Appendix N: Curatorial Care of Wooden Objects
Appendix N: Curatorial Care of Wooden Objects
Appendix N: Curatorial Care of Wooden Objects
Page
A. Overview............................................................................................................................................N:1
What is covered in this appendix?......................................................................................................N:1
What types of wooden objects are found in museum collections?.....................................................N:1
How much care do wooden objects require? .....................................................................................N:1
Should I provide on-site care myself or contact a conservator? ........................................................N:1
B. The Nature of Wood .........................................................................................................................N:2
What is the structure of a tree? ..........................................................................................................N:2
What are the three planes common to trees and lumber? .................................................................N:2
What effect does water have on wood? .............................................................................................N:3
Do all types of wood react in the same way? .....................................................................................N:4
Where is this difference in dimensional change evident in museum objects? ...................................N:4
C. Agents of Deterioration....................................................................................................................N:4
Whats involved in physical deterioration? .........................................................................................N:5
How do changes in relative humidity cause physical deterioration? ..................................................N:5
What effect does weathering have on wooden objects? ....................................................................N:6
What types of deterioration are attributed to human abuse? .............................................................N:6
What are the agents of chemical deterioration?.................................................................................N:7
What are the biological agents of deterioration? ................................................................................N:7
D. The Nature of Furniture....................................................................................................................N:9
What are the common types of joinery? .............................................................................................N:9
What should I know about metal fasteners? ......................................................................................N:10
What types of adhesives are used in creating wooden furniture and other objects?.........................N:11
What is veneer and what are the problems associated with it? .........................................................N:11
Why are finishes applied to furniture and wooden objects?...............................................................N:12
What types of finishes are used? .......................................................................................................N:12
What is patina? ...................................................................................................................................N:13
What happens to finishes as they age? .............................................................................................N:14
What should I know about the hardware on wooden furniture? .........................................................N:14
What potential sources of damage should I look for in upholstered furniture? ..................................N:14
Should I ever replace the upholstery?................................................................................................N:15
E. Preventive Conservation: Controlling the Environment .............................................................N:15
What elements of the environment should be controlled? .................................................................N:15
What is the ideal relative humidity for furniture and other wooden objects ........................................N:15
Why is temperature important? ..........................................................................................................N:16
What effect does light have on wooden objects? ...............................................................................N:16
How can I control ambient air quality? ...............................................................................................N:16
F. Preservation Through Good Housekeeping Practices.................................................................N:17
What housekeeping practices should I follow? ..................................................................................N:17
What are the best ways to remove dust? ...........................................................................................N:17
Do furniture and wooden objects require more than thorough dusting? ............................................N:18
Should furniture be waxed?................................................................................................................N:18
What kind of wax should I use?..........................................................................................................N:18
What precautions should I take when waxing furniture? ....................................................................N:19
How often should I apply wax?...........................................................................................................N:19
What is the recommended method of applying wax?.........................................................................N:19
What commercial brands of wax can I use?.......................................................................................N:20
How do I care for the hardware on wooden furniture? .......................................................................N:20
J. Selected Bibliography......................................................................................................................N:28
List of Figures
Figure N.1. The Three Principal Planes or Surfaces of a Typical Block of Wood:
Tangential, Radial, and Cross Section.........................................................................................N:3
Figure N.2. Graph illustrating the Relationship Between Relative Humidity
and Equilibrium Moisture Content of Wood .................................................................................N:4
Figure N.3. Characteristic Shrinkage and Distortion of Wood...........................................................N:6
Figure N.4. Typical Mortise and Tenon Joint.....................................................................................N:10
Figure N.5. Typical Dovetail Joint......................................................................................................N:10
Figure N.6. Common Veneer Applications ........................................................................................N:12
Figure N.7. Proper Techniques for Moving Furniture ........................................................................N:22
musical instruments
rifles
Both the nature of individual objects and how they are exhibited dictate
how much and what kind of care is needed. Wooden objects are found
under a wide range of exhibit and storage conditions.
