Donna Haraway Teddy Bear

Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908-1936 Author(s): Donna Haraway Source:
Social Text, No. 11 (Winter, 1984-1985), pp. 20-64 Published by: Duke University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/466593 . Accessed: 10/04/2013 10:34
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inthe Taxidermy TeddyBearPatriarchy: 1908-1936 Garden of Eden,NewYork City,

DONNA HARAWAY
If these people cannotgo to the country, "Natureteaches law and orderand respectforproperty. thenthe Museum mustbringnatureto the city."' "I startedmythoughts on the legendof Romulusand Remus who had been suckled by a wolfand suckledby an ape."2 foundedRome, but in thejungle I had mylittleLord Greystoke
Memorial intheAmeriHallandtheTheodore Roosevelt African I. The Akeley can Museum ofNatural History: Experience In theheart stands Central urban ofNewYorkCity garden designed Park--the or Law to heal the Frederick Olmsted over-wrought decadentcitydweller by across from theTheodore thepark with a prophylactic doseofnature. Immediately of Museum central the American Roosevelt Memorial as the building presides In the of the Garden of Eden. of Natural a monumental History, reproduction the first birth from Man maybeginagain the first Garden,Western journey, the Civil War of nature. An institution founded after within the sanctuary just anddedicated topopular andscientific theAmerican Museum education research, is theplaceto undertake this this ofNatural genesis, regeneration. History Passing the atrium into theAfrican Museum's Roosevelt Memorial Hall,opened through in 1936,the ordinary citizenmayentera privileged space and time:the Age A hope of Mammals in theheartof Africa, of our species.3 scene of theorigin in every oftheorigin, is implicit architectural detail:in immediate vision perhaps thebeginnings, thefuture can be fixed. theend can be achievedand By saving with African Hall offers a uniquecommunion the present can be transcended. themoment oftheinterface nature at itshighest andyetmost vulnerable moment, is offered oftheAge ofMammals with theAge ofMan. Thiscommunion through oftaxidermy. thesenseofvision bythecraft isachieved inCarlAkeley's oftheorigin, thetask ofgenetic Restoration hygiene, thecrudestuffing African Hall by an artthatbeganforhimin the 1880swith of P.T. Barnum's whohad been rundownbya railroad Jumbo, train, elephant, theemblem of theIndustrial Revolution. The end of histaskcame in the1920s, with backmale hisexquisite of theGiantof Karisimbi, thelone silver mounting the site of Akeley's own gravein the diorama gorillathatdominates depicting rain oftheCongo, Zaire.So itcouldinhabit themountainous forest today's Akeley's monument to thepurity of nature, was killedin 1921,thesameyear thisgorilla Fromthe the Museumhostedthe Second International of Eugenics. Congress
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oftheprimate, dead body crafted finer than theliving Akeley something organism; he achieved itstrueend,a newgenesis. ofthecity, Decadence-the threat civiliin thepolitics machine-wasstayed and theartof taxidermy. of eugenics zation, And theMuseum itsscientific of conservation, of preservation, fulfilled purpose ofpermanence. Lifewastransfigured intheprincipal oftheproduction civicarena ofWestern natural of man.4 political theory-the body Behind mounted bronze or photograph liesa profusion animal, every sculpture, in the of objectsand social interactions and other which animals, amongpeople for end can be recomposed to tell a biography themes 20thembracing major United States. But the a that is reticent, century recomposition produces story H.F. Osborn, aboutAfrica. of theAmerican Museum from evenmute, president will that was Africa's This 1908-33, Akeley thought Akeley biographer. essay argue a biographer ofpartofNorth is America's or rather America. Akeley biographer, in African Hall the visitor wouldexperience natureat its moment of thought He did not dreamthathe crafted the meansto experience highest perfection. He of race,sex,and class in New York Citythatreachedto Nairobi. a history of natural His story willbe rehe was telling the unified truth thought history. in white of powerand knowledge and composedto tella tale of thecommerce malesupremacist named capitalism, TeddyBearPatriarchy.5 monopoly fondly To enter theTheodoreRoosevelt thevisitor must Memorial, pass bya James and Earle Fraserequestrian mounted as a father statueof Teddy majestically betweentwo "primitive" Indianand an African, men,an American protector and dressed as "savages." funded bothstanding The facadeof thememorial, by theStateofNewYorkand awarded to theAmerican Museum ofNatural History in 1923,is classical,withfourIonic on the basis of its competitive application columns 54 feethightoppedbystatues of thegreatexplorers Boone,Audubon, of coins,bas-relief seals of theUnitedStatesand Lewis,and Clark.Reminiscent of the Liberty Bell are stamped on the front across the top panels.Inscribed are thewords to Roosevelt TRUTH, KNOWLEDGE,VISION and thededication of America, in energy and fortitude in thefaith as "a greatleaderof theyouth indefense ofourfathers, oftherights ofthepeople,in theloveand conservation virile of nature and of thebestin lifeand in man."Youth,paternal solicitude, and intense to nature are the undefense of democracy, emotional connection mistakeable themes.6 in many The building faces.It is at once a Greektemple, itself visible presents a bank, a scientific research a popular a neoclassical theatre. museum, institution, a space thatsacralizesdemocracy, adOne is entering Protestant Christianity, and commerce. It is impossible notto feelentering this venture, science, building in thispublicmonument willbe thata dramawillbe enactedinside. Experience this is of North for structure one America's intensely personal; spaces joining theduality ofself andcommunity.
Just insidetheportals,the visitor sacred space wheretransformaentersthe first
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tionof consciousness and moralstatewillbegin.'The wallsare inscribed with Roosevelt's wordsunderthe headings theState.The Nature, Youth,Manhood, in Nature:"Thereare no wordsthatcan tellthehidden seekerbegins of spirit thewilderness, thatcan revealitsmystery.... The nation behaves wellifit treats its natural as assetswhichit mustturnover to the nextgeneration resources increased in value."Nature is mystery and resource, and notimpaired a critical unionin thehistory of civilization. The visitor--necessarily a boyin moral state, whataccidents no matter of biology or socialgender havepertained might prior to theexcursion to themuseum- progresses Youth:"I wantto see you through and tender.... hardwork, selfmastery, and ingame boys...and gentle Courage, effort are essential to a successful life."Youthmirrors its pair Nature, telligent across the room.The nextstageis Manhood:"Onlythoseare fitto live who do notfearto die and none are fitto die whohave shrunk from thejoy of life and theduty is itsspiritual of life." Opposite pair,theState:"Aggressive fighting forthe right is thenoblest If I must choose between sporttheworldaffords.... and peace, I choose righteousness." The wallsof the atrium are righteousness fullof murals Roosevelt's theperfect illustration of hiswords. His life, depicting lifeis inscribed in stonein a peculiarly literal to thismuseum. wayappropriate Oneseesthe man inAfrica, inthe hunting big game conducting diplomacy Philippines and China, academichonors, and presiding helping boyandgirlscouts, receiving overthePanamaCanal ("The landdivided, theworld united"). in the atrium also are the striking life-size bronzesculptures Finally, by Carl of theNandispearmen of East Africa on a lionhunt. These African men Akeley killsymbolize and thelionthey for theessenceofthehunt, ofwhat would Akeley laterbe named"manthehunter." In discussing thelionspearers, Akeley always referred to them as men.In every other circumstance he referred to adultmale as boys.Roosevelt, Africans the modern and the "primitive" Nandi sportsman, sharein the spiritual truth of manhood. The noblesculptures express Akeley's hisfriend and hunting in Africa in 1910for greatlove forRoosevelt, companion thekilling ofone oftheelephants which for mounted themuseum. Akeley Akeley saidhe wouldfollow Roosevelt becauseofhis"sincerity andintegrity."8 anywhere In themuseum inthe1980s, onemay T.R.:Champion shopintheatrium purchase the Strenuous a ofthe26th of Life, photographic biography president. Every aspect of the fulfillment of manhoodis depicted even deathis labelled"The within, GreatAdventure." One learnsthatafter hisdefeat in thepresidential campaign of 1912,Roosevelt undertook the exploration of the Amazonian the tributary, Riverof Doubt,under theauspicesof theAmerican Museum of Natural History and theBrazilian It was a perfect Government. The explorers died, trip. nearly the river had neverbeforebeen seen by whitemen,and the greatstream, no was renamed Rio Roosevelt the Brazilian In State. the doubtful, longer by picture which includes a print oftheadventurers their biography, paddling primitive dugout canoe (one assumesbefore starvation and junglefever attenuated the ardorof
