearswhenhecameuponthe
druidFinnigeasfishingforthesalmonofknowledgeatNuadhasweirattheBoyne
River.ThedruidproceededtocookthefishandwarnedFionnnottotouchit;butthe
boylungedforwardandstuckhisthumbintothescaldingsalmon.Immediatelyhestuck
histhumbintohismouthandclaimedthedruidswisdomforhimself.WhileaScottish
variantofthismythholdsthatthedruidwasanOtherworldbeingwithoneeyewho
intends to kill the boy, but once he gains the salmons wisdom Fionn thwarts his
aggressorsattemptsbydollingoutafatalwoundinstead.
Fionnlateremploysthisshamanictechniquewhenhefindsthedecapitatedbodyofhis
jester who was murdered shortly after informing his master that he spied his lover
sleepingwithFionnscompatriot,Cairpre.Usinghissupernaturalknowledge,hetracks
downhisformerbrotheratarmsanddispatcheshimforhiscrime. LikeGwionand
Sigur,Fionnisalsogiftedwiththeabilitytoshapeshiftintoanimalform,albeitmustbe
performedwiththeaidofamagichoodinordertotakeonthecharacteristicsofahound
oradeer.Ultimately,thislegendaryritualgesturewasanearlytrademarkofhisdivine
prefiguration, Find, who was perceived as a thumbsucking toddler and the
personificationofwisdom.337
A method for engaging a trancestate of consciousness was certainly required while
shapeshiftingintoaspiritanimal;thiswasacommonshamanicprocedurethatwasoften
employed in order to transverse the Otherworld when communing with the dead or
retrievingalostsoul,338asthelunareviruswasoccasionallyemployed.Weobservethis
samemotifoftheshamanicpotioncourtesyofHomerinGreekantiquitywhenthewitch
goddess, Circe, transforms Odysseuss men into swine with a pharmaceutical potion
blended with mead, showing thatperhaps like our shamanic coevalsthey
unexpectedly surrender their humanity to the power of the goddess. Moreover, this
literarytrendhasbeeninterpretedassuggestingthat Odysseussshipmatesdie,toa
certainextent,andarereborn(onlyattheircaptainsrequest)inanevermoreyouthful,
prime,andphysicallyattractivestateofbeingshortlyaftertakingonsomeofthepigs
naturalcharacteristicsofvitalityandfertility, 339thusrevealingtheultimateidentityofthe
sorceresstobethatofanInitiatrix.
Indeed,thistalefromTheOdysseyseemstoquitevividlyrepresentthefullspectrumof
theshamanicaxialcosmogonyinwhichtheshamanstutelarydeityisassociated,byher
aviancharacteristics,withtheheavenspopulatedbythegods;andonlyafterundergoinga
336Edda,pp.10102.
337Matthews,JohnandCaitln(trans.&ed.2004).SelectionsfromCormacsGlossary.The
EncyclopaediaofCelticMythandLegend:ADefinitiveSourcebookofMagic,Vision,andLore.The
LyonsPress:pp.25671;hgin,Dith(2006).Fionn.TheLoreofIreland:AnEncyclopaediaof
Myth,LegendandRomance.TheBoydellPress:pp.23537;FionnmacCumhaill.Op.cit.,pp.23849.
338Shamanism(Edson),pp.20306.
339NightsBlackAgents,pp.9;TransformationsofCirce,pp.47.

bestialtransformationdoesshedirectthemtotheUnderworldinordertoacquirevalued
wisdomtobenefittheirshipmatesandthecommunityawaitingthembackatIthica.
Eventhemostbenignsoundingpotionswereproducedthroughoutantiquitywith
psychoactivesubstancesandtingedwithashamanicpredisposition.Lovepotions,for
example,generallywerebrewedusingpotentiallytoxicsubstancesthatwereintendedto
havedrasticmindalteringanddeliriouseffects. Theprocessmayhaveimpactedthe
libido or impaired the judgment in ways very similar to the American phenomenon
known as beergoggles, thereby establishing the draft as a potent pharmaceutical
aphrodisiac!Indeed,theGrecoRomanphilosopher,Plutarch,seemstohavealludedto
this while he attended a wedding party; after introducing himself to the bride he
beseechedhertofainanynotionsofjealousyshouldherhusbandseektheoccasionalbed
ofanotherbyresortingtosecuringorconcoctinglovepotionsandcharmsinaneffortto
augmentherowndesirabilitywhichwasacommonendeavorforherday.Plutarch,in
describingtheeffectsoftheseenchantments,assuredthenewbridethatsuchbrewsand
spellswouldreduceherhusbandtoastateofchronicstupor.Ithasbeensuggestedthat
theselovepotionsfromtheRomanworldmayhavebeensedativesintendedtomake
oneshusbandlessthreateningormorepliabletohersuggestions. Textualdocuments
alsoemphasizethatlovepotionsveryoftenledtoinsanityorevendeath;and,forthese
reasons,lovepotionswereaffordedseverepenaltiesunderRomanlaw,howeverbecause
oftheirpopularitythesechargeswereseldomenforced.Thatis,notuntilthefirstcentury
BCEwhenlovepotions,specifically,wererenderedillegalamidaspecialclassificationof
newplottersandpoisonerswhichwerethoughtofasathreattoRomansociety.Albeit
potions were a popular form of ritual magic employed throughout nearby ancient
Greece,theyweretolerated,butwithgreaterscrutiny.Lovepotionscouldbeprosecuted
underalegalloopholewhichrenderedthemoredreadfulpharmaceuticalconcoctionsa
potentialhazardtooneshealthundertheauspicesofdepravedindifferenceonbehalf
ofthewitchorherbalistwhobrewedit;ancientcitizenswereotherwisefreetoemploy
themasapartofaritualorareligiousceremonyunencumberedbythelocallegalcodes
ofthecitystate.340
Henbane,forinstance,wasafamousbrewingherbusedduringtheproductionofbeer
throughout the Iron Age in order to augment the inebriating effects of ale. This
psychotropicplantwas,ofcourse,alsousedbythecelebratedwitchesofThessalyasan
aphrodisiacintheirfamedlovepotionsandwasintendedforconsumptionbyaclientele
ofwaywardlovers.341Irishfolktraditionalsorecountstheuseofinebriatinglovepotions
340Dixon,Suzanne(2003).SexandMarriedWomeninAncientRome.InEarly
ChristianFamiliesinContext:AnInterdisciplinaryDialogue.DavidL.Balchand
CarolynOsiek,eds.Wm.B.EerdmensPublishing:pp.12021and121n.26;Magika
Hiera,pp.262;Janowitz,Naomi(2001).MagicintheRomanWorld:Pagans,Jews,and
Christians.Routledge:pp.12.
341Bower,Bruce.RevivingtheTasteofanIronAgeBeer:BarleyGrainsOfferSavoryInsightsinto
AncientCelticMaltBeverage.ScienceNews:MagazineoftheSocietyforScience&thePublic.14
January,2011.
http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/68846/title/Reviving_the_taste_of_an_Iron_Age_beer_
(Retrieved:27January,2011);Rtsch,Christian(trans.AnnabelLee,2003).WitchcraftMedicine:The
LegacyofHecateinWitchcraftMedicine:HealingArts,ShamanicPractices,andForbiddenPlants.

containingverytoxicherbsintheirproduction.Thesephilterswereusuallypreparedby
elderlywomenwithaknowledgeofherbs;but,theymustbegivenbysheorhewho
attemptedtobenefitfromtheirpower. Onedangerouspotionrequiredthattendried
leavesofthedeadlyhemlockplant(Coniummaculatum)becrushedintoapowderand
thenmixedwiththefoodordrinkthatwastobeservedtotheobjectofonesaffection.
Indeed,traditionwarnsthatlovepotionsmaybefatalorotherwisefraughtwithdanger
and regret. One Irish tale warns of the LovePotion Curse: A lad of upstanding
character,itwasbelieved,wasgivenalovepotionbyayounggirlwhowasinfatuated
withhim. Hethenbegantoactwild,reckless,anddisorderlyasaconsequenceofthe
potion that he was given. Racked with guilt, the young women soon spiraled into
madnessasaresultofherimpetuousactions.342
It was this tradition of brewing lethal drafts and deliriainducing aphrodisiacal love
philtersthatwasdirectlyinheritedbythediabolicalwitchfigurefromherClassicalpagan
coevals. However, this knowledge was not confined solely to the Medieval witch
stereotype;rather,wemayalsoobserveanestablishedcustomoflocalHerbalistswho
wereequallyrenownedfortheirskillinpotioncraftingduringtheWitchHunts.Among
thegeneralresidentsofEarlyModernBritainpotionswerenottypicallyassociatedwith
thedemonicarts.Forexample,intheearlyeighteenthcentury,severalwitnessesfrom
Leicesterchargedanelderlywomanwithstealingaherbalpotioncomposedofrosemary
balmandmarigold[calendula]flowersinaquartofale;theydidnotappeartobe
concerned with any diabolical pacts with the Christian Devil. Occasionally, local
indictments do attesttotherarebeliefinaHellbroth,asinthecaseofoneAgnes
SampsonoftheNorthBerwickwitcheswhoconfessedthatshestrungupablacktoada
colorintimatelyattributedtotheDevilandcollecteditsdrippingvenominanoyster
shell.Ultimately,theselatterstatementswerequiteunusual.343
Ultimately thedivineMistressandMasterofthewitchs potionmayrepresenttoa
greaterorlesserextenttheKeeperoftheMysteriesofMagicwhoseCauldronservesas
a gateway, granting one access to the Path of the Shaman or the Witch if they are
courageous in order to endure the ordeals that follow in their quest for spiritual
transformationandenlightenment.

NOTES&QUERIES
SomeHerb&MineralFolklore
JacobSchneider,MA.(PellaUniversity:Pella,IA.)
InnerTraditions:pp.95.

342Legends,CharmsandSuperstitionsofIreland,pp.18586.
343Lorenzi,Lorenzo(2005).Witches:ExploringtheIconographyoftheSorceressand
Enchantress.CentroDi:pp.;Robbins,RossellHope(1959).Potions.The
EncyclopediaofWitchcraftandDemonology.BonanzaBooks:pp.39899.

ALMOND:AccordingtoGreekscripturetherewasanandrogynousdeityinPhrygiabythe
nameofAgdistis,butbecausethegodswerefearfulofHimHertheimmortalOlympians
castrated the deity thus creating the fertilitygoddess, Kybele. From her former
masculinegenitalssprunganalmondtree. However,whenthenymphNanasatbelow
thistree,analmondfellintoherlapandimpregnatedherwiththeshepherd,Attis,who
wastobeKybelesconsort.AnothermythfromClassicalantiquityholdsthatthefirst
almondtree sprang from the remains of Phyllis, a maiden who was betrothed to
Demophon.Whenhedesertedthegirlhergriefledhertotakeherownlife,butwhen
herloverreturnedandembracedthebarrentreeitburstforthwithleavesandalmond
blossoms;afeatthathasbeeninterpretedasanemblemoftrueloveinextinguishableby
death.SpanishGypsyweddingspresentlycelebratethenuptialsofacouplebyheaving
pinkalmondblossomsovertheheadofthebridewhileshedances,perhapsinthehope
thatshewillbeblessedwithfertilityandmanychildren.ThemenofancientGreecealso
sworeanoathbygraspingeachotherstesticles,anditisbecauseofthiscustomthatthe
Englishnounstestifyortestamentwasadaptedintoournativetongue.
AMETHYST:AccordingtotheClassicalaccountthegodBacchuswasfeelingdistraught
oversomeneglectthathehadsuffered,soheendeavoredtoavengehimselfuponthevery
nextpersontocrosshispath.IthappenedthatthisshouldbeAmethyst,anymphbeloved
by the goddess Diana. The tigers of the god savagely mauled her, but her cries of
anguishwentunheededbyDianawhobelievedthatshehadbetrayedherloveforthe
goddessinthearmsofanotherman.Realizinghererrorshecommandedtheremainsof
thenymphbeimmortalizedintheformapurewhitecrystalwhileBacchus,whomatlast
perceivedtheconsequencesofhisimpetuousdecision,soughttheabsolutionfromthe
nymphandpouredontoheralibationofhissacredwine.Asasignthatsheacceptedhis
generousofferingthecrystalwasdyedaregalviolethue.Itis,indeed,forthewinelike
coloroftheamethystthatitwasbelievedtorepresentmaledivinesacrificeduringpagan
antiquityaccordingtoaGermanbranchoftheRosicrucians. Amethystistraditionally
employedtoencouragesoberthoughts.Indeed,duringthefifteenthcentury CEitwas
believedthatthiscrystalcouldcontrolevilthoughts,quickentheintelligence,andto
rendermenshrewdinbusinessventures.
ANTIQUE KEYS: Roman and AngloSaxon women routinely wore or carried a set of
symbolickeysknownasgirdlehangerstodemonstratethatshewastheMistressofa
home. The liminal Greek goddess of the crossroads and of witchcraft, Hekat, was
frequentlyassociatedwithkeysthatwereemblematicofherroleasaGuardianofthe
GatesofHadeswhocould,inlatertimes,alsosummonforththespiritsofthebelovd
deadinherguiseaspatronofNekromancy. ThissamemotifwasfoundinHekats
GermanoCelticidentity,Aericura,thegoddessoftheUnderworld. Furthersculptures
fromtheRomanoCelticworldportraydeitiesassociatedwithbirthholdingasetofkeys
thatmaysuggestthattheywereanintrinsictokenoftheafterlifeadualroleasthe
GuardianoftheGatesoftheOtherworldwhoalsobroughtforthnewlife. TheGallo
Romanic horsegoddess, Epona, was occasionally featured holding a key that may
portraythedomesticfunctionofthehorsestable,andalternativelymayrepresentthe

goddessasapsychopompbetweentherealms ofmankindandtheimmortalgodsor
ancestors.
NotaBene:Theprecedingentryisfromanunpublishedmanuscriptoffolklorebythe
author.