This appendix includes a discussion of how you can assess the condition of
wooden objects and when to seek the advice of a conservator.
N:1
cross section
radial section
tangential section
N:2
There is a very strong molecular attraction between water and the cellulose
in wood (called hygroscopicity). In freshly cut wood, water is found in both
vessel cavities and cell walls. As the wood dries, the water in the cavities
evaporates, but as long as the bound water remains in the walls, the wood
will stay at the fiber saturation point and will not shrink. The moisture
content at saturation is about 25%. When below this point, the wood will
respond to changes in ambient relative humidity. Air-dried wood will reach
a moisture content of 10%-12%, while kiln-dried wood will reach a
moisture content of about 7%. This kiln-dried wood or the objects
fashioned from it will absorb water vapor if placed in an environment with
high relative humidity.
Wood will eventually arrive at equilibrium with its environment, neither
absorbing moisture (swelling) nor giving off moisture (shrinking), as long
as the RH remains constant. See Figure N.2 for a graph that illustrates the
relationship between relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content in
wood. This graph can help you calculate the amount of contraction or
expansion that may occur in wooden objects.
When moisture is absorbed and released, the cell walls expand and contract.
The cell length, however, remains nearly unchanged. Therefore,
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dimensional change in wood is not uniform in all planes (see Figure N.1).
While movement along the longitudinal plane (the long axis of the tree) is
negligible (only about .1%), movement across this plane is significant.
Along the tangential plane, dimensional change is the greatest, averaging
about 8%. Along the radial plane, dimensional change averages about 4%.
The rim of a turned bowl over time will move out of round, becoming
slightly oval in shape because of the difference between tangential and
radial shrinkage. For the same reason, turned feet become oval, and square
legs take on a diamond shape on many pieces of furniture. Rungs and
stretchers may become loose in chair legs because of the differential in
shrinkage along and across the grain. Veneered surfaces may split or
buckle because the grain orientation of the veneer is different from that of
the underlying wood.
C. Agents of Deterioration
Wood decays both in nature and in museums as a result of:
N:4
physical deterioration
chemical deterioration
biological deterioration
1. Whats involved in
physical deterioration?
2. How do changes in
relative humidity cause
physical deterioration?
weathering
human abuse
Radial cracking almost always occurs in logs that are left to dry. A
pie-shaped crack will open from pith to bark edge to relieve the stress
caused by the differential in shrinkage between the radial and tangential
planes. Wood used in making objects that require a wide cross section,
such as large bowls and three-dimensional sculpture, must be dried
very slowly and carefully. Even with this precaution, the objects will
always be prone to radial cracking.
N:5
1.
2.
3.
Cupping
End grain checking
Diamonding
Wooden objects housed outdoors are subject to physical erosion from the
action of rain and wind-driven particulates, though that erosion generally
does not exceed inch of unprotected wood surface per 100 years. The
weathering process also includes photochemical degradation. The wood
surface generally takes on a silver-gray color and a striated texture as the
softer earlywood wears away and the harder latewood is exposed.
Ultraviolet light breaks down the lignin in the cell walls, which is then
washed away by the rain. The silver-gray surface, which is only a few
millimeters thick, is actually more resistant to biological attack than nonweathered surfaces.
Many wooden objects now in indoor museum collections spent their useful
life outdoors. As long as the objects are free of fungal and insect damage,
the weathered condition can be considered stable and the appearance should
be preserved as part of the historical evidence.
4. What types of
deterioration are attributed
to human abuse?
N:6
Salts can also result in defibration of the wood tissue, but exposure to
salt is less common. It may be seen in wooden objects used in food
preparation and in objects exposed to a maritime environment.
Fire is the most dramatic and by far the most damaging form of
chemical deterioration. Wood is a readily flammable material.
Mold fungi live principally on the surface of wood and discolor it.
However, they dont consume cellulose and therefore dont
weaken the wood.
Stain fungi invade the cell structure of sapwood and live on stored
carbohydrates.