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thephotographer in thisdesolateland),theformer of a great industrial president hisreturn to thewilderness: "I had to go. It was mylastchance powerexplains to be a boy."9 The joining of lifeand deathin theseiconsof Roosevelt's and in the journeys architecture ofhisstony memorial announces the central moral truth ofthis museum. This is the effective truth of manhood, the stateconferred who on the visitor thetrial ofthemuseum. The body can be transcended. successfully passesthrough in TheSecondSex; Thisis thelesson Simone so painfully remembered de Beuavoir man is the sex whichriskslifeand in so doing,achieveshis existence. In the it is in the craft of killing that upsidedownworldof TeddyBear Patriarchy, lifeis constructed, not in the accidentof personal, material birth. is Roosevelt the perfect locus geniiand patron saintforthe museum and its taskof clearly ofa miscellaneous, urban with incoherent regeneration publicthreatened genetic with and socialdecadence, threatened theprolific bodiesofthenewimmigrants, with threatened thefailure ofmanhood.'0 The AkeleyAfrican Hall itself is simultaneously a very strange place and an forliterally millions Americans ofNorth overmorethanfive ordinary experience inthis hallspread decades.The types ofdisplay all overthecountry, andeventhe due to thecraftspeople himself trained. In the1980s world, partly Akeley sacrilege is perhaps moreevident thanliminal ofnature. Whatis theexperience experience ofNewYorkstreet-wise kids wired toWalkman radios andpassing theFriday afterbarbytheliondiorama? nooncocktail Thesearethekids whocametothemuseum to see thehigh techNature-Max films. Butsoon,for notphysically wired into those thecommunication of thelate 20thcentury, another timebegins to take system The African Hall wasmeant form. to be a time anditis." The individual machine, is entering Butone is entering theAge of Mammals. alone,each individual soul, as partofno stableprior and in thesubstance of without confidence community one's body,in orderto be received intoa savedcommunity. One begins in the chaos of theindustrial buthereone willcome city, threatening partof a horde, substance. to belong, to find No matter how many peoplecrowdthegreathall, the experience is of individual communion withnature. The sacrament willbe enactedforeach worshipper; hereis no nature constituted from statistical reality and a probability calculus.This is nota random world, populated by late 20thforwhomthe threat of decadenceis a nostalgic of a century cyborgs, memory dimorganic but the moment of where nature and and culture, past, origin private and sacred meet-a in the moment of incarnation encounter of public,profane manandanimal. The Hall is darkened, lit onlyfrom thedisplay cases whichline the sidesof thespaciousroom.In thecenter of theHall is a groupof elephants so lifelike that a moment's suffices for a of their movement, fantasy awakening premonition an angry intrusion. The elephants standlikea chargeat one's personal perhaps
high altar in the nave of a great cathedral. That impressionis strengthened by
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ofthedioramas that linebothsidesoftheMainHall, consciousness one'sgrowing as wellas thesidesof thespaciousgallery above.Lit from thedioramas within, containdetailedand life-like forthe groupsof largeAfrican mammals-game New Yorkhunters thisexperience; whofinanced are calledhabitat wealthy they andare theculmination art.CalledbyAkeley ofthetaxidermist's a "peepgroups hole intothejungle,""2 as a side altar,a stage,an each dioramapresents itself innature, a hearth andfamily. As an altar, for home eachdiorama garden unspoiled tells a part ofsalvation ofthestory eachhasitsspecialemblems history; indicating virtues. thevisitor Above all, inviting to sharein itsrevelation, wach particular a vision. tellsthetruth. Each offers Each is a window ontoknowledge. A diorama is eminently a story, a partof natural The story is toldin history. thepagesofnature, readbythenakedeye.The animals in thehabitat are groups in a photographer's vision and a sculptor's vision. Theyare actorsin a captured ofnature, andtheeyeis thecritical Each diorama organ. morality playon thestage of animals contains a smallgroup in theforeground, in themidst of exactreproofplants, ductions soil.Paintings ofHollywood reminiscent movie insects, rocks, setartcurve inbackofthegroup a great andup totheceiling, creating panoramic vision ofa sceneon theAfrican continent. Each painting is minutely appropriate to theparticular in theforeground. animals the28 dioramas in theHall, Among all the majorgeographic areas of the African continent and mostof the large mammals are represented. theviewer to articulate thecontent ofthestory. Mostgroups Gradually, begins are made up of onlya fewanimals, a largeand vigilant male, usually including a female or two,and one baby.Perhapsthere are someotheranimals-a male adolescent neveran aged or deformed beast.The animals in thegroup maybe, a developmental form thegroup suchthat can represent theessenceofthe series, whole.The principles oforganicism (i.e.,of thelaws speciesas a dynamic, living of organic rulethecomposition.'" Thereis no need forthemultiplication form) ofspecimens becausetheseriesis a truebiography. is an organism, Each animal and thegroupis an organism. is a vitalmoment Each organism in thenarrative ofnatural theflow oftime intotheharmony ofdevelopmental condensing history, form. The groups arepeaceful, Africa." Each composed, "brightest illuminated--in forms a a structured natural of division thewhole function; community group by animalin thewholegroupis nature's truth. The physiological division of labor that has informed thehistory ofbiology is embodied inthese habitat which groups tellof communities and families, and Sexual ordered. peacefully hierarchically offunction-the andsocialsexualdivision oflaborspecialization organic bodily is unobtrusively The African thewhite buffalo, ubiquitous, unquestionable, right. and black rhinos, thelion,thezebra,themountain the the lesser nyala, okapi, koodo all findtheir in the differentiated and of place developmental harmony nature. The racialdivision of labor,thefamilial from native to progress youthful adult white man, wasannounced at thesteps to the itself; leading building Akeley's
TeddyBear PatriarchJy
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Hall included bas-relief of all the"primitive" original planforAfrican sculptures tribes of Africa theother stories of natural wildlifein theHall. complementing inevery inthearticulation hierarchies areembodied ofnatural order Organic organ inthemuseum.14" Butthere itbegins is a curious noteinthestory; todominate as sceneafter scene drawsthe visitor intoitself the eyes of the animalsin the tableaux." through Each diorama has at leastone animalthatcatchesthe viewer's gaze and holds itin communion. is vigilant, The animal to soundan alarmat theintrusion ready ofman,butready also to holdforever thegaze ofmeeting, themoment of truth, theoriginal theanimals encounter. The moment seemsfragile, abouttodisappear, thecommunion to dissolve intothechaos of aboutto break;theHall threatens theAge ofMan. Butitdoes not.The gaze holds, animal healsthose and thewary who willlook. There is no impediment to thisvision.There is no mediation, between theviewer The glassfront ofthediorama forbids andtheanimal. nothing thebody's butthegaze invites hisvisualpenetration. The animalis frozen entry, in a moment of supreme No merely life,and manis transfixed. living organism commerce between manandanimal at the couldaccomplish this act.The specular The animals inthedioramas have interface oftwoevolutionary agesis completed. noses transcended mortal with muscles and holdtheir life, tensed, pose forever, aquiver,veinsin the face and delicateanklesand foldsin the suppleskinall animals. Thisis a No visitor to a merely Africa couldsee these prominent. physical vision madepossible deathand literal re-presentation. Only spiritual onlybytheir ofnature then couldtheessence oftheir life be present. then couldthehygiene Only torepresent, man.Taxidermy fulfills thefatal desire curethesickvision ofcivilized to be whole;itis a politics ofreproduction. Thereis one diorama thatstands out from all theothers, thegorilla group.It Thereis is not simply thatthisgroupis one of the fourlargecorner displays. withthesteaming volcanoin thebackground something specialin the painting above back rising and lake Kivubelow,in thepose of theenigmatic largesilver thegroupin a chestbeating of alarmand an unforgettable gaze in spite gesture in successful artwas particularly ofthehandicap ofglasseyes.Herethepainter's focal a without end around the limitless of thesenseof vision, panorama conveying to. It is where lushgreen This is thescenethatAkeley longedto return garden. It where he first as in on is was at home no other earth. he died,feeling he place After his first visit of a perfect killeda gorilla and felt theenchantment garden. make of this area theBelgian to in 1921, he wasmotivated toconvince government in forthegorilla an absolute thefirst African national sanctuary parkto ensure he sees the five animals these when thefuture. Buttheviewer doesnotknow things of close in a naturalistic at a natural It is plainthathe is looking family setting. that this diorama. The viewer sees the essence of human but that is not relatives, its peaceful and the waterhole group--with the elephants, the lion,the rhino,