REVIEWS

ACritiqueandReviewofWerewolves,Witches,andWanderingSpirits:Traditional
Belief&FolkloreinEarlyModernEurope,ed.byKathryneA.Edwards.Sixteenth
CenturyEssays&Studies,Vol.62.(TrumanStateUniversityPress,2002).

WadeWhite,MA.(DrakeUniversity:DesMoines,IA.)

WhenIfirstbecameawareofthisbook,Igrewincreasinglyconcernedthatitmightbear
anoverridingagenda,duetotheglowingreviewsbestoweduponitbynumerousCatholic
Journals excerpted upon the Truman State University website; 344 a fear that is well
foundedwhenconsideringthefactthatithasbeenproventhattheCatholicChurchhas
had a hand in editing the Encyclopedia Britannica (among other academic works of
reference)inanefforttomitigatetheirculpabilityduringtheInquisitionandsuppression
ofpaganism,aswellasredactingseveralfurtherworksthatwerethoughttopresenta
counterChristianthesis.Formoreonthis,pleaseconsultthefollowingresourcesbyan
importantearlytwentiethcenturyatheistscholar,JosephMcCabe:Lies&Fallaciesofthe
Encyclopedia Britannica: How Powerful and Shameless Clerical Forces Castrated a
FamousWorkofReference;345TheColumbiaEncyclopedia'sCrimesAgainsttheTruth:
HowaPopularReferenceWorkisbeingusedasaWeaponAgainstFreeCultureand
Twisted to fit the Purposes of Lying Obscurantists; 346 and Rome's Syllabus of
CondemnedOpinion:TheLastBlastoftheCatholicChurchsMedievalTrumpet.347
JosephMcCabefoundthattheCatholicChurchwasactivelylobbyingfor,and
succeedinginchangingencyclopediaentriestoeitherreduceoromitanyinformation
controversialtoCatholicdoctrine(eg.DyingandRisingdeities);insomecaseswithout
andoutcensorshiporevendeceptivematerial;though,inmostcasestheyemployeda
specioussofteningapproach.Itisbelievedthatthesemendacioustacticsarestillquite
extensiveinmanycontemporaryreferenceworks,andthattheyarecontinuingtogoon
unchecked,andunwatched!
Thankfully, however, I can rest assured that my initial fears noted for this
particular reviewwere unwarranted. What follows constitutes an appraisal and
examinationthethreemostjuicycontributionstothisanthology:
Introduction: Expanding the Analysis of Traditional Belief, by Prof. Kathryn A.
Edwards.
WhatabrilliantIntroduction! (Ifonlycertain envogue scholarswouldwritesimilar
introductions, and place their academic methodological quantifications into a proper
perspectivefortheirimpressionablereadership.)WhiletheEd.maintainsthatthisbook
strivestobeaworkofgeneralHistoricalAnthropology(representingonlyonediscipline,
suchastheworkbyProf.Lederer,withinthiscollection),sheacknowledgesthatmany
344http://tsup.truman.edu/
345http://www.reformation.org/liesofencyclopeidabritannica.html
346http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/encyclopedia_crime.html
347http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/condemned_opinions.html

diversedisciplineswereincorporatedtogivethereaderageneralfeelforthediverse
applications often applied in historical quantification (when compared with the
contributionsbyRobinBriggs,notedbelow,forexample);soonemayjudgetheveracity
of a thesis for himself or herself based upon an authors own substantiated or
corroboratedargument(orfromalackthereof).
Bethatasitmay,Prof.Edwardsfavorstheburgeoningacademicdiscipline(as
appliedtomedievalwitchcraftstudies)ofHistoricalAnthropology,andevenralliesthe
following plea to General Historians writing and teaching on the subject: ...this
collectionaspirestomotivatescholarsandotherreaderstoreexaminethecategories
throughwhichearlymodernbeliefsandperspectivesarecommonlyapproached.Let's
hopethatsuchscholarsadoptingeitherapsychoanalyticalmodel(intermsofpathology)
or an utterly prosaic approach will take her words to heart! Further on, in her
Introduction,Prof.Edwardscontinuesasshebrieflyaddressestheextensiveotherworld
beliefsoftheerawithwhichthisworkisconcerned,aswellasafewoftheprevailing
contemporaneousacademicperceptionsaboutthesubjectingeneral.
Dangerous Spirits: Shapeshifting, Apparitions, and Fantasy in Lorraine Witchcraft
Trials,byProf.RobinBriggs.348
LorrainedenotesaspecificregionofnortheasternFrancewhosecapitols(modernand
antiquated,respectively)are:MetzandNancy.Itembracesatotalof5counties,whichin
itself,isarelativelysmalldemographicforanysingularstudyofamorebroadsocio
historicaleventthatseekstoextrapolateasynthesiswhichProf.Briggsattemptstoyield.
However, the author rather strangely seeks out differentiations between British and
French witchcraftbeliefs when his working thesis is an examination of the popular
"beliefs"(ie. psychosis,inthisinstance)ofmedievalLorraine,France! Albeit,inthis
district,itisworthnotingthatthereremainednearly400menandwomenwhoweretried
aswitchesbetween1580and1630CE(aspanofonly50years).
But, theoverridingagenda of this respective contribution is evident by its
secondarytitle, whereby all seemingly fantastical beliefs that are recounted in trial
testimonyarerelegatedtothestatusofmerefantasies,orasbeingpurelyimaginary.Asa
result,hehasadoptedapsychoanalyticalmethodologicalapplication(aspersomeofhis
scholastic coevals: Norman Cohn349 and H.C. Erik Midelfort)with which to dismiss
348ConsultthefascinatingwebsiteofProf.RobinBriggsthatattemptstoarchivethewitchtrials
documentsofLorraine,France:http://www.history.ox.ac.uk/staff/robinbriggs/
349NormanCohn(authoroftheobsoletetext,EuropesInnerDemons)concludesthatthe
documentationpreservedbytheInquisitorsretainsnothingmorethananelaboratefantasyormass
hallucination,goingsofarastodismisswithspeciousanalysestheacademicthesisthattherecordsofthe
agepreserveanythingofpaganorshamanicantiquity,becausewhatwasrecordedaccordingtoCohn
cannotbeacceptedasanythingotherthanfictitiousanddelusionalramblings.Moreover,hewasharsh
withanyscholarwhofoundcorroborativeevidencethatmightcounterhisquestionablepolemic,atwhich
pointhewouldengageinanadhominemassaultonthescholarscharacter,andotherapparentLogical
Fallaciestacticsthatthevastmajorityofreputablescholarsferventlydisavow,goingsofarastostrongly
urgeEditorsfromacademicpublishinghousestoceasepublishinganymaterialofanadhominem(or
alternativelyfallacious)nature,etc.WhatIhopetopresentthroughoutthiscritiqueisjustthesortof
unequivocalsubstantiationthatCohnandhisacademiccoevalswouldhavepreferredtodismissoutof

popularorfolk beliefsystemsasafigmentofthemedievalimagination. Moreover,in

adoptingsuchastaunch,pathological(indeedFreudian)lensthroughwhichtoviewthe
testimony at hand Briggs has interpreted the evidenceas emerging from sexual
repression:thatis,accountsofFlyingOintmentalludeto(heconcludes)adesirefor
masturbatory release;350 shapeshifting and Familiarencounters (despite the identical
characters of these ubiquitous folkbeliefs, also found in native Japanese witchcraft
beliefs, for example351) is interpreted as signifying the libido; and the evidence for
animalwitchesslippingthroughsmallopenings(suchaskeyholesorwindowcracks)
areunequivocallyacceptedasarchetypalmetaphorsforsexualintercoursebecausethe
hand,jealouslyguardingthisdatafromtheirrespectivereadership.
350OfalltheseaccountsthisinterpretationisthemostimprobablewhenoneconsidersthatDr.Andre
deLagunaaSpanishphysicianfromthesixteenthcenturyfoundajarofFlyingOintmentthathe
employedonhisownwifeonlytofindthat,afterdaubingtheunguentonthewoman,sheimmediatelyfell
intoastuporwhereherdreamssubstantiatedmanyofthenondiabolicalaccountsfromthewitches
confessions,orrelativefolkpaganexperiences.WhileotherpotscontainingaFlyingOintmenthavealso
beendiscoveredscatteredthroughoutthehistoricalrecord,suchastheointmentfoundamidthepossessions
ofaccusedwitch,DameAliceKytelerfromCo.Kilkenny,Ireland,duringtheearlyfourteenthcentury
(Kuklin,Alexander[1999].HowDoWitchesFly?APracticalApproachtoNocturnalFlights.AceN
Press:pp.89).Moreover,theuseofanointmentorapotiontoflythatis,engageinanoutof
bodyexperienceisaubiquitousshamanicmotifextenttheworldover(Johnson,Kenneth[1996/1998].
WitchcraftandtheShamanicJourney:PaganFolkwaysfromtheBurningTimes.Llewellyn:pp.131)!
351Formoreinformationonthewiderangingevidenceforthisbeliefsystem,pleaseconsultthe
excellentstudybyProf.CarmenBlacker(thenLecturerinJapaneseStudiesatCambridgeUniversity):
AnimalWitchcraftinJapaninTheWitchFigure(Routledge&KeganPaul,1973)ed.byVenetiaNewall.
HereDr.BlackerisabletotracetheexistenceoftheFamiliarinJapanpriortotheyear1500 BCEthrough
ancientJapaneseIChingdocuments,aswellasthroughanindigenousformofshamanismknownasKu!
WhiletheclassicstudyofProf.WilliamHowellshasfoundanidenticalFamiliarmotifwithinextent
Siberianshamanism(liketheirmedievalwitchandGermanicpagancoevalsdiscernedbylaterresearchers)
asanalterEgoordoppelgnger(seehischap.:TheShaman:ARitualSpiritualistinTheHeathens,
reproducedinLehmann,ArthurC.,JamesMeyersandPamelaA.Moro[2005].Magic,Witchcraft,and
Religion:AnAnthropologicalStudyoftheSupernatural[6thEdn.].McGrawHillHigherEducation:pp.
1607;andProf.ClaudeLecouteux[2003].Witches,Werewolves,andFairies:Shapeshifters&Astral
DoublesintheMiddleAges.InnerTraditions).Amongtheubiquitousmotivesfoundinassociationwith
thewitchsFamiliarorspirithelperthroughoutEngland,France,HungaryandJapan(tonamebuta
fewcountries)are:anthropomorphicandtheriomorphiccharacteristics;thehousingofaFamiliarinavessel
(usuallyabowl,kettle,orcauldron);thecapacityforaFamiliartoperformitsmastersormistresss
bidding(oftencausingharmorillness,healingthesick,divingthefuture,andlocatinglostgoods,etc.);
visionaryjourneystomeetonesFamiliar(usuallyataSabbatorFairyland[ie.theOtherWorld]);the
beliefthatFamiliarswereoftenofahereditarynature;andthefeedingofonesFamiliar(bread,milk,or
bloodarecommon),thoughbreastfeedingonesFamiliar(oftenthroughasuperfluousnipple,orsome
othermark)cametobeapopularmythmodeled,primarily,afterwomensanatomyduetotheirperceived
diabolicalconditionasavesselforsinwithintheearlymodernecclesiasticalimagination(onthislatter
conclusion,pleaseconsulttheworkofHistorian,AnneLlewellynBarstow,Witchcraze:ANewHistoryof
theEuropeanWitchHunts.HarperSanFrancisco:pp.141),etc.Moreover,Familiars,intheguiseofso
calledspirithelpersarefrequentlyobservedinnorthernmythologywheninthecompanyofanevident
shamanicfigure(Jn,Asbjrn.ShamanismandtheImageoftheTeutonicDeity,inn,Folklore,vol.
10[April,1999].InstituteoftheEstonianLanguage.<http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/teuton.htm>
[LastAccessed:7August,2008]).But,shamanicFamiliarencountersthroughoutthemythology
encompassingContinentalEuropeandtheBritishIslesisalsoevident.Thisubiquitousevidencecanhardly
bedismissedascoincidentalorirrelevantassomescholarsmightargue!