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wood to lose color and crack along the grain. Decay fungi,
consequently, cause abnormal shrinkage of wood tissue.
Fungal spores are found in virtually every environment. In order to
germinate, however, they require air, heat, moisture, and nutrients. By
controlling these conditions you can prevent fungal growth on wooden
objects in your collection. Ideally, relative humidity should be kept
between 45% and 55%. RH must never exceed 65%.
Temperatures high or low enough to effectively stop fungal growth are
impractical in a museum. However, maintaining a temperature of 68
F or below will retard the growth of mold. Decay fungi are problems
only when the moisture content is at or above the fiber saturation point.
The wooden object would have to be in contact with water to reach a
moisture content over 30%. See Conserve O Gram 3/4, Mold and
Mildew: Prevention of Microorganism Growth in Museum Collections,
and Chapter 4: Museum Collections Environment.
N:8
Carpenter ants do not eat wood, but excavate large chambers for
their colony.
Carpenter bees bore large chambers and use them for their eggs,
but do not actually consume the wood.
Rodents damage wood by their gnawing to get food and salts from the
surface of wood or to get through to the food stored within. Museum
furniture, such as pie safes and jelly cupboards, may have large holes
through their backboards. Wooden food vessels that may contain food
remnants on the surface or in the pores are vulnerable to rodent
damage. Removing the food, however, also removes important
evidence of historical or cultural use.
The mortise and tenon joint is one of the most common and earliest
joints used in furniture construction. The mortise is a hole chiseled into
a piece of wood, while the tenon is the projection on the end of another
piece of wood that fits into the mortise. Because these two pieces of
wood are at cross grain to one another, different degrees of expansion
and contraction can cause problems. The tenon should be slightly
smaller than the mortise to prevent the mortise from splitting. These
joints are typically held together with glue, though in country pieces, it
was common to drive square pegs into round holes drilled through the
joint. See Figure N.4 for an illustration of a typical mortise and tenon
joint.
Frame and panel construction prevents the splitting that often results
when wide boards are constrained at their edges. In this technique the
frame is made from relatively narrow boards joined at the corners with
mortise and tenon. The inner edge of the frame is grooved to hold the
edges of a wide panel, which is free floating and therefore able to
expand and contract freely with changing relative humidity.
N:9
N:10
Protein-based glues
Animal products are the primary ingredients in protein-based glues.
Historically, the two most commonly used varieties were hide glue and
fish glue. These were heated to a gel before use. The glue set as it
cooled and the water content evaporated. Because this type of glue is
readily resoluble and has a long setting time, it is often used in the
conservation treatment of furniture and other wood objects.
Though strong in a proper environment, protein-based glues are watersoluble and therefore fail in high relative humidity. At the other
extreme, very low relative humidity, the glue will dry and crack
causing the joint to fail. Casein glue, made from milk curds, is
occasionally found in furniture and wood objects. It is more resistant to
the effects of moisture than the other protein glues. Another
disadvantage of these substances is the attraction they hold for insects.
Vegetable glue
Vegetable glues, such as starch paste, though seldom used for gluing
wood joints, can be found adhering paper labels or paper coverings to
wooden surfaces. Other types of vegetable glues, like gums and resins
produced by trees, are commonly found on ethnographic wooden
objects, but not in Western furniture. Like hide and fish glues,
vegetable glues are sensitive to changes in relative humidity and are
susceptible to biodeterioration.
Synthetic resins
Synthetic resin adhesives have become increasingly common since the
1940s. They harden either through the evaporation of a solvent, like
water, or a chemical reaction between a hardener and a resin. Many
post World War II objects in museum collections are constructed with
these adhesives. Most synthetic resins form a very strong bond, are
durable, and are relatively insensitive to environmental conditions.
These qualities become disadvantages when objects need conservation
treatment for it is nearly impossible to separate these joints without
causing damage to the wood surface.
Veneer is a thin layer of wood glued to a solid base material for decorative
purposes. It ranges in thickness from 1/32" to 1/8". Older veneers were
sawn by hand and are thicker than contemporary ones and often irregular.