thecarnivores, caughtin a moment panoramaof all thegrassland species,including
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outside theFall-all thesehavebeen a kindof preparation, notso muchforthe Giant of This for as the Karisimbi. double man stands ina unique for gorilla group, his fixed face molded forever from the death mask castfrom individuality, personal in hiscorpse a taxidermist the Mountains. Here is Kivu natural man, by immediately known. His imagemaybe purchased on a picture postcard at the desk in the Roosevelt atrium. of the American Museumof [Figure1, publication courtesy Natural History. ] It wouldhavebeen inappropriate to meetthegorilla else buton the anywhere mountain. Frankenstein andhismonster hadMont Blancfor their encounter; Akeley and thegorilla first saw each other on thelushvolcanoes of central Africa. The for them between Victor Frankenstein both, glance proved deadly justas the exchange andhiscreature a dialectic froze eachofthem into ofimmolation. ButFrankenstein tasted thebitter failure ofhisfatherhood inhisownandhiscreature's death; Akeley hiscreature resurrected andhisauthorship inboth thesanctuary ofParcAlbert and theAfrican HalloftheAmerican Museum ofNatural History. Mary Shelley's story be readas a dissection inpatriarchy ofthedeadly at thedawn may logicofbirthing oftheageofbiology; hertaleisa nightmare aboutthecrushing oftheproject failure ofman. Butthetaxidermist labored torestore attheinterface manhood ofthe Ageof Mammals and theAge ofMan. Akeley achieved thefulfillment ofa sportsman in dieda father tothegame, andtheir isnamed TeddyBearPatriarchy--he sepulcher after theAkeley Hall. African him, The gorilla wasthehighest ofAkeley's as artist, life andhunter, scientist, quarry He saidhimself butwhy? hisghostwriter, theinvisible Greene(through Dorothy is sheeverabsent?), "To methegorilla madea much more than interesting quarry or anyother African is stillcomparatively lions,elephants, game,forthegorilla Butso wasthecolobusmonkey or anyofa longlistofanimals. What unknown."''6 didittaketomakean animal One answer issimilarity toman, the qualities "game"? ultimate a worthy Theidealquarry isthe"other," thenatural self. quarry, opponent. Thatisonereason Frankenstein needed tohunt down hiscreature. The obscurity of thegorilla was deepenedand madesacredbythisquestion, thetitle of Akeley's inthe scientific research new ParcAlbert, "Isthe almost a man?" urging chapter gorilla andartist allsought thegorilla for hisrevelation aboutthenature Hunter, scientist, andfuture ofmanhood. andcontrasted hisquest for the with Akeley compared gorilla theFrench-American's, PaulduChaillu, thefirst white mantokill a gorilla, in 1855, itwas"discovered." after Du Chaillu's account oftheencounter stands as eight years theclassicportrayal ofa depraved andvicious beastkilled intheheroic, dangerous encounter. disbelieved du Chaillu andtoldhisownreaders howmany times Akeley du Chaillu's him made rewrite until the beast was fierce Frankenpublishers enough. stein than listen tohisawful sonclaim a gentle andpeace plugged uphisearsrather soul. was certain he would find a noble and beast;so he loving Akeley peaceful his and white women the into to what cameras, hunt, brought guns, garden wondering in distance measured the face of a courage charging alter-ego.
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Like du Chaillu,Akeleyfirst or came upona signof the animal, a footprint, in Akeley's case a handprint, before it. face to face. "I'll neverforget meeting In thatmudhole werethemarks of fourgreatknuckles wherethegorillahad likethis intheworld--there Thereis no other track placedhishandon theground. I lostthefaith is no other so large.....As I lookedat that handin theworld track I had brought I tookmygunfrom the on which to Africa. Instinctively myparty hisgreatest thehandprint, nottheface, toldthat gavehim Akeley gunboy.""Later, In thehandthetraceofkinship thecraftsman. thrill. writ struck largeandterrible Butthen, on thefirst didmeet country, Akeley dayoutfrom campinthegorilla from a gorillaface to face,the creature he had sought fordecades,prevented earlier successby mauling and worldwar.Within millionaires, elephants, stingy minutes ofhisfirst ofthefeatures more ofthefaceofan animal he longed glimpse butthrough than tosee,Akeley hadkilled notinthefaceofa charge, him, anything a denseforest screenwithin which theanimalhid,rushed, and shookbranches. thetaxidermist hisspecimen, for there didnotwantto risk Surely, losing perhaps He knew thePrince ofSweden wasjustthen Africa after wouldbe nomore. leaving be shotfourteen of thegreatapes in thesameregion. The animals must having ofnewhunters; be very difficult. collecting wary might Whatever theexactlogicthat ruled thefirst shot, precisely placedintotheaorta, was arduous theanimal and transporting thetaskthat followed indeed-skinning various remains back to camp.The corpsehad nearly miraculously lodgeditself of a treeabove a deep chasm.As a result thetrunk of Herculean labors, against in Lions, Gorillas, and their whichincludedcastingthe death maskpictured hunt on thesecondday after Akeleywas readyforhis nextgorilla Neighbors,l' for thefirst himself wasgrueling, shooting ape. The pace he wassetting dangerous a manominously fevers. weakened "Butscienceis a jealous mistress by tropical in two The secondquestresulted and takeslittle accountof a man'sfeelings.`"' missed and herfrightened and males,a dead female, babyspearedbytheporters had killedor attempted to killevery had guides.Akeleyand his party ape they inthearea. seensincearriving hisguidesto lead On his third tookhiscameras and ordered day out,Akeley With a baby, toward easier andmale, hecoulddo a group evenifhe female, country. I Nowitwastime tohunt with thecamera.20 before "Almost gotnomore specimens. it I in knew wasturning thecrank ofthecamera ontwo view with a beaugorillas full I do notthink I appreciated tiful them. at thetime thefact I was behind that setting a that had never been done But the mother and before."2' doing thing baby photogenic and theaccompanying smallgroup ofother two had becomeboring after gorillas offilm, hundred feet so Akeley was an action shot That provoked bystanding up. for a bit. "So finally, I hadaboutall I couldexpect that from that feeling interesting I out I to I one that be an immature male. shot and killed and it band, picked thought to As much that it was a female. it turned she was found, out,however, myregret,
sucha splendid ofregret was considerably lessened."22 largespecimenthatthefeeling
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with commented on hissatisfaction thetriumphs ofhisgunand camera Akeley and decidedit was timeto ask therestof theparty in a campbelowto waiting He wasgetting comeup to hunt andfeared he would sicker gorillas. considerably not fulfill his promise to his friends to givethem His wholepurpose in gorilla. women white intogorilla on meeting thiscommitment: taking country depended I was glad to do anything "As a naturalist in preserving interested wildlife, that makekilling animals lessattractive."23 The bestthing to reducethepotency might ofgamefor istodemonstrate that heroic women couldsafely hunting inexperienced do thesamething. Sciencehadalready women couldfollow. penetrated; Two daysofhunting in Herbert a largesilver resulted back, Bradley's shooting to JackDempseyand mounted as the lone male of the one Akeleycompared Karisimbi in African Hall. It was nowpossible to admit another levelof feeling: "As he layat thebase ofthetree, ittookall one'sscientific ardour to keepfrom He wasa magnificent likea murderer. creature with thefaceofan amiable feeling in selfdefense or in defense of his giantwhowoulddo no harm exceptperhaps If he had succeededin his abortedhunt, VictorFrankenstein could family."24 havespoken thoselines. intheAmerican film The photograph Museum archive ofCarlAkeley, Herbert and MaryHastings head and corpseto be Bradley Bradley, up thegorilla holding recorded by the camerais an unforgettable image[Figure 2]. The face of the dead giant lookslikeBosch'sconception of pain,and thelower slack, jaw hangs heldup byAkeley's hand.The body looksbloated andutterly Mary Bradley heavy. at thefacesof themale hunters, herowneyesaverted from the gazes smilingly camera. lookdirectly at thecamera inan unshuttered andHerbert Akeley Bradley a young oftheir act. Two Africans, in a man,perch acceptance boyand a young treeabove thescene,one looking at thecamera, one at thehunting The party. contrast of thissceneof deathwiththediorama thegiantof Karisimbi framing inNewYorkis total;theanimal mounted cameto life this time immortal again, was in felt he the most beautiful on and Akeley spot earth, decidedthescene of thedeathof Bradley's must forthegorilla be painted gorilla groupin African Hall.There wasnomore after another observation ofa multi-male, needtokill day's the last was multi-female with the camera. "So theguns group;instead, capture wereputbehind and thecamerapushedforward and we had theextreme satisthebandofgorillas faction ofseeing over of the the crest disappear opposite ridge metwith nonetheworseforhaving white menthat It was a wonderful morning. finish to a wonderful hunt."25 is complete, Once domination conservation gorilla is urgent. Butperhaps comes too late. preservation Whatfollowed was the return to the UnitedStatesand activeworkforan absolute facilities for scientific research. feared gorilla sanctuary providing Akeley the would be driven toextinction itwasadequately before known toscience.26 gorilla His health buthisspirit at itsheight, weakened livedto return to Kivuto Akeley material and other forthegorilla diorama. 1921 Between prepare paintings group