home, Briggs alleges,was identifiedwith thehuman bodyaclaim that is blatantly

unsubstantiatedthroughoutthepresentcontribution!Nevermindthattherearenumerous
instancesinpaganorshamanisticbeliefsystemswhereintheshamanengagesinanother
worldjourneybyslippingthroughsmallopeningsintheguiseofatinyanimal.
However,ifoneweretosupplanthisuseofthetermsfantasyandimaginary
withvisionaryexperienceonewouldgleanthecurrentpopularthesisbeingadvocated
byscholarsandresearchgroupstoday.352DuetoProf.Brigg'spreferredmethodological
system,heisabletovirtuallyeliminatethemereplausibilityforpagansurvivals,whether
in folkbelief or folktraditions, despite evidence to the contrary in the existence of
relativelypagan(ornonChristian)folkspellsforhealing,aswellascommonpeasant
beliefsystems centered upon shapeshifting, folkdeities, and souljourneys, etc. By
sharp contrast the vast majority of scholars writing available works (translated into
English)fromContinentalEuropehavesinceproventheexistenceofmanypaganthemes
orstrandsextentwithinearlymodernbeliefsandpractices.
Bethatasitmay,manyAngloAmericanscholarstendtopositthatanentire
regionorculturewasirrevocablyChristianatthemomentthattheKingorrulinglite
hadbeenconverted.353 Ithasbeenotherwiseproventhatthisisarelativelyuntenable
positionsuchathesispresumesthatthemindofmedievalpeasantryconstitutesasortof
blankslateboardontowhichtherulingliteandclericscouldfreelywrite. 354However
the outstanding work of Prof. Carlo Ginzburg 355 (among many other specialists) has
proventhatauthenticnonChristian(ie.Pagan)beliefsystemsandpractices didsurvive

352Onthiscurrentpopularthesis,consult:LivingwiththeDead,inthiscollection;BetweenThe
LivingandtheDead:APerspectiveonWitchesandSeersintheEarlyModernAge,byProf.vaPcs
(CentralEuropeanUniversityPress,1999);Ecstasies:DecipheringtheWitches'Sabbath(PenguinBooks,
1992)andTheNightBattles:WitchcraftandAgrarianCultsintheSixteenthandSeventeenthCentury(The
JohnHopkinsUniversityPress,1983),bothbyProf.CarloGinzburg;Witches,Werewolves,andFairies:
Shapeshifters&AstralDoublesintheMiddleAges(InnerTraditions,2003),byProf.ClaudeLecouteux;
andCunningFolkandFamiliarEncounters:ShamanisticVisionaryTraditionsinEarlyModernBritish
WitchcraftandMagic(SussexAcademicPress,2006),byDr.EmmaWilby(tonameonlyfiveprominent
authoritiesonearlymodernwitchcraftstudies).
353ConsultProf.RonaldHuttonsWitches,Druids,andKingArthur(Hambledon&London,2003):pp.
137forthisspeciousanalysis.
354Forexample,historiansPrudenceJonesandNigelPennick(AHistoryofPaganEurope)showthat
theinitialandeventhelateconversionoftheEuropeanandBritishrulinglitewasessentiallyofa
politicalnaturesothattheycouldclaimanalliancewithEuropeandthelastvestigesofthepowerful
RomanCatholicChurch.Moreover,evenwhentheChristianconversionoftherulinglitewas
meaningfullyadopted,itwasusuallyoverturnedbynewcomerstothethrone,andpaganismwasjoyfully
reinstatedoverseveralcenturies.EvenDunhamprofessoratYaleUniversity,RamseyMacMullen,has
writtenatlengthabouttheestablishedfactthatdespitetheChristiansintentionsofconversionduringlate
antiquity,therealityverylikelyhingeduponculturalbarrierswhereinthelocalpagans,whowerenoteven
onthewane,hadnoideathattheywerebeingconverted(ChristianizingtheRomanEmpire:Yale
UniversityPress,1984)!
355Prof.BriggshasdismissedtheformidableworkofeminentmicroHistorianProf.CarloGinzburg,
marginalizinghimrelativetothebureaucraticnotionofanallegedacademicconsensus,whichchargesthat
Ginzburghas"wildlyoverstatedhisposition",asifbrilliant,leadingscholarsmustsubmittothemajority
ruleoftheirfarmoreconservativeandextremistcolleagues(RobinBriggs,pers.comm.:4January,2008).

throughouttheearlymodernperiodinspiteofChristianitysattemptedholdonEuropean
andBritishconsciousness.356
SimilarlytoBriggsandotherprosaicresearchers,NormanCohnalsomakesa
habitofdismissingperfectlyacceptable,andentirelyuncoercedtestimonyfromavariety
ofwomenwhomaintainedthattheyunderwentavisionaryexperienceandtransvexedto
aSabbat;Cohnrejectssuchtestimony,labelingthemassenileoldwomen(asifhehasan
insight into their mentalstatus and age that we cannot)! 357 Sadly, the discriminatory
tacticsemployedbyProf.NormanCohn(chieflyageism,sexismandmendacity,which
hehasalsoleviedagainstDr.MargaretMurray)hasbeenlargelyadoptedbyAnglo
356FormoreonthisconsultGinzburgs,TheNightBattlesandEcstasies.However,otherscholars
throughoutContinentalEuropehavecodifiedasimilarargumenttoGinzburgstakingitfurtherwhere
numerouslocalsectshavebeenlocatedthatwerebelievedto:travelatnightengagingintrancefertility
battleswithwitchesorthedead,whomoftenrepresentedtheformersstandins(aubiquitousleitmotiv
foundinSiberianshamanismanditsadjacentorcognatereligioussystemsthroughoutEuropeand
elsewhere[see:AsbjrnJn,Ibid.;andHowells,Ibid.]);trancefertilitybattlesthatcommencearoundthe
fourEmberDaysfestivalsthatareanalogousindatetothesocalledGreaterSabbats(orseasonal
portals)ofDr.MargaretMurraysschema;attendingaSabbatorbanquetingwithaQueenorgoddess
figure;practicingmagic(eitherremovingorinfrequentlycausingmalificarum);existenceofadoubleor
alterego(usuallyappearinginananimalguise,commonlyknownasaFamiliarorPowerAnimal);
tranceorvisionaryexperiencesarefrequentlyreported;andmostarethoughttobebornwithanextrasetof
teeth,asixthfinger,perhapsatail,orveryoftenacaul(afetalmembrane)whichwasbelievedtogivethem
theabilitytotravelatnightonsouljourneys,toshapeshiftortootherwiseattainmembershipintothese
localecstaticcults.Amongthosesectspresentlyknowntousthatgenerallyfollowthisubiquitouspattern
ofbehaviorare:theBenandanti(Italy),Tltos(Hungary),Cluari(Romania),Armiers(PyreneesMts.
dominatingnorthernSpainandsouthernFrance),Kresniki(CroatiaandSlovenia),andtheBurkudzut
(CaucasusMts.,Iran),etc.ThesesectsultimatelystemfromanIndoEuropeanexpressionofbeliefand
ecstaticpracticerootedinshamanism.InthecaseoftheCluari,theyarefrequentlynotedforswearing
anoathofsecrecyandfealtytothecult;drawingamagiccirclearoundagatheringofpractitionerswitha
ritualsword;outofbodytravel;oralteachingpassedfromthesectleaderontonewInitiates;members
intercedebetweenhumansandfaeries(ie.ancestralspirits,orclearlydemotedfolkdeities);ecstatic
dancing;magicalhealingandfertilityrites;andtheritualemploymentofherbswithmagicalproperties.
(Thisbearsinaccordancewiththisauthorsexaminationofthedatamorethanastrikingresemblance
tocontemporaryWica!)TheCluarialsoperformedinitiationsinforests;butmoreimportantlythey
literallyinvokedtheQueenoftheFaeriesastheirleader,whowasusuallynamedAradaorIrodada.This
Romaniandata,ofcourse,maybeardistinctparallelsbetweenthisshamanicwitchcultandthetraditional
ItalianwitchcultmaterialsubsequentlydisclosedbyCharlesGodfreyLelandin,Aradia,ortheGospelof
theWitches(1899).But,itwasProf.CarloGinzburgwhofoundrelativelysubstantiveevidenceforthe
codificationoftheKresniki,Tltos,andBurkudzut,with(indeednotingespecialemphasison)theItalian
BenandantiandtheRomanianCluari,etc.(Ecstasies:DecipheringtheWitchesSabbath,pp.159and
1656;see,also,Barstowesmonograph:Witchcraze,whichgreatlysupportsthisdata).Formore
informationonthemedievalCluarisectpleaseconsultDr.GailKligmansimportantbook,Calus,
SymbolicTransformationinRomanianReligion(UniversityofChicagoPress).Duetothefactthat
contemporaryCludancersengageinspringfertilitydancesanddressremarkablysimilartoBritish
MorrisdancersduringtheirMummingPlays,theyarethoughttobeculturallycognatewiththeir
presumptiveBritishcoevals.While,anexhaustivestudyoftheHungarianTltosmaybefoundinProf.
vaPcsimportant(albeitseldomcited)study,BetweentheLivingandtheDead(CentralEuropean
UniversityPress).Furthermore,whilewerewolveswerealsoanestablishedIndoEuropeanfertilitycult
throughoutmedievalEurope,itwasnotuncommonformembersoftheseformerecstaticsectstoinvokeor
conjuretheaidofabenevolentspectralwerewolffigure(thewerewolfwasregardedasbeneficial,andwith
admiration,upuntilthemiddleofthefifteenthcenturyCE).

Americanacademeinparticular,andhas seemingly goneunchallenged;358 bethatasit

may,thelateProf.Cohnhashadhisprosaicthesisroundlyquestionedbyonlyonebrave
scholar ofnote(immediatelydiscounting,ofcourse,contemporary Paganresearchers,
andotherfreelancescholars):Prof.CarloGinzburg,whowasalsoatargetofCohn's
mendacity.359
As a result of this forthcoming research now vindicating Margaret Murray's
sullied credibility (see the applicable footnotes below), the hypothesis posited by
contemporary AngloAmerican scholars (eg. Ronald Hutton, Chas Clifton, and J.B.
Russell, etal)pertainingto directdiffusionastheimpetusforthecontemporaryPagan
WitchcraftRenaissancethroughMurraybecomesmoreandmoreuntenableasevidence
fortheNewForestCoventhatindoctrinatedGeraldB.Gardner(albeitcircumstantial)is
made available.360 Even though Prof. Briggs favors a rather problematicpsycho
analyticalapproachthathashadanenduringimpactuponmodernBritishandAmerican
academia,itshouldberememberedthatisonlyoneofseveralapplicationsthatscholars
haveemployed,aswillbeseenbythenextcontribution.361
357ForanoverviewontheproblematicapproachandresearchleviedbycontemporaneousBritish
academeregardingwitchcraftstudies,pleaseconsultthefollowingbrilliantarticle,CollarsandScholars,
availableat:http://esoterica.bichaunt.org/
358ThisapproachhashadanenduringimpactuponsuchscholarsasRonaldHuttonandhisobsolete
indeed,obscurantistvitriol,ThePaganReligionsoftheAncientBritishIsles:TheirNatureandLegacy
(Blackwell,1996)andTheTriumphoftheMoon:AHistoryofModernPaganWitchcraft(Oxford
UniversityPress,1999).Moreover,hecontinuestoyieldhisunequivocalsupporttoProf.Cohnaslateas
2003despitefullknowledgeoftheoverwhelmingcounterevidencetohisextremistandatypicalpositions
(cf.footnote16,immediatelybelow).ForthisfinalreferenceconsultProf.Huttons:Witches,Druids,and
KingArthur(Hambledon&London),pp.274,and346n.15.
359ForfurtherevidencedetailingCohn'sheinouslyflawedpolemicandunmitigatedslanderdirected
towardsDr.MargaretMurrayswork,pleaseconsultthefollowingsources:CollarsandScholars(cf.
footnote#14);WitchcraftandtheGayCounterculture(FagRagBooks,1978),byArthurEvans;Drawing
DowntheMoon(PenguinBooks,2006),byMargotAdler;Wicca:TheOldReligioninaNewMillennium
(ElementBooks,1996),byVivienneCrowleyandanarticlebyinvestigativefreelancejournalist,Janine
FarrellRobertinsubsequentissuesofTheCauldron(2002),TheGreatDebate:MargaretMurrayandthe
DistinguishedProfessorHutton,availableonlineatthefollowingwebsite:
http://www.vaccines.plus.com/Murray%20and%20the%20Professor.html.
360Forthisevidence,consult:WiccanRoots(CapallBann,2000)andGeraldGardnerandthe
CauldronofInspiration(CapallBann,2003),bothbyPhilipeHesselton.IamalsogratefultoDonaldH.
FrewforbringingtomyattentionthefactthatthereisnoevidencethatMurrayswritings(aswellasthose
ofCharlesGodfreyLelandandRobertGraves)playedanysubstantiveroleinthedocumentedanddoctrinal
originsforcontemporary(Gardnerian)PaganWitchcraftasisgenerallyassumedbybothcontemporary
Pagansandscholars(eg.JBRussell,AHistoryOfWitchcraft[Thames&Hudson,1980/2007]andRonald
Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon).Forthiscitation,consulthisimportantarticle:MethodologicalFlaws
inRecentStudiesofHistoricalandModernWitchcraft,Enthologies,1(1998),pp.3365.Moreover,aside
fromCohnsmendacity,Frewhasfoundsubstantiveevidenceforthesustainedpracticeofmisrepresenting
MargaretMurrayswritingsandthesisfortheexpresspurposeofattackingitwithoutjustification(atactic
knownasaStrawManargument),suchasinRonaldHuttonsThePaganReligionsoftheAncient
BritishIsles,andDr.JacquelineSimpsonsarticle,MargaretMurray:WhoBelievedHer,andWhy?,
Folklore,105(1994),pp.8996(Ibid.).ToreadacopyofFrewsarticle,pleaseconsultmyownwebsite,
whereIhavereproduceditwithDonaldFrewspermission,inanefforttomakeitmorewidelyavailableto
thePagancommunity:http://webstarts.com/MacMorrighan.