They were often attached with hide or fish glues. Expensive woods (for
example, rosewood and mahogany) are typically used for veneering. Many
small pieces of veneer are used in marquetry, inlay, and banding to create
intricate patterns and pictures.
Generally the grain of the veneer on tabletops and other large, flat surfaces
lies in the same direction as the grain of the underlying wood. In other
areas the grains may lie perpendicular to each other, or as in marquetry and
inlay, at almost any angle. Fluctuating humidity levels can cause severe
damage as the woods expand and contract along different planes. See
Figure N.6 for common applications of veneer.
N:11
Some areas of veneered furniture are more likely than others to receive
damage. For example, the veneer on drawer rails and the bottom rails of
case furniture, such as chests and sideboards, is very vulnerable. As the
underlying wood shrinks, a lip of veneer forms along the top and bottom
edges. The drawer, as it moves in and out, can easily snag the protruding
veneer and tear it off. Dust cloths can catch on loose veneer and pull off
pieces. Mops, brooms, and vacuum cleaners often cause irreparable
damage to the lower edge of bottom rails during routine housekeeping.
Stains and dyes are often applied to wood to enrich or darken the color.
They penetrate the surface but do not leave a film. Alcohol- and waterbased stains are sensitive to light damage. Oil-based stain is more resilient.
Transparent or pigmented finishes are applied to wood for more than one
reason. They are used aesthetically to bring out the color and grain pattern.
In other cases the finish may be strictly utilitarian. They preserve the wood
by protecting it from spills and light damage and by slowing the transfer of
water vapor from the environment.
Among the most common finishes found on museum pieces are varnish, oil,
shellac, wax, paint, and gilt.
Liquid finishes, including varnishes, oils, and shellacs, are divided into
three broad categories: resins, polymers, and paints.
N:12
th
particularly popular in the 19th and early part of the 20th centuries.
Resins are susceptible to damage from water and alcohol.
Waxes are softer and more plastic than other finishes and are readily
soluble in most organic solvents. There are few, if any, examples of
objects with original wax finishes in park museum collections. Do not
clean a wax finish as you would a hard finish. Consult a conservator
for advice.
7. What is patina?
N:13
The aging qualities of finishes vary. Oriental lacquer, for example, is very
sensitive to moisture and light damage. Shellac, on the other hand, is
relatively resistant to light damage because it allows the light to pass
through and consequently harm the stain and wood beneath.
All finishes are damaged to some extent by exposure to high light levels
because light accelerates oxidation. Oxidation prevents the finish from
expanding and contracting freely with the wood beneath. Minute cracks,
called crazing or alligatoring, may result. Some light-damaged finishes
are dull and chalky, while other more severely damaged finishes become
unstable, flaking or breaking down into islands that lift at the edges.
Fluctuating relative humidity will worsen the condition of finishes made
unstable by exposure to high levels of light. High humidity can cause white
blooms and mildew damage on even stable finishes.
Drawer pulls, knobs, escutcheons, locks, and other types of hardware are
typically made out of brass on decorative pieces and ferrous metal on
functional pieces. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, will dull and darken
as it oxidizes. Polishing brass can damage both the hardware and the
surrounding wood. Rubbing with abrasive polishes eventually will wear
away the surface of the brass. If the hardware is not removed from the
piece for cleaning, the wood finish around and beneath the hardware will
likely be damaged or even entirely worn away. Hardware that is not
washed after polishing will often show a white or green residue. Green
residue indicates the presence of ammonia, which will continue to react
with the brass.
Pigmented shellac frequently was applied to brass to protect the shine and
give it a more golden tone. This coating, however, is easily scratched.
Occasionally the brass on very decorative pieces was given a thin coating of
gold in a process called fire gilding. This bright, shiny gold layer will
prevent oxidation, but like the shellac is easily damaged. Do not clean firegilded brass until you have consulted a conservator.