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he mounted hisprecious that and 1926, extraordinary gorilla specimens, producing hedidreturn toKivuin1926, silver backwhose African Hall.When gazedominates hisgoalthat hediedonNovember hewasso exhausted hisexertions toreach from 17, heandhisparty arrived on theslopesofMt.Mikena, after almost 1926, immediately "inthelandofhisdreams."27 of decadence,of Akeley'swas a literalsciencededicatedto the prevention on thevolcano, was built intheheart oftherainforest biological decay.Hisgrave where wildthings oftheforest haveperpetual "all thefree Jobe Mary sanctuary."28 and rock.The thedigging of an eight footvaultin lava gravel Akeleydirected was crafted on thesite setwoodenbeams.The coffin hole was linedwith closely from steelsalvaged outofsolidnative and linedwith galvanized mahogany heavy to protect them from insect and other theboxesusedto packspecimens damage. ten by A slab of cement was upholstered withcamp blankets. Then the coffin was pouredon top of thegraveand inscribed twelve feetand fiveinchesthick ofthegame.The cement had been with thenameand dateofdeathofthefather sourcein Kibale,Uganda. backsall thewayfrom thenearest carried on porters' thefirst load in thefaceofthedifficult The menapparently ditched trails; heavy An eight footstockade fencewas built weresentback fora secondeffort. they from thesite. thegrave todeter buffalo andelephant around "Dersheid, desecrating fivedaysand fivenights to givehimthebesthome Raddatz,Bill and I worked a simple as I think he wouldhavelikedwith and he was buried we could build, The gravewas inviolate, and thereincarnation serviceand a prayer."29 reading in African Hall. In 1979,"graverobbers, of the natural selfwouldbe immortal off Zairoisepoachers, violated thesiteandcarried [Akeley's] skeleton....," theGun,theCamera, and theHuntforTruth: II. Carl E. Akeley (1864-1926), Biography
"Forthis substitutes a realgorilla."31 untruthful Akeley picture "OfthetwoI wasthesavageandtheaggressor."32
the H.F. Osborn, characterized boss at theAmerican Carl Akeley's Museum, to craft life.Akeley as a sculptor of African and a biographer taxidermist sought histelos.Butit is not a truelife, a uniquelife.The lifeofAfrica becamehislife, ofstories, ofview.Thereis a polyphony to tellhislifefrom a single possible point life the story of Akeley's Each sourcefortelling and theydo not harmonize. the to compare felt mode,butthehistorian compelled speaksin an authoritative most in an cast ironic the and thento mode, versions, register Akeley's story I would an immediate to present avoidedbyhersubject. vision; Akeleywanted I want to show of mediation. like to dissectand make visiblelayerafter layer in times from the safari thereader howtheexperience ofthediorama specific grew
are the conduitsforthe spiritual and places, how the camera and thegun together
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ofmanandnature, howbiography is woven intoandfrom a socialand commerce I want tissue. to show how the animals of achieved dream stunning political Akeley's in African Hall are theproduct of particular the of i.e., techniques technologies, are concretized moments of human meanings. effecting Technologies possibility. theanimation ofliving labor.Trueenough, Marxcalledthem dead labor, needing in theheart buttherelations His grave was built oftherainforest on thevolcano, of enforced or realist of lifeand deathin technologies meaning, representation, muchless are notso straightforward, evenforearly beings, 20th-century organic late20th-century stories about the forourselves, dead craftsman cyborgs, reading craft ofresurrection.33 andtheobsolete LIFE STORIES itis necessary to theavailable that CarlAkeley According plotsinU.S. history, wasbornon a farm inNewYorkStateofpoor,butvigorous old (white) American The moment ofhisbirth neartheendoftheCivil stock. wasalso necessary, 1864, for inNorth War.The time wasan endanda beginning so much America, including of biology of wealth thehistory and thestructure and social class. His boyhood inhardfarm inwhich he learned self-reliance with tools wasspent and skill labor, From thebeginning hepassedlong hours alonewatching andmachines. andhunting of NewYork.By theage of 13,arousedbya borrowed bookon the thewildlife wascommitted to thevocation oftaxidermy. Hisvocation's bibliosubject, Akeley was also ordained by theplot.At thatage (or age 16 in someversions), genesis of he had a business cardprinted up. No Yankee boycouldmisstheconnection life's with Carlscarcely he couldmake believed business, although young purpose at sucha craft. so thathe might his living He tooklessonsin painting, provide mounted. Fromthebeginning forthebirdshe ceaselessly realistic backgrounds lifehad a single of thenature focus:the capturing and representation Akeley's ofAkeley's life all theversions concur. he saw.On this point from hisfather's thecropswerein,at theage of 19,Akeley farm After setoff "to get a widerfieldformyefforts."34 Firsthe triedto get a job witha local whosehobby was taxidermy, butthisman,David and interior decorator painter hislife--Ward's manto an institution which theyoung Bruce,directed changed inRochester, where would four Natural ScienceEstablishment Akeley years spend withconsequences forthe nascentscienceof a friendship and form pregnant inmuseum exhibition. Ward's as itcametobe practiced mounted provided ecology in the forpractically all themuseums collections and natural specimens history in the of biology men in the history nation.Severalimportant and museology thiscurious UnitedStatespassedthrough friend, institution, including Akeley's
WilliamMorton Wheeler. Wheeler completedhis eminentcareer in entymology of thescience of animalecology(whichhe called ethologyat Harvard,a founder in thephilosophy ofscience and ofnature)and a mentor thescience ofthecharacter in Harvard's and conservative social philosophers of societyto thegreatorganicists
31
Wheelerwas thena youngMilwaukee biologicaland medicalestablishment.35 who begantutoring "kultur" therustic naturalist Akeleyfor steepedin German in intoYale's Sheffield School.However, Scientific 11 hoursof taxidermy entry of study thedayand longhours too much;so higher was posteducation proved inorder to follow vocation ofreading nature's laterpermanently thetruer poned, bookdirectly. wassorely at Ward's allowed becausebusiness Akeley disappointed imperatives no roomforimprovement of the craft of taxidermy. He feltanimals were"upin spiteof thelack of enhisown skilland technique holstered." He developed and the lack of money, and got a chanceforpublicrecognition couragement, in Canada was rundownby a locomotive famous whenP.T. Barnum's elephant to in 1885.Barnum thefameand profit from did notwantto forego continuing a so to save babyelephant, we are told), thegiant(whohad died trying display to save the to Canada from Rochester and a companion weredispatched Akeley with situation. Sixbutchers from a nearby town the carcass; rotting rapidly helped from this aboutvery andwhat theyoung learned taxidermy Akeley largemammal in for his innovations laid the foundation later revolutionary producing experience The popularpressfollowed the monumental life-like light, strong, pachyderms. in hisownrailroad was launched and thedayJumbo car intohispostmounting, of witnessed the resurrection. The half the Rochester mortem career, population for irst of trial was the over taxidermist. young bigperiod to Milwaukee In 1885,Wheeler had returned to teachhighschooland soon intheMilwaukee Museum ofNatural Wheeler tookup a curatorship urged History. to his to hisfriend to follow, continue and secure commisAkeley hoping tutoring have from themuseum. Atthis museums didnotgenerally sions for time, specimens a their 1890 were owntaxidermy the around although years period departments, of taxidermic in Britain of flowering and the UnitedStates.Akeley technique andhe andthenaturalist shopon theWheeler family openedhisbusiness property, both hours natural in agreement themselves discussing long history, finding spent and about the of most character nature. The credo aboutmuseum display important of thewholeanimal forthem bothwas theneed to developscientific knowledge in the wholegroupin nature-i.e.,theywere committed Wheeler organicists. of the Milwaukee soon became director and gave Akeleysignificant museum had conceived theidea forhabitat and wished to mount Akeley groups support. animals His completed muskrat thefur-bearing of Wisconsin. a seriesillustrating first mammalian minus the was the backgrounds, probably painted group(1889), habitat group anywhere. in 1894theBritish Museum As a result of a recommendation from Wheeler, in institution. On theway to his trade that invited world-famous Akeley practice Elliot the Museum in met Daniel to London, visited Field Giraud Chicago, Akeley ofpreparing thelargecollection ofspecimens themuseum and acceptedhisoffer