LivingWiththeDead:GhostsinEarlyModernBavaria,byProf.DavidLederer.
Thisisbyfarmyfavoritearticleinthebook,asitexemplifiesthedisciplineofHistorical
Anthropologyatitsbest!ManyProfessorsandscholarshavelongsincebelievedthatan
Anthropologicalapproachtothewitchhuntshavebeenlongoverdue,suchasoneDr.J.
H.Raichyk.Bethatasitmay,itisadisciplinethatisoftenmalignedasirrelevant(at
best!)throughoutthose"hallowedhalls"ofacademia,despitethecountlessscholarswho
havebeenperformingresearchonthetopicsincetheverylate1980s(though,onewill
mostlikelynothaveheardaboutanyofthis,I'mafraid,iftheonlyworksoneisfamiliar
withhavebeenwrittenbycontemporaryAngloAmericanscholarswritingandteaching
onthesubject,suchasProf.RonaldHuttonofBristolUniversity,ChasCliftonofthe
UniversityofColorado,andProf.JBRusselloftheUniversityofCalifornia,tonamebut
afewofthemorepopularandpresentlyenvoguewriters).
Rather,likemosteminentEuropeanscholars,Prof.Lederer(whoisLecturerin
History at the prestigious National University of Ireland) contends that there existed
strong paganthemes and traditions coursingthroughout the medieval witchtrials and
popularbeliefsandpracticesofthenativevillagers.Insteadofcastigatingtheaccountsof
popularbeliefsasmeresuperstitionsorinventedhallucinations(asCohnandBriggs,et.
al.havedone)hemoreaptlydefinesthemasvisionaryexperiences.
Moreover,heraisesProfessorsCarloGinzburg,ClaudeLecouteuxandvaPcs
tostandardsofacclaimthattheyhavegenerallynotknownthroughouteitherBritainor
theUnitedStates!Asaresult,he(alongwiththeEditor,KathrynA.Edwards)synthesize
theirmaterial(notingGinzburg,inparticular)andrelatesthattheyhave "analyzedthe
circulationandproductionoftraditionalreligioninearlymodernEuropeonaneven
broadercommunalscale,asareligionthatreflectsthecontinuationofpreChristian,
IndoEuropean shamanistic beliefsystems and its principles." 362 Sadly, Claude
Lecouteux(Prof.ofmedievalcivilizationandliteratureattheworldrenownedacademic
institution:TheSorbonne[Paris,France])lamentsthatCarloGinzburg'smaterialhasnot
made the impact that it should have.363 But, how could it when certain prominent
scholarstendtodisregarditsimportance? EvenRonaldHuttonisgliblydismissiveof
thismaterial;howeverIsuspectthatthisprobablyresultsfromakneejerkreactionon
Hutton'sbehalf,becauseGinzburgblatantlyacknowledgesthemethodologicalflaws,and
361FormoreinformationonBriggsproblematicresearch,andapproach,pleaseconsultthis
contemporaryreviewofhisworkbyHarvardeducatedfreelancescholar,MaxDash:
http://www.suppressedhistories.net/secrethistory/briggs.html
362AnneLlewellynBarstowhascometoanidenticalconclusion,whenshewritesofthisunequivocally
analogousdata(identifiedintheabovefootnotes)evenencompassinglocallyextentshamanismfrom
SloveniaandEstoniathatweareattheedgeofavaststratumoffolkreligion(paganism),ancientand
possiblyEuropewide,thatunderliesthetrialsofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Theyareonlythe
signalstoalertustowhathasbeengoingonforcenturies(pp.88).Itakeherfinalsentenceasanother
pleaforthemoreextremistfringeofacademiatotakethisdatamoreseriouslythanwhattheyhave,andto
ensurethatitachievesamuchwiderrecognitionandacceptancethantheseemingconspiracyofsilencethat
hasunfortunatelytendereditdisposablebyblatantlyignoringthiswiderbreadthofEuropeanacademia,to
thedetrimentofthedisciplineofHistory.
363Forthiscitation,pleaseconsultProf.LecauteuxsWitches,Werewolves,andFairies:Shapeshifters
&AstralDoublesintheMiddleAge.

otherproblematichabitualbehavior(suchasrelativequantification)employedbysome
ofthemostoftenreferencedBritishHistoriansthathavewrittenonthissubject. 364Even
Prof.vaPcshasfoundunequivocalevidenceforshamanicantecedentsattheheartof
Europeanmedievalwitchcraftbeliefs,suchas"soultrips"and"journeys";shapeshifting;
Familiarencounters;Sabbatsheldatopanaxismundi(usuallyahillormountaindeemed
entrancestotheOtherWorldorFaeryLand); 365 beliefinmediatorsbetweentheliving
andthedead(theusualroleofthepriestshaman);andtheconceptofEuropeanfate
goddessespreservedasspectralwitchfigures,amidotherdata.366
Prof.LedereralsoshowshowextensivevaPcsfindingsultimatelyprovetobe
by noting the analogous evidence between Germanspeaking Bavaria (an area that
constitutessouthernGermanyandtheSwissAlps)withHungary,whosepeoplestem
fromabranchoftheFinnoUrgianshamanicdescendents.367Whileinthecourseofher
ownresearchProf.PcshasalsofoundhowultimatelyextensivethisGermanicevidence
isinaccordwiththeHungariandatashehasdisclosed;datathatalsobearsclearNordic
parallelsbetween seir (shamanism)andtheSaintLucysstool368 phenomenon,a
stoolorplatformwhereonewouldsitinordertoidentifywitchesthroughanactof
divinationtheseconstituteaformofecstaticpracticethatyieldsdirectIndoEuropean
antecedents with a form of European and Mediterranean initiatory or visionary
techniquesthatarechieflypredominatedbywomen(eg.theOracleatDelphi,Greece,sat
uponatripod/stoolinordertoprophecy369).Indeed,thisrelativemethodmaybecognate
withanearlierIndoEuropeanshamanicvisionarytechniquewherebytheShamanwould
364ConsultGinzburgsEcstasies:DeciperingtheWitchesSabbathforthiscitation.
365Onthemountainasaxismundi(orworldpivot)consultDr.CarmenBlackersarticle,TwoKinds
ofJapaneseShamans:TheMediumandtheAscetic[1975]inShamansThroughTime:500Yearsonthe
PathtoKnowledge,ed.byJeremyNarbyandFrancisHuxley.JeremyP.Tarcher/Penguin:pp.20711.Of
course,oneisalsoremindedoftheancientGreek(IndoEuropean,aswellasubiquitous)tripartite
cosmologythatacknowledgednotonlyanUnderworld(Hades)andamaterialplain(orMiddleEarth),
butalsoanUpperWorldsituatedatopMt.Olympusinhabitedbythegods.WhiletheMayansof
Mesoamericasustainedanidenticalcosmologicalbeliefsystemwherecavernsweredeemedentrancesto
theUnderworld,withmountainsrepresentingtheUpperWorld(afactedifiedbynumerouspyramidlike
Templesthatwerebelievedtointimatethesurroundingmountains).Forfurtherevidenceonthis
ubiquitousshamanicthemeconsultProf.DavidLewisWilliamsandDr.DavidPearcesbrilliantwork,
InsidetheNeolithicMind:Consciousness,CosmosandtheRealmoftheGods(ThamesandHudson,2005).
OnwitchesgatheringatopmountainstoattendtheSabbat,consultGermananthropologistWolfDieter
Storlscontribution,TheWitchAsShaman(1998)inWitchcraftMedicine:HealingArts,Shamanic
Practices,andForbiddenPlants(trans.AnnabelLee,2003),byClaudiaMllerEbeling,ChristianRtsch,
andWolfDieterStorl.InnerTraditions:pp.4058.Itisalsogermanetothediscussionthatonemust
recallthecommonEuropeanfolkbeliefdenotingahillasanentrancetotheOtherWorldusuallytosome
FairyLandwherewitcheswerebelievedtogatherateachSabbat;andmanypagandeitiesareknownto
havebeendemotedasFaeries,andresidinginhills,suchastheTuathadeDannanofIreland.
366Formoreonthisincontrovertibledatapleaseconsultherhighlyacclaimedacademicwork,Between
theLivingandtheDead:APerspectiveonWitchesandSeersintheEarlyModernAge(CentralEuropean
UniversityPress,1999).
367EvidencehasalsobeenfoundwhichseemstosupportanIndoEuropeancodificationbetween
Germanic,aswellasFinnoBalticshamanicexpressionofbeliefandpractice(see:AsbjrnJn,1999).
368Consult:Pcs(1999);cf.TermszetfelettiKpessgEmberkTudsoksKzvettk.Folklr,
3.MagyarNprajzVII.http://vmek.niif.hu/02100/02152/html/07/397.html(LastAccessed:24January,
2008).Trans.bythepresentauthor:WadeMacMorrighan.

situponastoolortowerinordertoengageinastateoftrance,ortoenterintotheOther
World.370ThisubiquitousIndoEuropeantechnique(cf.thethinkingstoolofIrishfolk
traditionwhereonesdaughtermightbeplacedtolocatelostitems)mayalsobefoundin
northernpaganecstaticcultswhereinnwasbelievedtosituponhisthrone(Hliskjlf)
andsupernaturallysurveytheworldavisionarytoolthathasbeenconnectedwiththe
seihjallr platform371 employedbythe seikona (shamaness)inordertoprophecy.372
While,theNordicsibyl(aseerPriestess)wasbelievedtoprophecywhilesittingupona
raised seat or platform.373 Moreover, much like the St. Lucys Stool, Oinn is
philologically identified with his own visionaryplatform or throne. 374 Even Saxo
Grammaticus,commentinguponDenmarkduringhisownlifetime(around1200 CE,
duringtheHighMiddleAges),notedthatpagans(whowerestillextent)wishingtoknow
thefuturedestinyoftheirchildrenwouldregularlyconsultthreePriestesses(eachserving
asanoracletothelocalfategoddesses,respectively)whichwerefoundsittingupona
stoolorplatform.375
However,Prof.RonaldHuttonbalksattheusageof any scholasticresearchas
counterevidencetohisownpreferredthesis,unlesshefirstpreapprovesit(despitethe
factthatheusuallydoesnotbothertotesttheveracityofhisownassumedpolemic). 376
So,asaresult,heis forcedtopubliclycensurebothProfessors vaPcs andCarlo
Ginzburg as "generalizing too much" and for using the understood nomenclature of
369Consult:Broad,WilliamJ.(2006).TheOracle:TheLostSecretsandHiddenMessageofAncient
Delphi.ThePenguinPress:pp.36.
370Simek,Rudolf(trans.AngelaHall,1984/1993).DictionaryofNorthernMythology.Boydell&
Brewer:pp.281.AccountsofauthenticshamanssurmountingarespectivestoolmaybefoundinSiberia
wheretheshamanissuspendedfromatreetrunkwhilejourneyingtotheOtherWorld(sometimesthisis
forthepracticaldesiretoprotecttheShamanwhileheorsheisengagedinatrance,andnotincontrolof
theirnormalfaculties),andtheMachishamanessofChilewhosurmountsatreetrunkinordertoprophecy
(DianaPaxson,pers.comm.:12March,2008).This,ofcourse,recallstheGreekpracticeatDelphiwhere
theOraclestripodwouldbesituatedatopapillarthathadbeenerectedtotheheightoffortyfeet,ortwelve
meters(WilliamBroad,TheOracle:pp.62).
371AnimportantfixtureinearlyNordicdivination;thetermisgenerallytranslatedasshamansstool
(DictionaryofNorthernMythology,pp.279).
372Op.cit.,pp.152.
373Jones,PrudenceandNigelPennick(1995/1999).AHistoryofPaganEurope.Barnes&Noble:pp.
151.
374Dict.ofNorthernMythology,pp152.
375AHistoryofPaganEurope,pp:150.
376Onthispedantry,seehowhedownplaystheimportanceofGinzburgsmaterial(asifGinzburgs
materialcannotstandonitsownmerit!),evengoingsofarastoblatantlyredefinewhatcanandcannot
constituteatranceorecstaticvisionaryexperience,bylabelingItalianMedievalaccountsofindividuals
fallingintoatranceasunusuallyintensedreamswhentheirwitnessesfrequentlydistinguishedthatthey
werenot,infact,merelydreamingorsleepingwhentheysuddenlybecamelethargicandwereunableto
berousedintowakingconsciousness;however,Prof.Huttondoesnotusuallybothertoargueforhisown
specificcounterpositionuponrejectingagiventhesisas,perhaps,unconvincingatacticthatisknownas
specialpleadingthroughoutthisadhominemarticlehewrotecastigatingDonFrewsownacademic
counterpoint,inPaganismandPolemic:TheDebateOvertheOriginsofModernPaganWitchcraftin
Folklore(April,2000):http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2386/is_1_111/ai_62685559(LastAccessed:
5December,2007).Frewwasnotextendedthecourtesyofaresponse.Uponexaminingbotharticlesin
question,Prof.HuttonwashardlyarguingonthesamegroundsasMr.Frew!