N:14
chemical reactions
mechanical abuse
rodents
In addition, look for deterioration from agents that more typically attack
textiles. See Appendix K, Section D, for a comprehensive discussion of
these:
E. Preventive
Conservation:
Controlling the
Environment
1. What elements of the
environment should be
controlled?
relative humidity
temperature
light
The ideal relative humidity level in most areas of the country for wooden
objects is 50% plus or minus 5%. In dry climates, such as the southwest,
35% to 40% is acceptable. These levels are difficult to achieve in very dry
climates because the moisture content in wood drops rapidly below 35%
RH, causing splits. Below 30% the glue may desiccate, joints may loosen,
and finishes will become brittle. Along the coast, 55% to 60% is
acceptable, but above 70% mold and insects may become problems. When
humidity is this high, glue may weaken, finishes may bloom, hardware will
corrode, and wood fibers will swell excessively.
N:15
Light will change the natural color of heartwood, making light woods
darker and dark woods lighter. It will fade stains and embrittle finishes. It
also will fade and embrittle the fabric or leather on upholstered furniture.
The level for unfinished wooden objects should not exceed 300 lux. The
light level for most finished wood objects should not exceed 200 lux.
Objects decorated with fugitive stains and dyes and light sensitive fabrics,
such as silk, are more prone to light damage and the allowable light level
should be even less.
Limit exposure of wooden objects to both natural and artificial light:
N:16
F. Preservation Through
Good Housekeeping
Practices
1. What housekeeping
practices should I follow?
Because dust is not only abrasive but also attracts moisture, it should be
removed periodically to prevent damage as well as to improve the
appearance of objects. Remove it from the environment as completely as
possible.
Use a vacuum to remove the dust from wood surfaces if possible. (See
Conserve O Gram 7/5, Dusting Wooden Objects, and Conserve O
Gram 1/6, Choosing a Vacuum Cleaner for Use in Museum
Collections.) Hold the brush attachment just above the wood surface.
Use a soft bristled brush to sweep the dust out of crevices and
intricately carved areas and toward the vacuum brush. Also vacuum
upholstery. (See Appendix K for guidance.) Keep the vacuum clean.
Use a clean cotton cloth when vacuuming is not an option. Turn the
cloth frequently so that accumulated dust does not scratch the objects
surface. Wash the cloth after every use. You may dampen the cloth
with water or spray it sparingly with a light mineral oil product, such as
Endust, where low relative humidity creates a static charge, causing
the cloth to repel the dust. If using water, be sure to dry the surface
immediately. Do not use scented oil products.
Dont use feather dusters. They scatter the dust rather than collect it.
Broken feathers may scratch the surface.
Dont wipe unstable finishes. This will cause more harm to flaking
and lifting edges or surfaces that have loose veneer or splintered
corners.
N:17
Yes. Periodically these require cleaning to remove oils and grime. Objects
in storage may need to be cleaned only every ten years while those on
exhibit will require cleaning approximately every three years. More
frequent cleaning may be necessary if visitors occasionally touch the pieces.
Use soap like Vulpex, Ivory, and Orvus and water to remove smoke
and soot from stable finishes. Follow manufacturers instructions for
dilution. Never use detergent because it will leave a film on the
surface. Again, test a small inconspicuous area before cleaning the
entire surface. Wring the cloth well before wiping. When finished,
wipe the piece again with a cloth dampened in clear water and then
again with a dry cloth. Do not moisten a damaged, veneered, or
inlayed surface.
Only furniture with a sound finish should be cleaned.
4. Should furniture be
waxed?
Wax helps protect the surface from abrasive dust and handling.
It slows the penetration of water and water vapor, which will cause the
wood to swell.
Note: Always rewax the finished surface after cleaning, since mineral
spirits will dissolve and remove wax.
5. What kind of wax should I
use?
N:18
Dont use paste wax made with strong solvents, such as xylene and
toluene, because they can damage some finishes.
Dont use liquid polishes. They do not offer the same protection as
paste and most contain silicones. Silicone migrates into the finish and
complicates any future conservation treatment.