had boughtfromWard's. In 1896, Akeley made his first collectingexpeditionto
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to British a trip that to him.This Africa, Somaliland, openeda wholenewworld of fivesafaris to Africa, was the first each escalating his senseof thepurity of wildlifeand theconviction thecontinent's that themeaning of hislife vanishing was itspreservation intoan art.He was againin transforming taxidermy through his explorer/adventurer/author Africa fortheFieldMuseumin 1905,with wife, inBritish East Africa. On this Delia, to collect elephants Akeley trip escapedwith inhand-to-fang hislifeafter a leopard combat. killing In ChicagoAkeleyspentfour at hisown expensepreparing the yearslargely famous FourSeasonsdeerdioramas scenesinevery detail. justly depicting typical In 1908,at theinvitation H.F. Osborn, of thenewpresident, whowas anxious to hisoffice with thediscovery ofmajornewscientific lawsand departures in mark museum exhibition and publiceducation, Akeleymovedto New York and the in hopeof preparing American Museum ofNatural a majorcollection of History in British East mammals. From1909-11 and Delia collected largeAfrican Akeley a tripmarked and his son Kermit, Africa, by a huntwithTheodoreRoosevelt whowerecollecting for theWashington National wasbrought Museum. The safari to a limping thusdelaying conclusion by Carl's beingmauledby an elephant, of hisdreamof collecting His planfortheAfrican fulfillment Hall took gorillas. hisbehavior He spent WarI as a civilian thereafter. World shapeby1911andruled Assistant to theMechanical andDevicesSection oftheArmy. He is said Engineer inorder tohaverefused a commission tokeephisfreedom tospeakfreely toanyone inthehierarchy. thewar, hismechanical inseveral hadfull During genius scope,resulting patents in hisname.The theme ofAkeley theinventor in hislifestory. recurs constantly inhisroster Included ofinventions, several ofwhich involved business subsequent werea motion a cement of camera, development, picture gun,and several stages newtaxidermic ofmaking manikins togo under methods the processes, particularly animal skins andmethods ofmaking naturalistic highly foliage. With on getting theclose ofwar,Akeley focused all hisenergy forthe backing African Hall. He neededmorethana million dollars. Lecture articles and tours, a book,and endlesspromotion himintotouchwith themajorwealthy brought of thestate, butsufficient financial commitment eludedhim.In 1921, sportsmen half the for Africa left time accomhimself, financing Akeley expense again,this a 5 married their old their and panied by couple, year daughter, governess, Akeley's inAfrica. adultniecewhom to takehunting he hadpromised felt Akeley bringing womenand children to huntgorillas of this was the definitive of theme proof in where the animals were noble defense of their but Africa, families, brightest never ferocious. On thistrip, with he collected five thehelpof wantonly gorillas, theBradleys, onceagainnearly diedfrom to and returned NewYork fevers, jungle determined toachieve for the in conservation the gorillas permanent Belgian Congo. In 1924he married the explorer/adventurer/author MaryL. Jobe,who accomtheAkeley-Eastman-Pomeroy Hall ExAfrican paniedhimon hislastadventure,
33
of theGreatHall. GeorgeEastman, of thatcollectedfor10 dioramas pedition, Eastman Kodakfortunes, the andDanielPomeroy, thebenefactors, accompanied 71 years to collectspecimens for their then taxidermist-hunter Eastman, bequests. forpart with hisownrailroad train hisownphysician and commanded old,went oftheexcursion. En routeto Africa theAkeleys werereceived and war by theconservationist Albert. He was thesonoftheinfamous heroKingofBelgium, LeopoldII, whose to waswrested control oftheCongofor awayandgiven personal rapacious profit he Belgian in 1908. LeopoldII hadfinanced byother European government powers is pictured in hisbiographies of theCongo.Akeley Henry Stanley's explorations in the line of thegreatexplorers from and Livingstone, butalso as the Stanley a newbright manwhowitnessed, Africa. whohad andindeed Albert, helpedbirth on national to Yosemite, confirmed beenled to hisviews plansfor parks bya visit the Parc Albertand gave the Akeleysa commission to preparetopographical with theBelgian Jean ofthearea incooperation naturalist, mapsanddescriptions in the no room for a for Derscheid. Therewas Belgians Europe,so greatpark was to for in the which includeprotection one was established Congo, naturally The who within boundaries. was to thePygmies lived park provide sanctuary park for natural as wellas tofoster scientific study byestablishing permanent primitives, ofcollecting, within After 10months Carland research facilities parkboundaries. Africa. the heart of Jobe set off for the Kivu forest and remaining unspoiled Mary the Theirpurpose but to observe this time wasnotto collect apes,collect gorillas, in Carl died November and obtain for the diorama. plants gorilla Akeley paintings of themost of fever a few after at the site his 1921 1926, encampment, days arriving in the members of the all for him. His wife and other beautiful of Africa spot on "in hand of man can never alter buried him Mt. Mikeno the ground expedition or profane."37 TAXIDERMY: FROM UPHOLSTERY TO EPIPHANY
ofAkeley's stands before him-a result Africa dream."38 "Transplanted
that heneeded Thevision CarlAkeley hadseenwasoneofjungle peace.Itwasthis vision alone for His to this topreserve the world. justified quest embody permanently his hunting, turned it intoa tool of scienceand art,thescalpelthat to himself ofan organic, world. Let us follow theharmony articulate revealed briefly Akeley in to grasp morefully the his to order contributions technical taxidermy through thelife of ofAfrica, stories he needed totellaboutthebiography nature, i.e., history inprint times oflife. andothers havesummarized thenatural Akeley many history an art of animals into how his laborstransformed from the stuffing taxidermy
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so thisrecapitulation willselectonlythosethemes truth, capable of embodying essential to mystory.39 It is a simple tale:Taxidermy was madeintotheservant ofthe"real."Akeley's andhisachievement, wastheproduction ofanorganized for craft vocation, eliciting of nature, unambiguous experience organic perfection. Literally, Akeley "typified" made nature trueto type.Taxidermy was aboutthesingle about nature's story, theunblemished becametheartmostsuited to unity, type specimen. Taxidermy the epistemological and aesthetic stanceof realism. The powerof thisstanceis in itsmagical effects: whatis so painfully constructed appearseffortlessly, sponif there one willonlylook.Realism does not found, discovered, taneously simply of view,butappearsas a "peephole intothejungle" where appearto be a point notas thefruit of merit and comesas a gift, peace maybe witnessed. Epiphany artat itsmostdeeply issuesin toil,soiledbythehandof man.Realistic magical thatartistic revelation. This artrepays laborwithtranscendence. Smallwonder inthefounding realism weretwin brothers ofthecivicorder andbiological science ofnature attheAmerican Museum ofNatural Both were suckled bynature, History. as Romulusand Remus.It is also natural thattaxidermy and biology depend of the senses;theyare toolsforthe fundamentally upon visionin a hierarchy ofform. construction, discovery inMilwaukee for hisworking from 1886 to 1894 werecrucial Akeley's years eight of that himwelltherestof his life.The culmination out techniques thatserved inthefirst wasa headofa maleVirginia deerhe entered Show, Sportsman's period in which national heldin NewYorkCityin 1895.The judgein that competition, whom was TheodoreRoosevelt, did notmeet entry placedfirst, Akeley Akeley's in Africa in 1906.The head,entitled on safari until befriended each other they a buck"inthefull ofhisvirility as he gavethe "The Challenge," displayed frenzy - thecalltofierce roar oftherutting season defiant combat."4 Jungle peacewasnot a passive norone unmarked affair, bygender. in ofexperimentation to theproduction The headwasdonein a period leading inthefour Incrafting offour habitat ofdeerdisplayed seasons. those Chicago groups over four worked outhismanikin method, plaster groups years, Akeley clay modeling, He andearly organized casting, vegetation molding techniques, production system. to turn outthethousands ofindividual hired women andmenworkers bythehour inthescenes. leavesneeded toclothe thetrees were canvases Background painted by IronMountains where Charles AbelCorwin, from studies doneintheMichigan the hisvegetation animals werecollected. butgaverights for Akeley patented process, inChicago;he didnotpatent hisinnovaitsusefree ofcharge totheFieldMuseum manikins from tive methods ofproducing exact models strong light, papier-mache clay free of his in andplaster but allowed world-wide use casts, techniques. Cooperation a for museum was fundamental value this who did not make taxidermist, development were a significant inventions ofhiseconomic much athiscraft andwhose part money
survival. "Four Seasons" were installedin the Field Museum in 1902.41
35