"shamanistic"or"shamanic"asquantifiablerelativeterms.377AccordingtoHutton,any
term with the rootword "shaman" can only be applied to the indigenous religious
practicesofSiberiaandtheareasoftheArcticnorth,ortheoutlyingregionsofAsia. 378
Philologicallyspeaking,thisiscorrect,becauseshamanisderivedfromtheTungusic
termaman,anounandverbmeaningonewhoknows.379But,thisremainsarelatively
superficialpolemicworthquibblingabout. Bethatasitmay,thisrepresentshissole
reason for discounting such formidable research by the brunt of European academia
(whichalmostseems racist,consideringthefactthatBritishacademiahasapparently
isolated itself from the larger academic world encompassing, among others, Europe,
Asia,Africa,andevenIndia).
Indeed,uponevenacursoryreadingofPcs'work,itmustbeaskedifHuttonhas
readhermaterialproperly,orifhewasmerelyacceptingwhatacolleaguemayhavetold
himandpasseditoffasestablishedfact(whichhe'spreviouslydoneinamisleadingfoot
notecontainedwithinhisbookTheStationsoftheSun[Oxford,1996]);ofcourse,ithas
alsobeenbroughttomyattentionthatProf.Huttonhasfrequentlypronouncedjudgments
uponresearchbaseduponwhathethoughtitwouldshow,withoutfirstreviewingthedata
for himself.380 After all, Prof. Pcs can hardly be accused of misusing the term
"shamanism",norof"generalizingtoomuch",whenherbook(BetweentheLivingand
theDead[CentralEuropeanUniversityPress,1999])doesnotveerfromtheconfinesof
easternEurope(specificallyHungary)upontranslatingmorethan2000witchtrialsinto
English(byfarthelargeststudytodate)inordertoreachhersynthesisalongsidean
established researchgroup; while it is within her Introduction where she makes it
unequivocallyclearthattheterm"shamanism"bearsbotha strict (Siberian)denotation
anda generallyunderstood connotation. Perhapsheronlypotentialshortcomingisin
failing to note the extremist and skeptical backlash imposed by American and (in
particular)Britishacademia,asherfellowEuropeanacademiccoevalshavealsonot(for
themostpart)takenthislevelofskepticismintoaccount.
Considering the corpus of European data on this topic, and his own book
Shamanism:SiberianSpiritualityandtheWesternImagination(ContinuumInternational
PublishingGroup,2001),onewondershowProf.Huttoncanremainsounyieldinginhis
position.InhisShamanismhecontendsthatoneofthefewpopularshamanicbeliefsthat

377ConsultFarrellRoberts'discoursewithHuttonforthiscitation.
378However,itisevidentwithinProf.HuttonsbookTheShamansofSiberia(IsleofAvalonPress,
1993)that,despitehispretencetothecontrary,heallowsforafarmoreliberaldefinitionofshaman;
rather,thispolemicremainsonlyhispersonalpreference(DanielCohen[1996].Review:TheShamansof
Siberia,byRonaldHuttonandTheShaman,byPiersVitebskyinWoodandWater,Autumn1996,no.56.
Availableonline,at:http://www.decohen.com/reviews/shamans_of_siberia.htm(LastAccessed:2June,
2008)).Indeed,bothDanielCohenandmyself,yieldtothesametrepidationwherebyRonaldHuttons
extremistandatypicalconnotationmaybeadoptedastheonlyviabledefinitionbycontemporaneous
Pagans(Ibid.).
379Eliade,Mircea(trans.WillardR.Trask,1964).Shamanism:ArchaicTechniquesofEcstasy.
BollingenSeriesLXXVI.PrincetonUniversityPress:pp.4,and495;Reid,Anna(2002).TheShamans
Coat:ANativeHistoryofSiberia.Walker&Company:pp.5.
380DonaldH.Frew,pers.comm.:29February,2008.

hewillallowfor(asauthentic)isthemultiplicityofthesoul.381 Thisidenticalmotifis
also found within medieval witchcraftbeliefs, such as those encountered within the
Germanictrials,aswellaswithinthevariousmedievalSagasandotherrelatedliterature
preserving antiquated pagan beliefsystemsthis hypothesis has been proven by the
researchoftheesteemedProf.ClaudeLecouteux.382
However,anotherfacetofshamanismhasoftenbeenoverlooked:theshamanic
crisis, where one undergoes either a neardeath experience, or recovers from a long
illnessonlytoexperienceashiftinconsciousnesswhichisusuallydeterminantofthe
Shamansvocation,allowinghimorhertoseespiritsandtraversetheaxismundi.383This
experiencewasstillextentinBritainaslateastheearlytwelfthcentury,foritwasSaxo
GrammaticuswhonotedinhisTheHistoryoftheDanesthatonewasregardedasmost
propitiousinprophecyandofviewingspiritsifonehadundergonesomelongillness.
Indeed,whenwelookatthemedievalwitchtrialswenotethethemeofgreatillness
preceding a visionaryencounter with great frequency. Two examples will serve to
exemplifythisthesis:In1588 CE,duringastrangefitofsickness,AlisonPearsonwas
introducedtothefaeriefolkbyanOtherworldlygreenman(actuallyherdeadcousin
robedinthecolorofthefey),whorequestedthatshebefaithfultohim;but,afterher
cousin vanishes from sight, he reappears with other men and women engaging in a
Sabbatexperienceofmerrymaking,andpersuadesAlisontotakepartintheirgrand
mirth.Shealsotestifiedthatthespectralcountenanceofhercousintaughtherhowtouse
herbalremediestohealthesickbeforeshewasexecutedbyorderofthemagistrates. 384
And,perhapsevenmoretellingisthecaseofScottishwitchIsobelHaldane(fromPerth),

381ForareviewofR.HuttonsShamanism,consult:HuttononShamanism(2006),byJohnC.
Durham,http://bytrentplus.co.uk/hutton00.html(LastAccessed:21April,2007);andTimothyWhites
critique,RecapitulatingSiberianShamanisms:AReviewofRonaldHutton'sShamanisminShamans
Drum,No.75(2007).ThroughoutthispresenttextHuttonapparentlyattemptstodebunkthelateProf.
MerceaEliadsnotionoftheShaman(here,heemploysSirJamesFrazerashisusualwhippingboy
whenchastisingacontemporaryscholarforwhatheperceivesasflawedmethodologydrawnfrom
comparativemethods).However,avaluablerebuttalistobefoundinBryanS.RenniesReconstructing
Eliade:MakingSenseofReligion(StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1996).Moreover,TimothyWhite
hasfoundthatHuttonhabituallycastigatesotherauthorities(withwhomProf.Huttonisinpersonal
disagreement)forcertaintransgressionsofwhichhe[Hutton]isalsoguiltywithinthesamepolemical
treatise(pers.comm.).Indeed,Ihavenoted,withastonishingfrequency,identicalbehaviorthroughouthis
relativelyprematureandobsoletestudy,ThePaganReligionsoftheAncientBritishIsles.Thispracticeisa
knownLogicalFallacy(ofwhichProf.Huttonisevidentlyaware),whichbearsthename:SpecialPleading.
Insodoing,wefindthatwhenonetendersanargument,heorshedoesnotapplytheirprinciples
consistently(frequentlyexemptinghimselforherselffromhavingtofollowtherulesthattheyhave
imposedontoothers).OnSpecialPleading,andotherLogicalFallaciesofnote,navigatetothe
followingwebsite,whichconstitutesaprofessionallypeerreviewedacademicresource,thankstothe
outstandingworkofDr.J.FieserandDr.B.Dowden:Fallacies:TheInternetEncyclopediaof
Philosophy.http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/fallacy.htm(LastAccessed:8August,2008).
382ConsultProf.Lecouteuxsaforementionedbook.
383Eliade,Mircea(1964/1992).Shamanism:ArchaicTechniquesofEcstasy.BollingenSeriesLXXVI.
PrincetonUniversityPress:pp.25;335;3843.
384TheInternetSacredTextArchive.LettersonDemonology&Witchcraft,bySirWalterScott.
LetterV:http://www.sacredtexts.com/pag/scott/lodw05.htm

whom,in1623CE,testifiedthatwhileshewassickinbedshewastakentoafairyhill
whereshelearnedhowtohealthesickfromthefaeriesorspiritswhichresidethere.
So,itisapparentthatProf.Huttonspresentreservationandpolemictothecontraryis
currentlyintheprocessofcollapse. However,oneshouldbearinmindthatEuropean
and AngloAmerican academia is vastly different from a quantifiable vantage point.
Consequently,Prof.Huttonsadlydoesnotseemtofairlyadjudicatehissources(forI
notenumerousdiscrepancieswithinhissecondarysourcecitationsthathaveessentially
beenignoredbyhim,andotherdatathatdirectlyrefuteshisactualargumentswhenthis
omittedmaterialishonestlytakenintoaccount),nordoeshegenerallyacknowledgethe
wider breadth of scholarship being performed on this subject throughout Continental
Europe,thusmisrepresentinghistoryandthepresentnatureofacademia(whichoperates
onaslidingscale)tohisimpressionablereadership.385
Coda:IthasrecentlycometomyattentionthatHutton,whilehemaynotovertlyendorse
theshamanicthesisbeingadvocatedbynumerousscholars,hedoesnotappeartofind
faultwiththeirconclusionsinanarticlehecontributedtothecollection, TheScottish
WitchHuntsinContexted.byProf.JulianGoodare(ManchesterUniversityPress,2002).
A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics, and Pagans, by J.B. Russell & Brooks
Alexander (Second Edn.), Thames & Hudson, 2007.
WadeWhite,MA.(DrakeUniversity:DesMoines,IA.)
J.B.RussellisProf.ofHistoryattheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara;andthis
presenteditioncomprisesa1980textthatallegedlyservedasoneofRonaldHutton's
primaryconsentingsourceswhilewritinghisfoundationalpolemicsnowconsidered
relativelyobsoletebythenatureofhistoricalquantifications,dueto"current"revelations
(these subsequent texts are largely in the process of being superseded): The Pagan
ReligionsoftheAncientBritishIsles:TheirNatureandLegacy 386(Blackwell,1996)and
385ConsultthefollowingarticlebyHarvardeducatedfreelancescholar,MaxDash,formore
informationaboutthepoliticizationofearlymodernandmedievalwitchcraftresearchin"Witchcraft
Politics:AnotherViewoftheWitchHunts.(ResponsetoJennyGibbons,Pomegranate,#5)";itwas
initiallypublishedinthepeerreviewedjournal,ThePomegranate:
www.suppressedhistories.net/secrethistory/witchpolitics.html;alsoconsultthearticle,Collarsand
Scholars,linkedinfootnote#14;while,Dr.EmmaWilbylamentsthatBritishhistorianshavenottaken
seriouslytheconsensusofearlymodernwitchcraftbeliefasavisionarytradition(ie.shamanism)drawn
byContinentalacademiainherarticle,BritishShamanism:ShamanisticVisionaryTraditionsinEarly
ModernBritishWitchcraft,Circle,issue98(Spring,2007),pp.423.AsanexampleofDr.Wilbys
charge,consultProf.OwenDaviesmitigationofheranalysesinhisarticle:CunningFolk:Recent
Research,Pentacle,issue21(Beltane/Summer,2007),pp.2830.ThereaderisalsourgedtoconsultDr.
Wilbyshighlyacclaimedbook:CunningFolkandFamiliarEncounters:ShamanisticVisionaryTraditions
inEarlyModernBritishWitchcraftandMagic(SussexAcademicPress,2006).