Apply wax only to stable, clear finishes, such as shellac, varnish, and
modern lacquer. Dont apply paste waxes to unfinished objects because it
will penetrate into the pores. Wax applied to unfinished wood surfaces
cannot be completely removed.
Cover the upholstered parts of the piece so that you dont accidentally get
wax on the material.
Be careful not to get wax into cracks or splits in the wood. Later attempts
to repair the crack with glue would be very difficult.
Clean the object to remove the existing wax. Waxing over dirty
surfaces will produce a grimy buildup and eventually obscure the color
and grain of the wood.
Apply new wax sparingly with a clean, cotton cloth, rubbing first in a
circular motion and then along the grain. Wait at least an hour or two
for the solvent to evaporate and then buff the wax with another clean,
cotton cloth. If the luster is uneven, repeat the procedure. Note: It is
preferable to apply two thin coats rather than a single thick coat.
Dont apply wax when it is hot and humid. The wax may turn white
and cloudy. If this happens, remove the wax with mineral spirits and
rewax when the environment improves.
Refer to Conserve O Gram 7/2, Waxing Furniture and Wooden Objects, for
more guidance.
N:19
There are several good paste waxes on the market. These include Staples,
Butchers, SC Johnson, and Trewax. Renaissance Wax, a good
synthetic with no perfumes or pigments, is frequently used on museum
objects. It is durable and highly water resistant. It is recommended for
smaller wooden objects, however it can be difficult to buff evenly on large,
flat surfaces, such as tabletops.
The best way to care for hardware on museum pieces is to clean and polish
it once and then spray it with a lacquer containing corrosion inhibitors.
This treatment requires specialized equipment and the experience of a
conservator, but applied correctly, the finish should last up to 20 years.
If this conservation treatment is not feasible, the following on-site treatment
is the next best solution.
First, remove the hardware if this can be done without damage. Tag it
to document its original location. If it cannot be removed easily, slip
Mylar sheets behind the hardware, curtting out slits to get by bolds or
bails.
Soak iron hardware for several days in kerosene to remove rust and
dry it thoroughly. Dip badly corroded iron hardware into a metal
preservative called Ospho to prevent further deterioration.
After cleaning, you may polish brass hardware with a mild abrasive,
such as artists whiting, that does not contain ammonia. Do not polish
gilded bronze. Be sure to remove all of the polish residue. Use a
solvent and wash with distilled water.
N:20
When using storage shelves, place large and heavy objects on the
lowest level. (Slotted metal angle storage systems can be adapted for
furniture storage. Be sure to pad the edges.)
Secure doors, drawers, and drop lids or leaves before moving the piece.
Use cotton twill tape rather than twine to avoid scratching the finish.
Never use adhesive backed tape. Remove drawers if weight is an
issue.
Remove marble tops and store them on edge while you move the base.
Large marble tops may fracture from their own weight if held
horizontally and supported only at the ends.
Plan your route and measure doorways, stairways, and aisles along the
way to make sure the object and the carriers will fit. (Measure the
width of a couch or large chair by placing it against a wall and
measuring from the wall out to the middle of the seat rail.)
Use a dolly.
Never slide furniture across the floor. Sliding puts too much stress on
joints and fragile areas and can cause the feet or legs of dressers, tables,
chairs, etc. to break.
N:21
4. Is there a special
technique for removing
mold from wooden
objects?
N:22
Because mold growth is the result of environmental factors, your first step
is to improve the environment.
Lower the relative humidity level and increase the air circulation.
Isolate the object from the rest of the collection and place it where it
will receive more light.
Use a HEPA vacuum to remove the mildew from the object and discard
the bag, or brush it off, capturing the spores on a drop cloth. A dust
mask or respirator may be necessary (see Conserve O Gram 2/13, An
Introduction to Respirator Use in Collections Management). Dispose
of the cloth in a plastic bag.
Evidence of active wood boring beetles, the most common museum insects
to attack wooden objects, is easy to spot.