inhistaxidermic continued tomakeimprovements Akeley throughout technique hislife, andhe taught several other who James workers, Clark, key including Lipsitt at theAmerican in ofArts, and Installation Museum wastheDirector Preparation While after Hall was actually constructed. theyears deathwhenAfrican Akeley's as to imagine worked taxidermy longhoursalone,it wouldbe a mistake Akeley a comto be a solitary art.Taxidermy he helpedto developitspractice requires in the fieldduring of labor,beginning of coordination and division plex system oftheanimals inthepresentation ofa finished diorama thehunting andculminating with A minimum listof workers individual nature. communion allowing solitary, other ononeofAkeley's must include fellow taxidermists, collectors, artists, projects of studios of workin thetaxidermy and "accessory men."42 anatomists, Pictures on theAmerican Museum showmen(males, hides, white) working usually tanning or on plaster casts, elephants) (including largeclaymodelsof sizeablemammals scale modelsof the planned skeleton and wood frames, consulting assembling that etc. Clarkreports sketching, making vegetation, display, doingcarpentry, Hall still when African opened, unfinished, theyears between 1926and 1936 during thebackgrounds about45 men.Painting oftheproject thestaff usually employed final based their and the artists a major artistic wasitself panoramas specialization, entire In the site of the on numerous collection. studies doneat the field, operation where a complex social institution on theorganization of thesafari, rested race, will more The safari be discussed sexandclasscametogether below, fully intensely. 50 workers couldemploy a largeanimal to notethat butnowit is useful skinning of the masks death for several hours. animals, records, moving Photographs, picture all of skins, and sketches treatment initial extensive anatomical measurements, that the to claim not be an workers. It would the field exaggeration occupied of people in a theworkof hundreds of a modern involved diorama production on a worldof and skill the structures social system authority embracing major widescale. ofnature? Howis itpossible a unified Howcan sucha system biography produce ~ African he died?On an after Hall whenit was constructed to Akeley to refer to theruling is connected answer to these the level, simple ideological questions of as nature's an conceived of principle hierarchy, conception organicism, organic of and described "artistic Clark stressed the composition" importance organization. of organic form. of nature based on theprinciples theprocessas a "recreation" of in form the a base of "personal This processrequired ideally experience," are crafts animal's life and death. Technical in the site of the at presence Africa, rooted authoriartistic tobe subordinated idea,itself bytheruling imagined always and must be absorbed must be own "Such in nature's life. felt, things tatively out inturn, and with andthen enthusiasm, assimilated, given bythe understanding in thevery lairof the are very often conceived our groups creator.... Therefore, animals."43 bothare systeare closelyconnected; and organicism The credosof realism
divisionof labor,perceivedas natural of organization matizations bya hierarchical of must be authoredin the Judeo-Christian and therefore productive unity.Unity or therealistic so does theorganism and just as naturehas an Author, myth system,
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of perfection inheredin the meetingof animal and man, the momentof perfect
In this diorama. be imagined theaspects ofmind, theauthor must with system, myth in relation in his to thebodywhich was intent on executes. Akeley lying avoiding was to tellthetruth ofnature. Therewasonlyone wayto achieve work;hiscraft suchtruth-the ruleofmind intheclaimto experience. All thework rooted must bedonebymen whodidtheir and studies on the because collecting spot "[o]therwise, theexhibit is a lie and it wouldbe nothing short of a crime to place it in one of theleading A single ofthecountry."44 educational institutions mind infused collectiveexperience: "Ifan exhibition hallis to approach itsideal,itsplanmust be that of a master whilein actuality it is theproduct of thecorrelation of many mind, minds and hands."45 of workers was an fundamental a school Training absolutely ofAkeley's oftaxidermy; on hissuccess rested thepossibility oftelling part practice thetruth. Butaboveall,this senseoftelling a true rested on the selection of story individual theformation ofgroups oftypical animals, specimens. Whatdoes itmeanto claima diorama tells a unified a biography essential story, to nature? Whatwas themeaning of"typical" forAkeley and hiscontemporaries in thebiological oftheAmerican Museum What ofNatural departments History? are the contents of thesestories and whatmustone do to see thesecontents? To answer thesequestions, we must follow Carl Akeley intothefield and watch him an animal tomount. on select concentration the finding typical Akeley's speciorscenecannot be overemphasized. Buthowcouldhe know what was men, group, orthat sucha state ofbeing existed? Thisproblem hasbeenfundamental in typical, thehistory of biology; one effort at solution in African is embodied Hall. Three hunts illustrate oftypical. Akeley's meanings theconcept ofperfection. includes thenotion The largebullgiraffe inthe First, inAfrican water holegroup Hallwas theobjectofa hunt overmany daysin 1921. Severalanimalswerepassedover because theyweretoo smallor not colored record from late 19th-century hunters beautifully enough. Remembering trophies undermined satisfaction with a modern, smaller taken from thedepleted specimen herds ofvanishing African nature. Whenat lastthebullwas spotted and taken as the result of greatskilland daring, the minute detailsof its preservation and recreation werelovingly described. in1910-11, thehunt for a large bullelephant the central drama Similarly, provided ofthesafari for theentire Ananimal two with tusks wasrejected, years. asymmetrical size. Character, as well as merephysical was despitehis imposing appearance, injudging an animal to be perfect. Cowardice would themost important disqualify andproperly beast.Ideally, thekilling itself hadto be accomlovely proportioned as a sportsmanlike act.Perfection washeightened ifthehunt were a meeting plished ofequals.So there wasa hierarchy ofgameaccording to species:lions, elephants, and giraffes faroutranked wildasses or antelope. The gorilla was thesupreme a almost of perfection in theheartof thegarden definition at the achievement, moment oforigin. in theanimal Perfection inhered butthefullest itself, meanings
37
was thecraft ofremembering vision. thisperfect Realism Taxidermy experience. oftheartofmemory, a rhetorical wasa supreme achievement achievement crucial ofWestern to thefoundations science.46 forthe typical There is one otheressential animalin its perfect exquality finecowsor it must be an adultmale.Akeley describes hunting many pression: and he cared fortheir hidesand otherdetailsof reconstruction with lionesses, all hisskill.But never was it necessary to takeweeksand riskthesuccessof the female. an imageof an animal entire to find theperfect Thereexisted enterprise or theelephant incarnate. Thatparticular toneof which was somehow thegorilla ofphysical couldonlybe heardin themalemode.It was a compound perfection in thefullness of diand spiritual judgedtruthfully by theartist-scientist quality was marked but rectexperience. Perfection measurement, byexactquantitative known from visual communion. evenmorebyvirile vitality bythehunter-scientist was known defined Perfection kind,and kinmutually by natural type, kinship; each other. How didhe hunted fora seriesor a group, notjustforindividuals. ButAkeley ofwholeness, know tostopthehunt? Twogroups thegorilla when givehiscriterion in1921 andtheoriginal offour mounted collected byAkeley group elephants group safari. inhishunt himself after the1910-11 Atonepoint for shot Akeley specimens, male. He was a gorilla, it to be a female, it to be a young but found believing as possible and he believed the becausehe wished to killas fewanimals disturbed onemale.When helater saw natural ofthegorilla more than didnotcontain family he stopped his huntwith a groupmade up of severalmalesand females, relief, from his existing confident thathe could tellthetruth the specimens. Similarly, of Akeley's showsa original groupof fourelephants unmistakably photograph The reproductive status hadtheepistemological andmoral of family. group perfect unit. truth tellers. It wasnature's biographical tobe an artist He gaveuphisearly wanted anda scientist. Akeley planofobtaining from Yale Sheffield ofbecoming a professional a degree Schoolandthen Scientific he and in that artrequired art science taxidermy. Since Instead, combined sculptor. in as as in he also be a he some of his stories bronzes well that dioramas. sculptor, told stories all expressed His criteria hadmany totell, butthey the weresimilar; Akeley vision ofa vanishing, threatened scene.47 In hisdetermination samefundamental to lion as extensive Nandi used models spearmen, Akeley photographs, sculpt "typical" ofAmerican which hewasusing tomake and"selected sure negroes types drawings, a The of had to of ofperfect nature to lead figures."48 variety purposediscovery the of "civilization." of each wild human outside life, beings highest type species including another narrative and Besides tool, perfected sculpture taxidermy, Akeley photoAll of his story-telling on vision. instruments Each tool reliedprimarily graphy. histruth, and heldslightly was capableof telling buteach caught different maniofnatural As a visual for a festations middle art, history. taxidermy occupied Akeley andphotography. In a sense, bothsculpture andphotobetween sculpture ground