386 TheSuppressedHistoriesArchive.Dash,Max[1998].AReviewofRonald
HuttonsThePaganReligionsoftheAncientBritishIsles:
http://www.suppressedhistories.net/articles/hutton_review.html[LastAccessed:14
March,2007].ThisisanimportantcriticalanalysisofHuttonsearlyworkthat

TheTriumphoftheMoon:AHistoryofModernPaganWitchcraft (OxfordUniversity
Press,1999).Forwhatit'sworth,RonaldHuttonsetthestage(anactintimatelyfraught
with peril when it seemingly sets the standard) and introduced Paganism as an
academicallyrespectfulreligion,thusremovingitfromtheshelvesof"NewAgenon
sense"atyourlocalbookstore.However,manythatareopposedtoWicca(specifically)
andPaganism(ingeneral)havedeliberatelypointedtoHutton'stexts,empirically,asthey
sneer,"See,Itoldyousoit'samadeup,fake,religion!"Bethatasitmay,anddespite
Hutton'spersonalreservationtothecontrary,his early workhassetnewstandardsof
rigor in the present debate concerning the origins of contemporary Paganism andits
likely antiquated genesiseven forcing us to raise our standards of evidence, and
searchingoutthosescholarswhichvastlydisagreefromacrossthepanacademicstage
(particularly from Continental Europe). As an historiography I found this text to be
brilliantly evenhanded and generally objective; by stark contrast, Hutton's polemics
shouldbetenderedasextremistandatypicalinpresentationbecauseheoftendoesnot
fairly adjudicate the current scholastic data on the subject with which his work is
concerned.387 Asanexample,considerthatwhileRonaldHuttonentirelyrejects any
notionoftheCelticCultoftheHeadasdiscernedbyProf.AnneRoss,Prof.Miranda
Green,ontheotherhand,takesamiddleoftheroadapproach,acknowledgingitasa
distinct plausibility rather than wholly rejecting it due to some perceived lack of
evidence; evidence that the majority of Iron Age specialists tend to accept as
convincing.
Inthisnewpublicationalmost30yearssinceitsinitialinceptionProf.Russell
offerstwonewchaptersconcernedwithcontemporaryPaganismwrittenwithhispresent
collaborator (and evangelical Christian) Brooks Alexander,388 as well as a new
Introductionandconcludingchapter.However,muchhasalsobeenomittedfromthe
presentedition,suchascertainphotographs(albeitseeminglysensational)thattestify
tothedoctrineofcontemporaryBritishTraditionalWitchcraft,andafascinatingcopyof
theoathofsecrecyandvowspropoundedbytheFirstChurchofWiccainthelate
1970s.Evenanentirechapterquiteeloquentlytitled,TheWitchesReligionhasalso
been omitted, along with many littleknown photographs of Gerald B. Gardner and
seeminglymacabreBritishfolkspellsinvolvingthornsandasheepsheart.So,ifthis
acknowledgesnumerousfactualdiscrepanciesandothertroublinganomalies.
387 ThisisallthemoreconcerningwhenonetakesintoaccountthatProf.JBRussell
canremaingenerallyhonestandobjectivedespitethefactthatheisanavowed
evangelicalChristian,whileProf.RonaldHuttonwasraisedPaganbyhismotherandwas
subsequentlyinitiatedintotheGardnerianPriesthoodsometimepriortothemid1990s
(inprivatecorrespondenceheacknowledgedthatthiscontemporaryPaganTradition
exemplifiedafaiththathewasalreadyfamiliarwithunderhismotherstutelage);yet
Prof.Huttonpresentsanextremistandatypicalviewofthedataandcurrentresearchto
hisimpressionablereadership.
388 AuthorofWitchcraftGoesMainstream:UncoveringitsAlarmingImpactonYou
andYourFamily(HarvestHousePublishers,2004),andFounderoftheSpiritual
CounterfeitsProject:http://www.scpinc.org/ckbody.php(LastAccessed:12August,
2012),awebsitepropoundingantiPaganChristianpropaganda.

datafascinatesyou,itmightproveworthyourwhiletolocateasecondhandcopyatany
numberofusedbookstoreseitheronline,orinyourlocalcommunity.
WhenIfirstcrackedthespineofthistextIimmediatelynoticedsomeastonishing
anomaliesthattroubledme,albeitthereisalsomuchtoenjoyandmulloverinone'sgray
matter,aswell.However,thelatterisstaunchlyovershadowedbyhisseeminglapsein
discernment,andhisapparent"ignorance"ofrecenthistoricalevidence.
Russelloccasionallybehavesthroughouteachcontroversialtreatiseofthisrecent
editionalmostlikeaverballyoremotionallyabusivelovedonewhotenderlysays,after
thefact,"Iloveyou."Forexample,whenwritingofCharlesLeland'sinvestigationinto
an Italian witchcult (Aradia, or The Gospel of the Witches [1899]), he pejoratively
regardshismethodologybydenotingitas"research"withinquotationmarksrepletewith
sarcasm.However,inthesamebreathhestatesthatLeland'smethodswerethescholastic
normofhisday.So,whycriticizehimsoharshlyandgratuitouslyattheonset?Likemy
initial analogy, this bears a rather disingenuous tone. 389 It is important to note that
CharlesGodfreyLelandwasabletogainaccessintogroupsandculturesthathispeers
couldnotafact,andtalent,thatisfrequentlyoverlookedwhenheismalignedasthe
victim of duplicitous local inhabitants (a stance more than generally adopted by the
presentauthors).RussellalsoimpliesthatmuchoftheAradiaMS.presentedtoLeland
mayhavebeenwrittenbyhisinformant,MaddelenaIfindthisgrosslyunsatisfactory;
forthistomakeanycognitivesenseMaddelenawouldhavehadtohavebeenaliterary
prodigy,whichisentirelyunlikelygivenherprovincialandimpoverishedstature,aswell
aseducationalbackground.Moreover,thesedocumentsarepossessedofasubstance,just
belowthethinveneeroftheirdocumentablesources,thatspeakofanoldertraditionthat
simplydoesnotfittheimaginingsofanentiregenerationofskeptical(indeed,cynical)
scholarship.Furthermore,wenotethatmuchoftheAradiamaterialispresentedinverse,
whichweknowisamnemonicdeviceemployedbyculturesthroughoutantiquityasa
meansofpreservingloreandlocaltradition. 390 However,perhapsthis,andsubsequent
anomalies,oughttobeforgivenasmereobsoletedatathatwasneveramendedfromthe
firsteditionofthepresentwork.391
Someotherminor,althoughnolessmisleadingerrorsarepepperedthroughout
this text,includingacaptionforalatefifteenthcenturywoodcutdepictingperceived
"witches" shapeshifting in an effort to transvex towards a Sabbat. However, he
389 Sadly,thisisatacticthathasdiffusedthroughtheranksofacademia,fromone
generationtothenext.
390 Scholarslabelthisorature(orallypreserveddata,suchasfolksongsormythology),
andhavefoundthatitisfarmorecapableofretaininginformationaccurately(spanning
hundredsofyears)thantraditionallywrittendocumentationtotheconsternationof
GeneralHistorians,becausetheirprimarybiastheirtrainingtellsthemsomething
quitetheopposite!
391 ItisalsointerestingtonotethateminentmicroHistorian,Prof.CarloGinzburg,has
foundsomerelativelysubstantiveevidencewherebytheapparentlyethnographicaccount
disclosedintheAradiamaterialisanalogoustoalocalItalian,shamanic,fertilitywitch
cultknownastheBenandanti(dogooders);furthermore,itisbelievedthattheyclaima
largerIndoEuropeanshamanicantecedent.

apparentlyconflatesthegenerictermof"shapeshifting"withthespecificdenotation,
"lycanthropy",whichreferstothetransmogrificationofanindividualintoawolf,hence
thelycanroot(anyonewhohasseenthefilmUnderworldwillcertainlybeawareofthis
fact).392 While,hesubsequentlyrelatesthatthroughoutEurope,bythetwelfthcentury,
the entire Continent of Europe had been irrevocably converted to Christianity. This
polemicisseverelyquestionablealthough,moreworrying,it'sextremistandsimplistic
to a fault; it has been advanced that antiquated paganism survived throughout large
swathsofEuropeeasilyaslateastheeighteenthcentury(thoughthetwentiethcenturyis
notentirelyofftheradar,duetosuggestionsfromotherscholars:theSaaminomadsof
Scandinaviaareevidentlystillextent;andmanyoftheBalticdeitiesenjoyedcontinued
worshipuntiltheearly1920s!).AlbeitthepresentationRonaldHuttonrelatesbelowasa
counterpointisalsodebatable(andprovestobemereopinion,forwenotedozensof
scholarsthatpresentthehistoryofpaganismfardifferently:thepagansactuallyfought
hardfortheirendemicreligionsagainsttheChristianstoalatedate;Huttondoesnot
seem to allow for this), it serves to advance a case contrary to Russell's preferred
position:
"Duringthelatetwentiethcenturyitgraduallybecameapparentthat,allover
Europe, the conversion of the rulers of a medieval state to Christianity was
followed within a relatively short time by the formal acceptance of the new
religion by their subjects. There is no evidence for the of the longterm
persistence of paganism as a formal system of religion vanished from
MediterraneanEuropeafterthesixthcentury,from thewesternandnorthern
partsofthecontinentaftertheeleventh,andfromthenortheasternportionsafter
thefourteenth.AmongtheSaaminomadsofScandinavia,itmayhavelingered
intotheseventeenth"[Witches,DruidsandKingArthur,2003:137].393
392 Abeliefinwerewolvesisacommonfolkbeliefofpaganantiquitythroughout
EuropeandtheBritishIsles.Consult:Werewolves,WitchesandWanderingSpirits,ed.by
Prof.KatherynA.Edwards(TrumanStateUniversityPress,2002)andWitches,
WerewolvesandFairies:ShapeshiftersandAstralDoublesintheMiddleAges,byProf.
ClaudeLecouteux(InnerTraditions,2003).
393 Thisisamisleadingpolemiconseveralgrounds:1.)Thisstatementrepresentsa
personalopinion,ratherthananactualargument,letaloneafact(implyingthatwe
mustaccepthimathisword),whichsubsumesthatsomethingthatProf.Huttondoes
agreewithgraduallybecameapparent,whilethereisnoevidenceforsomethingthat
hedoesnotpersonallyagreewith,whichmakesthispassagefarworsethanthemost
biasedAmericanpuffjournalism;2.)Despitehispersonalallegations(forwhichhehas
shiftedtheburdenofproofandofferednotoneshredofsubstantivedataforhiscause)it
hasbeenprovenbynumerousHistoriansthatPaganismsurvivedlongaftertheruling
liteofficiallyadoptedChristianity,whichwasusuallyonlyverysuperficialand
politicallymotivatedinordertoachieveanalliancewiththepowerfulRomanCatholic
Church,whileofficiallyrecognizedPaganismfrequentlyoverthrewandbanished
Christianityandmissionariesfromtheirhomecountries,whilePaganrulerssucceeding
thethroneaccordingtotheHistoricalRecordbut,evenafterChristianitywas

Asaneweditiontoanantedatedtextfrom1980itissimplybehindthetimesatleast
behind the last decade of subsequent, and groundbreaking, research! Where's the
foundational work of Phillip Hesselton, and even Doreen Valiente or Donald Frew's
counterthesis,aswellasRonaldHutton'slatesttreatisethatwasbrieflyquotedabove
(RussellseemstoemployTheTriumphoftheMoonasarelative"cutoffdate"ifoneis
tojudgefromhisbibliographiccitations394)?Bethatasitmay,muchrecentresearch,
despiteremaininguncitedthroughoutthebodyofthetext,isonlygivenatokennod
withintheactualBibliography.Similarly,Iwasastonishedatthissamediscrepantlack
throughout Margot Adler's recent update of her highly acclaimed occult classic,
DrawingDowntheMoon395(PenguinBooks,2006).AsaGardnerianHighPriestess,and
scholarinherownright,sheshouldhavebeenblatantlyawareoftheserecentparadigm
shifting revelations; neither did she attempt to defend her work from Prof. Huttons
mitigationofheranalysisofwitchcrafthistory!Asaresult,Icanonlyconcludethat
Russell'sandBrook'srecenteditionhasapparentlybeenjustifiedtoonesideofapolemic
thatitispresentlybeingreevaluated(indeed,itisinaprocessofcollapse).Hence,this
title does not show the same insight and current forthought (in this regard) as his
previoustexts.396
Moreover,contemporaryPagans(andgenerallayreaders)thatturntopolemics
writtenbygeneralhistorians(forpolemicsareallthatseemtoexist,thesedays)needto
betaughthowtousecriticalthinkingskillstospotclearlyunsubstantiatedclaimswhen
theyobstinatelyappear!While,scholarsthatmaketheseblatantstatementsneedtobe
publiclycensuredforit,ratherthangivenagreenlight,"justbecauseit'spopularand
endorsed"or"scholasticsuicide"toreachadifferingopinionwithoutfactuallyarguing
forone'scase!AlltoooftenIseescholarsrelyingnotontheevidence,buttheopinionsof
otherscholars,becausethematterhasbeen(sotheyclaim),settled.Thisissimplya
meaningfullyadopted,andofficiallytookhold,PopularPaganismthrivedamongthe
peasants[see,forexample,theincontrovertibleworkofPrudenceJonesandNigel
Pennick,AHistoryofPaganEurope];and3.)WhileProf.Huttonisawareoftheworkof
G.W.Bowersockevencitinghisimportanttext,HellenisminLateAntiquity(The
UniversityofMichiganPress,1990),withinthismostrecenttexthewillfullyignores
Prof.Bowersockspremierechapter,PaganismandGreekCulture,thatproves,
unequivocally,thatPaganismsurvivedthroughouttheMediterraneanlongexceedingthe
sixthcentury,atwhichpointitcanhardlybesuggestedthatPaganismwasevenonthe
wane!
394 IhavenotedsimilardiscrepanciesinacademicworksincethepublicationofProf.
RonaldHuttonsTheTriumphoftheMoon:cf.LeoRuickbiesWitchcraftOutofthe
Shadows:ACompleteHistory(RobertHale,2004).
395 CODA: Upon contacting Adler, she confided in me that, until I had
mentioned them to her, she was entirely unaware of Prof. Huttons
earlier work.
396 Asanexample,consulthisbook,TheDevil:PerceptionsofEvilfromAntiquityto
PrimitiveChristianity(CornellUniversityPress,1977)foranexampleoffarmore
superiorhistoricalinsightsandmorebalancedconclusions.