Examine the surfaces of the piece carefully for flight holesthe holes
made by these insects as they exit. If there are bright holes with
sharp edges, the infestation is probably current.
glue failure
N:23
N:24
Note deterioration that takes place over a longer period of time, for
example, progressive crazing or fading of finishes. Take photographs
and date them for comparison.
Record the length and width of any split you might see. If it is larger
on the next inspection, call a conservator for treatment.
N:25
removable
reasonable in cost
I. Emergency Procedures
for Wooden Objects
1. What is the most common
type of emergency?
N:26
2. What preservation
problems will I encounter
during a flood?
Water damage usually affects the finish and causes wood to swell. If there
is standing water on the floor for a period of time, the water and any salts
that may be dissolved in it will be carried up through the end grain of the
feet and legs of furniture creating tide lines as the salt effloresces. Floods
and water-damaged ceilings may deposit mud, plaster, or gypsum on
furniture surfaces. The high relative humidity levels often result in mold
growth. Upholstery fabrics will stain and probably shrink. Hardware will
rust.
Moving furniture after a flood subjects it to even more potential damage.
Move it only if necessary. Your focus should be on removing the water
instead.
Remove drawers and open doors to dry all surfaces evenly. If drawers
and doors stick because of swelling, do not force them open.
Raise all objects off the floor so that the water will not migrate up the
feet and legs.
Remove the outer fabric, padding, and support from very wet
upholstered furniture. Saturated fabric left in place may split as it dries.
The padding can be dried relatively quickly without damage. Feather
cushions can be dried in a clothes drier at a low temperature.
Gently sponge any mud or plaster from stable wood surfaces with
clean, cool water. Rinse the sponge often. Gritty sponges and dry
cloths will scratch the wood. Wait for a conservators assistance to
remove mud and plaster from fragile and unstable finished surfaces,
such as gold leaf.
N:27
J. Selected Bibliography
Appelbaum, Barbara. Guide to Environmental Protection of Collections. Madison, Conn.: Sound View Press,
1991.
Barclay, Robert, R.L. Eames, and Andrew Todd. Technical Bulletin 8: The Care of Wooden Objects. Ottawa,
Canada: Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI), 1982.
Butler, Joseph. Field Guide to American Antique Furniture. New York: Roundtable Press, 1985.
Calinescu, Irena, Catherine McLean, and Jean Neeman. Low-interventive Upholstery Conservation at LACMA
A Crash Course. WAAC Newsletter 18, no. 3 (September 1996):
<http://palimpsest.Stanford.edu/waac/wn/wn18/wn18-3/wn18-306.html>
Carlisle, Alexander M. Guidelines for the Care of Furniture and Wooden Objects. Williamstown Art
Conservation Center, Collections Care Supplement. Available online at the Regional Alliance for
Preservation Website <http://rap-arcc.org/wmfurn.htm>.
Consadine, Brian. Furniture. In Caring for your Collections. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992.
Gilroy, David, and Ian Godfrey, eds. Conservation and Care of Collections. Perth, Australia: Western Australian
Museum, 1998.
Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village. The Care and Preservation of Furniture and Wooden Objects. In
Caring for Your Artifacts. Available online at <http://www.hfmgv.org/researh/cis/furniture.html>.
Hoadley, R. Bruce. Understanding Wood: A Craftsmans Guide to Wood Technology. Newtown, Conn.: Taunton
Press, 2000.
Ketchum, William C., Jr. Chests, Cupboards, Desks, and Other Pieces. New York: Knopf, 1982.
Levitan, Al. Dusting Wooden Objects. Conserve O Gram 7/5. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1993.
McGiffin, Robert F., Jr. Furniture Care and Conservation. Rev. 3d. ed. Nashville: American Association for State
and Local History, 1992.
Merrit, Jane. Mold and Mildew: Prevention of Microorganism Growth in Museum Collections. Conserve O Gram
3/4. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1993.
Penn, T.Z. Decorative and Protective Finishes 1750-1850. Association of Preservation Technology Bulletin Vol.
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