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weresubordinate meansto accomplishing thefinal scene.But taxidermic graphy from ofview, another thefuture andsculpture the point photography represented of photography in thecritical past.Let us follow Akeleyintohis practice years ofsculpture, between themanual touch which of suspended produced knowledge oforganicist lifein thefraternal discourses and realist art,and thevirtual biology ofthecamera, hasdominated touch which ourunderstanding ofnature sinceWorld WarII. The 19th themasterpieces ofanimal bronzes century produced inhabiting theworld's museums. so solidand Akeley's early 20th-century taxidermy, seemingly frozen in theincarnation section ofart material, maybe seen as a brief temporal thecameratechnically and science, before couldpervert hissingle dream intothe andabsurdly intimate filmic wenowtakefor Critics reality polymorphous granted.49 accuseAkeley's andtheAmerican Museum's ofbuilding taxidermy expensive policy hallsintheyears thegreat before World WarII ofbeing armature display against ofhaving instone thefuture, locked onehistorical moment's literally wayofseeing, whilecallingthisvisionthe whole."0 But Akeleywas a leadertechnically and intheperfection ofthecamera's wasnotarmed spiritually eye.Taxidermy against thefilmic ofa far butfroze one frame more intense visual communion tobe future, invirtual consummated armathearmature-and images. Akeley helpedproduce ment-that wouldadvanceintothefuture. PHOTOGRAPHY: HUNTINGWITH THE CAMERA
"Guns havemetamorphosed into inthis cameras earnest the because nature safari, comedy, ecology has ceased to be whatit had always been-whatpeopleneededprotection Nownaturefrom. mortal-needs from to be protected we are afraid, we shoot. tamed, endangered, people.When Butwhen weare nostalgic, we takepictures."51
This essayhas repeatedly claimedAkeleyand his peersfeared thedisappearance of theirworld, of theirsocial worldin the new immigrations after1890 and theresulting oftheold imagined dissolution America. hygienic, pre-industrial Civilization of technological and appearedto be a diseasein theform progress the vastaccumulation of wealthin thepractice of monopoly capitalism by the whowere ofthe trustees museum andthe ofAkeley's backers very wealthy sportsmen Hall. The leadersof theAmerican African Museum wereafraid fortheir health; that wasendangered. manhood Theodore Roosevelt knew theprophylaxis is,their forthis malaise:thetrue historical manis thetrue specific sportsman. Anyhuman of and could in the race, class, being,regardless gender, spiritually participate moralstatus of healthy in democracy, manhood evenifonlya few(anglo-saxon, and economically male,heterosexual, robust, comfortable) protestant, physically couldexpress manhood's forms. From about1890 tothe1930s, theMuseum highest
was a vast public education and research programfor producing experience
39
to inducethestateofmanhood. in turn, The Museum, was theideological potent andmaterial of the life. As Jobe realized, "[thetrue product sporting Mary Akeley if loves the as he were the of it."52 believed father that sportsman] game Akeley in theend,thehighest of was with the camera: expression sportsmanship hunting to anytrueconception of sport--the use of skill,daring, "Moreover, according in overcoming and endurance takes twicethe man hunting difficulties--camera The nature thatgun hunting true father of the loves withthe game takes."'3 are in his perfect camera;it takestwicetheman,and the children image.The thanthegun.Bothputa womanto shame-repromorepotent eye is infinitely ductively. in 1896,cameraswerea nearly At the timeof Akeley's first safari collecting uselessencumbrance, of capturing thegoal of thehunt-life. Accordincapable in Africa thefirst notable camerahunters around1902.54 ingto Akeley, appeared wildlifephotoThe early bookswerebasedon still photographs; moving picture beown cameraand did not achieveanything owes muchto Akeley's graphy forethe 1920s.On his 1910-11 safari to east Africa, Akeleyhad the bestavailable equipment and tried to film theNandilionspearing. His failure due to inthe with described led himduring greatemotional intensity, adequatecameras, theAkeleycamera, nextfiveyearsto design which was used extensively bythe the AkeleyCamera WorldWar I. Akeleyformed ArmySignalCorps during todevelop hisinvention, which itscivilian received byfilming christening Company teleMan-o-War win the Kentucky Derby in 1920. The camera'sinnovative theJohn theDempsey-Carpentier battle. Awarded photolenscaught heavyweight in 1926 forhis invention, Price Wetherhill Medal at the Franklin Institute lion spearing, to his satisfaction African Akeleysucceededthatyearin filming on the same safarion whichRochester's of Eastman-Kodak GeorgeEastman, was bothco-sponsor and hunter-collector.55 first Recall thatAkeley's fortunes, Within a few was in 1921in theKivuforest. tasteof hisowncamerain thefield in theexperiences shothisfirst with bothgunand camera, gorillas days,Akeley ofhislife. he sawas theculmination of thegunand cameraruns work. He is a The ambiguity throughout Akeley's from from the Western to lightest transitional Africa, figure imageof darkest in needof motherly nature ofmanly fearto nature nurture. The woman/ worthy oforphaned National scientist/mother Society's apespopularized bythe Geographic in the 1970swas stillhalfa century WithAkeley, and films away.56 magazine itself evenas thelustfortheimageofjunglepeace manhood tested fear, against on thegunlongenough to takethepicture heldthefinger and evenas theintellectualand mythic thesavagebeastin thejunglewas human, grewthat certainty in particular, human. Even at theliteral industrial levelof physical appearance, a machine one familiar with the old of camera the resembled types Akeley "[t]o as as it resembled a he set out to design much said gunquite camera."'7Akeley
a camera "that you can aim...with about the same ease that you can point a
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inWorld WarI He enjoyed theapocryphal ofseven Germans retelling story pistol.""5 in when found themselves to one American France they mistakenly surrendering "Thefundamental the faced difference between byanAkeley. Akeley motion-picture it all enablesone to swing cameraand theothers is a panoramic devicewhich as onewould a swivel thenatural lineofvision."59 much about, following swing gun, in knowing and deadlyinvasiveness Akeleysemi-joked punson thepenetrating of thecamera, one of hisimagemachines "The Gorilla." "'The Gorilla' naming had taken300 feetof film of theanimalthathad neverheretofore been taken I was satisfied-more alive in its nativewildsby anycamera.... satisfied thana inthefeeling."60 manevershould be-but I revelled The taxidermist, of theessential of thegorilla, certain wondered peacefulness how close he shouldlet a charging male get before the camerafor neglecting thegun."I hope thatI shallhave thecourageto allowan apparently charging I hesitate a reasonable distance before to say gorillato come within shooting. I shallfeel a reasonable moment. distance at the present just whatI consider if I can get a photograph at twenty feet.I shouldbe proudof verygratified of himat tenfeet, butI do not mynerveif I wereable to showa photograph I am at themoment a victim ofsuicidal unless expectto do this mania."''Akeley wrote before he had everseena wildgorilla. Whatwastheboundary thesewords of courage;how muchdid nature or man need protecting? Whatif thegorilla nevercharged, Whatif the gorillawerea coward(or a even whenprovoked? in the was threatened in the dramaof natural Who,precisely female)? history inAfrica decadesofmonopoly andAmerica? early capitalism's presence Awareof a disturbing of thecamera, sethimself fakagainst potential Akeley He stuffed Barnum's buthewanted nopart ofthe circus Jumbo, ing. great magnate's of theAmerican in cultivation artform, thehoax.62 Buthoax luxuriated popular In particular, wild life (andanthropological early photography photography). Akeley saw unscrupulous menmanipulate nature to tellthestory of a fierce and savage thiswas thestory which wouldsell in themotion across Africa; picture emporia America. hadalways to lapsefrom artinto from threatened Taxidermy deception, lifeto upholstered deathas a poorsportsman's too was full trophy. Photography ofphilistines whocoulddebasetheentire ofnature the Museum's work, undertaking intheearly term for work The Museum itseducational decadesofthe20th century. wasfor that trustees (thepoint publicentertainment keptitsPresbyterian resisting in the 1880s that fine for the Sundayopening day's despite potential educating newCatholic who worked a six but entertainment had dayweek); immigrants, only valueifitcommunicated thetruth. an association Therefore, Akeleyencouraged between theAmerican Museum and thewildlife Martin and Osa photographers, whoseemedwilling and able to produce motion Johnson, popular pictures telling the of inhis1923 tothe claimed American Mustory jungle peace.Johnson prospectus "Thecamera it cannot bedeceived... enormous scientific value."' seum, has] Itherefore,