copout,nottomentionaperfectexampleofwhatisknownasspecialpleadingwhena
scholardoesnotoftenfollowthosesamequantifiablerulesofacademicprotocolthatthey
imposeontoothers!Indeed,itisprobablyevidenceastohowacademiahasbecome
ruthlesslypoliticizedwithinthepastseveraldecades.Ithasevencometomyattention
thatsomescholarsbecausetheytendtoignorealotofevidenceactuallymakeahabit
ofmischaracterizingotherargumentsandscholars,asthoughthosewritingsandscholars
reallystatesomethingcontrarytowhat'sactuallyinprint(thisiscalledastrawman
argumentinwhichanauthororthesisismischaracterizedfortheexpresspurposeof
beingattacked).397
Anotherailmentthatneedstoberemediedisteachingfolkshowtospotpersonalopinion
when it is advanced as established fact (Ronald Hutton happens to illustrate this
remarkably in his book The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles398). As an
exampleofthistactic,considerthefollowing:Dr.HuttonstatesinhisTheTriumphofthe
Moonthatnowherethroughoutantiquitywasanygoddessworshippedasthesourceof
geographicalandhumanfecundityviathehiersgmos,or"sacredmarriage"rite.Thisis
opinion onlyeminent Sumerologist, Samuel Noah Kramer comes to an entirely
diametric and wellfounded conclusion in his book, The Sumerians (University of
ChicagoPress,1963).Moreover,Prof.RudolfSimekhasfoundunequivocalevidencefor
thissustainedritualandbeliefwithintheGermanicpagandatathatappearstoadvocate
the presence a larger Europeanwide phenomenon where the Earth (as female) is
fertilizedbytheSky(therainidentifiedashissemen);thiswasenactedphysicallyby
localtribesmeninreligiousrituals,particularlyintheritesofFreyr(Lord). 399 Even
TacitusimpliesthattheancientGermansperformedthehiersgmosritualatthetimeof
hiswriting.While,Prof.EmeritusFellow(AllSoulsCollege,Oxford),Dr.M.L.West,
detailedwhatahomogenousIndoEuropeanreligiousmotifthehiersgmosultimately
proves to be, as a sacred marriage between the skygod and the earthgoddess. 400
Hence,IfindthatHuttonhasnotfairlyadjudicatedtherelevantfindingsfromthepresent
academicworld.Thisisarelativelygraveexampleofsweepingovergeneralizationsthat
simplyprovestobeunfoundedwhentheappropriatedataisexaminedinanydetail.Asa
result,ImustfindthatHuttonspositioncanonlybemaintainedifonewereignorantof
boththenecessaryhagiographicdataandprimarysourcematerial.
397 Thesemendaciousacademiclitescan'tbebotheredwiththedatathatquestions
theiropinion;afterall,they'vemadeuptheircollectivemind!Thisarisesfromblatant
cynicism,ratherthanmereskepticism,whichcanbetempered(twoentirelydifferent
quantifiableanimals).Somevictimsofstrawmanargumentsinclude(butarenot
limitedto):ProfessorsMarijaGimbutas,CarloGinzburg,andMargaretAliceMurray.
398 Long,AsphodelPauline.WoodandWater(Summer1992),39,AReviewof:The
PaganReligionsoftheAncientBritishIsles:TheirNatureandLegacy:http://asphodel
long.com/html/pagan_religions.html(LastAccessed:14August,2012).
399 Simek,Rudolf(trans.AngelaHall,1984/1993).DictionaryofNorthernMythology.
Boydell&Brewer:Suffolk,UK.
400 West,M.L.(2007).IndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth.OxfordUniversityPress:
NewYork,NY.

Intheinitialeditionofthistextfrom1980,Russelladmonishestheexistenceof
"Old"DorothyClutterbackasafigmentofGeraldGardner'sfertileimagination.Incensed
bythisunfoundedaccusation,DoreenValientepublishedanaccount(inJanet&Stewart
Farrar's The Witches' Way [1984]) in which she located the marriage and death
certificateof"OldDorothy",thusprovingherexistence!Thesecurrentrevelations in
consideration, Prof. Russell has made no attempt to rescind his earlier declamation;
rather, "Old Dorothy" is merely portrayed as a leading figure in Gardner's personal
assertions (here presented as mythical), with no mention pertaining to her factual
existence.Thisisultimatelymisleading,Ifear.
MissingalsoisthegroundbreakingworkofProfessorsCarloGinzburg(Italy),
vaPcs(Hungary),EmmaWilby(Britain),PhillipeWalter(France),WolfDieterStorl
(Germany),GiuseppeBonomo(Italy),BengtAnkarloo(Sweden),GustavHenningsen
(Sweden), Claudia MllerEbeling (Germany), Tekla Dmtor (Hungary), Gbor
Klaniczay(Hungary),ChristianRtsch(Germany),KatherynA.Edwards(USA),David
Lederer(Ireland),CarmenBlacker(Britain),GailKligman(Romania),ClaudeLecauteux
(France)andanarmyofothernoteworthyscholarswithworkstranslatedintoEnglish.
Thelatter,forwhatit'sworth,isProf.ofMedievalSociety,CivilizationandLiteratureat
the worldfamous academic institution, The Sorbonne (Paris, France). Academia
throughoutContinentalEuropehasreachedthegeneralconsensusthatattheheartof
medievalwitchcraftbeliefisendemic"shamanistic"antecedentstooneextentoranother
thatdefinitelysupportcertainvariantsoftheMurraythesisathesisthatneedsupdating
becauseshelackedashamaniclanguagewithwhichtorefineherarguments,albeitsome
ofherassertionscertainlywereincorrect(eg.Jeanned'Arc).Anythingless,inthewords
ofEmmaWilby,"isuntenable".ButRussellfollowsinthefootstepsofRonaldHutton
throughout this present edition by failing to acknowledge this unequivocal body of
European scholarship. This failure, or relative ignorance, appears during Russell's
historiographic account of the four most prominent "interpretations of European
witchcraft[that]arecurrent".vaPcs,forexample,drewuponasampleofmorethan
2,000witchtrials(byfarthelargeststudytodate)andfoundthatmedievalwitchcraft
belief,andthosereportedtraditions,turnedouttobeinseparablefromlocalshamanic
traditions. Unfortunately, aminority of British generalhistorians have gone to rather
severelengthstomitigatetheenduringcontributionsofProf.Pcs.401 However,hadit
notbeenforher,agreatmanywitchcrafttrialdocumentswouldnothavebeentranslated
intotheEnglishlanguagefortheexplicituseofscholarsworldwide!
PopeJohnPaulIIeloquentlyremindsusthat,inaworldwithouttruth,freedom
losesitsfoundationsandmanisexposedtotheviolenceofpassionandtomanipulation,
401 ItquiteprobablethatHuttonisgliblydismissiveofsuchathesis,aswillbeseen,
becauseNormanCohn(apolemicistHuttonuncriticallyendorsestothisday)hasrejected
allsuchconclusionsasresultingfromthepsychedelic1960sinAmericaandabroad;an
allegationwithwhichheattackedanthropologist,MichaelHarner.Cohnposits,rather
unsuccessfully,thatsuchathesisisdeterminantuponthismoderndatatosuchanextent
thatscholarswouldnothavebeeninclinedtoreachthisconclusionifsuchacultural
epochasthepsychedelic60shadneveroccurred;butitmustberememberedthatProf.
Cohnspresumptuoushypothesisattemptstoshifttheburdenofproof.

bothopenandhidden.402Asaresult,Icanonlydescribetheconstantabsenceofthese
majorcontendingtheoriesfromContinentalEuropethroughoutgeneralworksbyleading
AmericanandBritishscholarsonthesubjectofwitchcrafthistoryas"aconspiracyof
silence",perhapsevenasadesirefor"academicsubjugation"(amonopoly,ifyouwill,
fortheytendtoregardthissubjectmatterastheirrespectiveturf)!Furthermore,Prof.
CarloGinzburgisgenerallymitigatedbyBritishacademiaforhisowncontributions.It
wasthroughoutasubsequentpolemicbybothJ.B.RussellandthelateNormanCohn, 403
wherethesehistoriansblatantlymischaracterizedhisastoundingwork!Bethatasitmay,
one might reasonably argue that such a blatant absence as these presently discussed
"values"intheequationofmedievalwitchcraftstudiesisaformof"thoughtreformation"
on behalf of the academic "ruling lite". It should be understood that this will be
perpetuated, generation after generation, by scholars and imposed onto the next
generationofresearchersiftheyhopetoacquireadegree,ortoevenpasstheircourses
andgetpublished!IvyLeagueUniversitiesarenotevenexcusedfromsuchunscrupulous
behavior:aslateasthe1970sonewasactuallyrebukedforquestioningthestatusquo,
regardlessofonessubstantiveevidencetheywouldhavebeenfailed,andweretoldnot
toquestionmattersthatweredeemed"settled".404Thispoliticizationissomethingworth
dearconsiderationbyeveryreaderofacademiaandsubsequentresearch!
However, Russell (at least in this present text) wisely shows more sensitivity
towards theMurraythesis thanis usuallyallowedinacademiccircles,anddistances
himselffromthosethatclaimithascollapsedentirelywithallitsplausiblevariants(a
stance for which he was actually rebuked by Norman Cohn at one point); such an
unyieldingpositionleviedagainstMurray'sworkisbunk,pureandsimple,formorewell
groundedauthoritieshaveshownadisdaintowardstheseextremistpositions.Hence,itis
worthbearinginmindwhathistorianPeterKingsleyonce(wisely)said,"Academically,
doubtisavirtue.Itiswisetobecautious,virtuoustoallowfordifferentpointsofview.
Theproblemariseswhenthis attitudehardens:thendoubtingbecomes acertaintyin
itself,andweforgettheimportanceofdoubtingourdoubt."(Ah,howsoonweforgetthe
contributionsofourpredecessors,eh?)
As a result, another quibble is that Russell generally endorses, without
qualification,theruthlessworkofNormanCohn,whohasbeenthoroughlydebunked.
Hisoftencited(obsolete)textisusuallyreferredtoasthatwhichhas"closedthedoor"on
402 PopeJohnPaulII(1991).CentesimusAnnus.
403 AccordingtoProf.GinzburgintheEnglishprefacetohisimportantstudy,I
Benandanti(1966).
404 LaMonte,Willow(2000).MaxDash:TheMatrixSocieties,EarlyOriginsofthe
WitchPersecutions,theSuppressedHistoriesArchive,andWorldwideGoddess
Veneration,Goddessing:AnInternationalJournalofGoddessExpression
(Winter/Spring,20045),issue#19,pp.1420.MaxDashisaHarvardeducated
freelancescholarwhoattainedafullscholarshiptothisIvyLeagueUniversitywhereshe
studiedhistory,linguistics,andanthropology,etc.But,shesubsequentlyleftafter
experiencingtheoppressiveandtyrannicalacademicatmospherethatwouldnotallow
anyconflictingtheoriesandevidencetobreakthecognitivesurfacenorappearwithin
personalresearchprojectsifonevaluedtheirgrades!

the debate surrounding the Murray thesis.405 But, is this an accurate appraisal of his
polemic?ThelateProf.Cohn,forwhatit'sworth,wasextremistandunprofessionalinhis
mendaciouspedantry(albeitIusethelattertermloosely,becauseheplayedfastand
loosewithpreceptsofacademicprotocol).Inhispolemic,Europe'sInnerDemons:The
Demonization of Chrstians in Medieval Christendom (University of Chicago Press,
1974),ithasbeenproven406 thatCohnpresenteddemonstrablyfalsestatementsabout
Margaret Murray by simply comparing his allegations alongside what she actually
wrote407(onewouldreasonablyassumethatascholar,clearlyaspassionateashe,should
havebeenawareofthedifferentialsourcematerialdocumentedin TheWitchCultin
WesternEurope [OxfordUniversityPress,1921]and TheGodoftheWitches [Oxford
University Press, 1981], rather than seeking to knock down his own straw man
argument!).Hisconclusionsscholarslovetotalkup;however,theevidenceinquestion
usuallygetssweptbeneaththeproverbial"rug".Why?Becauseonemightnotbelieve
them, otherwisethat's why! When this is taken into account with his earlier
mischaracterization of Carlo Ginzburg (a model tragically followed by a slew of
AmericanandBritishscholars,includingRonaldHuttoninhisTriumphoftheMoonand
anarticlepublishedthroughtheBritishjournal,Folklore)408apatternofbehaviorbegins
toemergethatmustnotgounrecognized!Cohnalsoportraysblatantageistandsexist
tacticsdiscriminatoryastheyareasameansthroughwhichhemayentirelydisregard
ascholar,thesis,orotherwiseincontrovertibleevidence.HecomplainsthatMurrayhad
the audacity to write anything on the subject of witchcrafthistory "because she was
nearlysixty".Whilehedismissesentirelyuncoercedtestimonyofseveralwomenwho
freelyadmittedthattheytraveledtotheSabbat(generationsbeforetheInquisitionwas
anywherenearitsapex)ofbeingsenileoldwomen,becausehecouldntbebotheredwith
405 Prof.RonaldHutton,inhisWitches,Druids,andKingArthur,continuestohailitas
aclassiconthesubject,tothisday!
406 FarrelRoberts,Janine.MargaretMurrayandtheDistinguishedProfessorHutton,
TheCauldron(20023):http://www.vaccines.plus.com/Murray%20and%20the
%20Professor.html(LastAccessed:14August,2012).Cohnstextiscontinuouslyhailed
asaclassicinthesubject(consultRonaldHuttonsWitches,Druids,andKingArthur
[Hambledon&London,2003]forthisendorsement).But,astimepasses,itisbecoming
moreandmoreunreliable;infact,itsobsoletebytodaysstandards!Asanexample,
Historian,AnneLlewelynBarstow(1994)reportedthat,despiteCohnsconclusionsto
thecontrary,therewereindividualspersecutedforwitchcraftinOrthodoxareasof
continentalEurope,citingRussianandGermanscholars(Witchcraze:ANewHistoryof
theEuropeanWitchHunts,HarperSanFrancisco:pp.202n.24).
407 Inmypersonalexperience,agreatmanyprofessionalhistoriansaresocynicaland
unyieldingthattheysitatoptheirlaurelsastheyblatantlyrefusetosomuchasquestion
CohnstreatmentofMurray,letaloneperformanyactualfootworkandcomparehis
allegations0withherownwritings.
408 PleaseconsultProf.RonaldHuttonsadhominemvitriol,PaganismandPolemic:
TheDebateOvertheOriginsofModernPaganWitchcraftinFolklore(April,2000:
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2386/is_1_111/ai_62685559(LastAccessed:14
August,2012).

thefactsthatquestionhispersonalarguments.Insodoing,heapparentlytakesapage
directlyfromTheCanonEpiscopithatfullydenouncedsuchaccountsasdelusional.This
relativelyharshcriticismprobablyarisesfromCohn'spostWWIIsympathytowardsthe
Holocaust victims and its survivors (being, himself, of Jewish heritage), which he
believedtobetheresultofirrationalNazifears(forwhichthereisamplesuggestion).
However, at the time of writing his classic study (as Prof. Hutton describes it),
Gardnerianism was greatly expanding and making headlines (Murray even wrote the
IntroductiontoGeraldGardner'smovingtestament, WitchcraftToday [Citadel,2004]),
andCohnsimplysawitasanotherformof"theirrational"(aconceptheviewedasproto
Nazi)orasuperstitiouscult(towhichhewasdeeplyopposedasaRationalist).Indeed,he
probablyvieweditashisdutytoproveitsclaimsanimpossibility,withoutwhich,it
would become (he hoped) impotent and not pose any psychosociological harm to
relevant Westernculture. Nomatter how one slices it, his workconstitutes aclassic
exampleofspecialpleadingandastrawmanargument(asiftheendssomehow
justifythemeans).409
Asanaside,itisworthnotingthatRonaldHuttonruthlesslychastisedMargot
Adler'saccountofNormanCohninhis PaganReligions,dismissingherappraisalas
"fleeting"and"quiteinadequate",despitethefactthatAdler's presentationofCohn's
main thesis and characterizations went well over three pages in length, alongside
numerouscontendingtheoremscentereduponthe"GreatWitchHunt".GivenHutton's
ratherpettydismissal,onemustwonderwhyAlderdidnotdefendherpositionagainst
Huttonwhenthenew(andpresent)editionofDrawingDowntheMoonwasreleasedin
2006?Rather,sheseemedtobowandscrapeateverymentionofProf.Huttonthroughout
thisrelativeupdate(ofcourse,thisishowitappearedtomewhenIreadherbook).
However,itisimportanttopointoutthatMr.RusselldivergesfromHuttonon
somerelativelykeyissues.Forexample,whileRussell(inthepresentwork,andhis
earliermonographTheDevil:PerceptionsofEvilfromAntiquitytoPrimitiveChristianity
[CornellUniversityPress,1977])ferventlyacknowledgesthatthemedievaliconography
oftheDevildirectlystemsfromknownimages ofPagangods,suchasPan.Ronald
Hutton,ontheotherhand(inTriumphoftheMoon),rejectssuchassertionsasrubbish
forwhichthereisno"evidence"(afirmthesishewouldlikeustobelieve),orotherwise
noacademicliteratureonthetopichasbeensufficientlypublished(thoughhedoesnot
seemtociteRussellasanimmediateantithesistohissweepinggeneralizationwhenit
doesn'tseemtosuithispreferredagenda).IfonehasonlyreadHutton'stextsonany
givensubject,ofcoursehewouldpresentanironcladargument;butitmustbetakeninto
considerationthatthereisarelativecorpusofacademiathatdoesandshoulddisagree
withhis(often"narrowlyinformed")assumptions.
Isay"narrowlyinformed",notasatermofabuse,butasapointoffact.Inaresponse
HuttonwrotetoAsphodelP.Long'sanalysisofhistextThePaganReligions ofthe
AncientBritishIsles(consultfootnote#12),heacknowledgedthathedidn'tknowenough
aboutthesubjectbeforehewrotehisinfamousbookandhasbeenyearningtorewriteit
409 Thisistenderedasanunacceptablepolemicwhereoneinventsacounterargument
bymisrepresentingotherscholarsoridealsfortheexpresspurposeofattackingan
alternativethesis.

forseveralyears;butthepublisherwillnottenderitoutofprintuntilwe(Pagans)
cease purchasing it! However, it has recently been brought to my attention by an
Alexandrian High Priest from New Zealand (upon checking Hutton's sources), that
Ronaldhasbeenmendaciouslymischaracterizingscholarsthroughouthispresentationof
The Triumph of the Moonit turns out that many of those scholars (at least those
publishedinlanguagesinwhichmyNewZealandinformantisfluent)thatHuttonclaims
agreewithhim(particularlyinthattherewasneveranywhiffofPagansurvivalism),in
reality,staunchlydisagreewithhim(orarenotnearlysoextremistashe),anddirectly
presentevidencetothecontrary.27So,onemustwonder,ofcourse,whyhehasnotbeen
censured for this; or at least why scholars familiar with these cited works have not
floodedpeerreviewedJournalsandstatedthathehasnotbeenhonestwithhisreaders?
Perhaps it was because Paganism was simply not (yet) considered intellectually, or
academically, respectable at the time in which The Triumph of the Moon was first
published.Bethatasitmay,Ronald'sviewsaretoberegardedasextremeandatypical
whencomparedtothewiderbreadthofscholarshipwrittenonthesubjectofPaganism
andwitchcraft.Furthermore,it'sashamethatmostmodernreadersdonotknowwhat
Prof.MortonSmithknew(howliberatingitwould,otherwise,be),that"...manyscholars
rejectonprincipleallconjectureexcepttheirown"[emphasismine].
Asanewedition(evenlavishlyillustratedwithreprintsandbrilliantphotographs!),I
personallyfoundittobeaninadequateupdate,albeitevenhanded;itwaslackingin
current revelations and leading researchessentially it was a drastically missed
opportunitytopresentanupdatedhistoriographyconcernedwiththepresentrevelations
regardingthehistoryofGardnerianismandmedievalwitchcraftbeliefs.
27Thevastmajorityofthemconcludethattherewas,infact,Pagansurvivalsthroughout
EuropeandtheBritishIslesregardlessofitssuperficialChristianization.Moreover,afar
moreforcefulargumentcanbeproposedwhenIndoEuropeanStudiesareanalogously
broughttobearontheextensivefolktraditionsthatstillcolortheIslesandContinental
Europe[consult:MLWestsformidablestudyIndoEuropeanPoetryandMyth(Oxford
UniversityPress,2007)].OnebriefexampleconsistsofachiefdiscrepancywhenProf.
Hutton, compared with Keith Thomas primary consenting source, refuses to
acknowledgetheexistenceofanyevidencepertainingtotheworshipofthegodsofthe
planetsduringtheMiddleAges[cf.KeithThomasReligionandtheDeclineofMagic:
Studies in Popular Belief in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England (Oxford
UniversityPress,1971)].
Indeed,thistextbringstomindawellknownquotebyUptonSinclair(asdoallglib
"professional"Historians,forthatmatter,wholackthecouragetoseetheforestforthe
treesintheirzealousdenial):"Itisdifficulttogetamantounderstandsomethingwhen
his salary depends upon his not understanding it." Sadly, and to reiterate, there is a
doublestandard enshrined within academia with which I am phenomenally
uncomfortable(forobviousreasons)!Bethatasitmay,thisbookstillremainsatext
everyWitchoughttopossesonhisorherpersonallibraryshelf(evenifyouhavecome
toyourownconclusionsbaseduponrecentevidenceandresearch).However,asIplow
mywaythroughthistext,Icontinuetofindmoretoloveandrecommendwithinit,such
ashisfascinatingpresentationregardingtheetymologyoftheword"witch"itbears

distinctmagicoreligiousdenotations,despitethealternativepleasofcertainscholars,as
well as Pagans! Or the truly ubiquitous nature of the diabolical witchfigure belief
throughoutantiquityscholarscanapparentlyreachnofirmconclusionsabouthowto
bestquantifythesereoccurringleitmotivs.28Unfortunately,regardlessthatarespective
textwiselydenotesitselfas"AHistory..."layreadersandPagansalike,somehow,seem
tointuitivelyrespondasthoughitactuallyreads"TheHistory"(assumingthedefinitive
article),simplybecauseitwaswrittenbysomeonewithaPh.D.agrievousmistake!I
hope,oneday,toseeitremedied;butuntilthen,Imustbecontenttoexpresstheleanings
ofanotheracademicconsensusofsurpassingweight.
Moreover,thisbookmayultimatelyprovetobeavaluablesteppingstoneinthecurrent
debatebetweendifferentialTraditionsofWitches,especiallybetweenthoseWitchesthat
tendtobemoan,notallWitchesarePagan!Theymayfinditquiteliberatingtonote
Prof.RussellsfunctionaldistinctionbetweenthereligiousandnonreligiousWitch(or
magicalpractitioner).Thelatterhebrilliantlydifferentiatesfromtheformerbydenoting
thisfigure(inanthropologicalterms)asaSorcererorSorceress!29Ijusthopethat
suchindividualsdonotattempttoinvokeorbossaroundthegodswhenperforming
their seemingly atheistcentered magic, regarding them as littlemore than a mere
correspondence!NotonlywouldmanyWitches(includingmyself)tenderitblatantly
offensive, but I wouldnt wish to be in their shoes for anything in this world! For
example,tomesaboundwithlovespellsgoneawry;ifoneweretoinvokeAphroditein
suchaspellasamerecorrespondence(eveniftheydontbelieveinHer),Shemight
ensurethattheoffendingWitchwouldnevergetlaidagain!
28 Though, based upon the European data it may have arisen, in part, from early
shamanicfertilitybattles!
29ThistermcomestousfromtheVulgarLatinnoun*sortiarius,whichmeansonewho
influencesfateorfortune,andfromtheLatinnounsors,lot,fate,orfortune.Itwas
establishedinitsmodernformbytheearlyfourteenthcentury.