with Entertainment was complexly interwoven and education. science,art,hunting,
TeddyBear Patriarchv,
41
Barnum's tested thecleverness, ina thescientific oftheobserver acumen, humbug where each citizen couldfind out thenakedness oftheemperor and the republic This democracy of reasonwas alwaysa bit dangerous. shamof his rationality. ofactiveparticipation in theeyeofsciencein America which Thereis a tradition intopopular Natural makesthestories of nature politics. alwaysreadyto erupt and been-a meansformillenial can be-and has sometimes history expectation ofa self-made manwho action. himself is an excellent disorderly Akeley example oftheindependent man's honest the madeuseofthemythic resources vision, appeal of one's own eyes.He saw theGiantof Karisimbi. thetestimony to experience, of The camera, hasbeencrucial to thecrafting an eminently democratic machine, inbiology; theprofessional itscontrol hasalways eluded andthemoralist, stories but theofficial scientist. But in Martin Johnson, Akeley hopedhe had themanwho for thesocialuplift entertainment wouldtamespecular byscience. promised for a twoyear In 1906 Jack London ontheSnark Martin Johnson outwith shipped oftheSouth wasthephotographer's Seas. The Snark Beagle.Itsnamecould voyage whose for carried havebeenbetter chosen theshipthat thetwoadventurers hardly inthe the ofmanhood Tarzan for dilemma booksandfilms recording complemented thelinesthat TheHunting contains LewisCarroll's 20th oftheSnark century. early revelation: Johnson's andLondon's-andAkeley's--Darwinian capture
In one momentI've see whathas hitherto been Enveloped in absolute mystery, extracharge I willgive you at large And without A lesson in NaturalHistory.4
inKansas.In thesame Johnson ranfive motion houses From 1908to 1913 picture in thestillmysterious he and Osa travelled and potent places, periodand after, In life":Melanesia, "native Borneo, Malekula, KenyaColony. Polynesia, filming film of their 1922Martin and Osa sought Carl Akeley's just completed opinion museum's Wild Animals. andthe result wasthe wasdelighted, Akeley Trailing African in safari to fund theJohnsons on a five yearfilm setting up a specialcorporation one on twoshort Africa. The Johnsons' films, including making plansincluded "African Babies.""It willshowelephant babies,lionbabies,zebrababies,giraffe care theplayofwildanimals and thematernal and blackbabies...showing babies, was Thehuman life ofAfrica ofwildlife."'6 andinteresting a feature that isso strange totheAgeofMan.Thatwasits totheAgeofMammals, consigned prior repeatedly fordomination. and of coursetheultimate justification onlyclaimto protection, Herewasa record ofjungle peace. The film ofthesafari. The Johnsons a biganimal as thecapstone feature planned Osborn commented and educational museum laudedboththecommercial values; itbrings the and that aesthetic that the"double ofsuchphotography is,first, message it of naturewithin the reach of millions ethicalinfluence of people...second, todestroy what future theideathat ourgeneration hasno right generations spreads
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Itwasperfect theAkeleythat theJohnson film safari with may enjoy."66 overlapped the The several expedition. Akeleys spent dayshelping Johnsons Eastman-Pomeroy film inTanganyika, on film lionspearing this finally capturing endangered apotheowasconfident that their ofcombining sisofprimitive manhood. Johnson approach be commercially andbeauty without hoaxwould as wellas truth superior, ultimately no limit the it is to can accurate. "[T]here money make....My scientifically past I have ofshowmanship, with thescientific mixed knowledge training, my knowledge mecertain that absorbed andthewonderful lately, photographic equipment...make be maker ever on the as this Feature is to the market, placed Big going biggest money thereis no doubtit willbe the last big Africa Feature made,and it willbe so film that there will benodanger ofanother oflike nature with spectacular competing it.Forthese itwill reasons anincome as welive."67 Africa hadalways as long produce promised gold. The "naked advocated Museum wasperfect for the eye"science bytheAmerican sosuperior tothe for the camera, ultimately gun production, possession, preservation, and control of nature. The ideology of surveillance, consumption, appreciation, toAkeley's totouch, realism essential aesthetic waspart ofhiseffort tosee,tobridge self. To make an exact istoinsure theyawning gapsintheendangered image against itissafely tocannibalize life until andpermanently a specular disappearance, image, a ghost. It arrested nature is so beautiful and so decay.Thatis why photography hint of an apocalyptic future. sucha powerful aesthetic religious-and Akeley's theinstrumental andcontemplative into a photographic combined technology profor The image a transfusion a steadily senseofreality. andthereal viding depleted inlatecapitalist define eachother, as all ofreality tobecome culture lusts mutually animage itsownsecurity. isassured, isno for andthere insured, Reality bythe image, limit totheamount ofmoney canbemade.Thecamera issuperior tothe for that gun thecontrol oftime; andAkeley's with their dioramas vision, photographic sculptor's andtaxidermic wereabouttheendoftime.68 touch, solidity Stories III. Telling The synthetic toldabovehas three and several minor ones. story majorsources whichemerge masksthe tonesand versions from Tellingthe lifesynthetically The single theideological to thesesources. achieved of listening biography, unity African totheedgeofan imagined which novel Hall,can be brought heteroglossic A polyphonic natural waits for itssustaining hasnotyetbeenwritten. social history In order to probemoredeeply intothetissue ofmeanings andmediations history. the ofexperience the structure for viewer ofthe of dioramas making specific possible African Hall-and of the Giantof Karisimbi-I wouldlike to tease apartthe ofAkeley's sources forone majorevent theelephant in British East life, mauling in 1910.This event Africa can function as a germ forexpanding of mystory the structure in theconstruction and function ofbiography ofa 20th-century primate
43
with itsspecific andpolymorphous ofrace,sexandclass.With hierarchies an order, ear forthetones ofaudience, historical socialinterests andintentions of moment, I would in andthematerial-physical ofsources, liketoconsider authors, appearance detailthequestion ofstory In particular, whosestories appearand greater telling. in theweb of social practices thatconstitute TeddyBear Patriarchy? disappear ofauthorized enforced andoflaborthat Questions writing bypublishing practices neverissuesin acknowledged of thegame)makeup my father (never authorship story.69 AUTHORS AND VERSIONS
"She didn'twriteit. She wroteit but she shouldn't have. She wroteit,but look whatshe wroteabout."70
on thesurface to be written CarlAkeley's book,In Brightest Africa, appears by a prolific thatthe Carl Akeley.But we learnfrom author, MaryJobeAkeley, thepublishers, towield a pen."71She elaborates that taxidermist "hated Doubleday toldintheir notthecompany), wereenthralled andPage (themen, byCarl'sstories to extract him." a bookfrom So one evening homes at dinner and so "determined W. Page"stationed andwithout a stenographer behind a screen, after dinner Arthur he saidwhile theguests before sherecorded Carl'sknowledge, lingered everything toDoubleday andPage,butthe thefire." Theediting ofthis material isthen ascribed is named is an unnamed hand.Thesenotesgave author as Carl.The stenographer ina journal notforthcoming risetoarticles calledWorld's buta bookwasstill Work, from thetaxidermist. Then Akeley discovered a newspaper accountof hisKivu hegreatly while that thepiecehadbeenwritten S. Greene liked; journey byDorothy forthedirector of theAmerican she worked Museum. Akeleyhiredher as his he talked while with or to record hisstories other or scientists secretary, explorers forAfrican lectured to raisefunds Hall. "She unobtrusively jotteddownmaterial In Brightest In theanswer which couldbe usedina book."72 Whowrote to Africa? in resides a world ofmotivated oftherelation ofmind andbody that history question Western authorship. of thebooksis itself The stamp of The physical an eloquent story. appearance H.F. in men like the the of Osborn approvalfrom dignified prefaces, presence to all a publishing house thatcatered wealthy hunters: handsome photographs, ofthebooks.The frontspieces theauthority are likeOrthodox icons;the compose inhisstudio the for shows anelderly CarlAkeley young people, frontspiece prepared of the the he into the of first saw. death mask intently gazing eyes plaster gorilla ever in with Lives the encounter nature is The Wilderness announced. Again, Maturity thebiography hiswife's that resurrected Carlthrough vicarious authorship, displays in thefront outside a tent a young Carl,armandhandbandaged standing heavily,
beside a dead leopardsuspendedbyherhindlegs.The captionreads: "Carl Akeley, thebook them.In Lions, Gorillasand their entire can be read from Neighbors, story
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inhistwenties, when with his still choked this wounded infuriated todeath leopard him with intent nakedhandsas itattacked to kill." Letusturn toCarlAkeley's with theelephant ofhisencounter which mauled story him.The taleoccursin a chapter ofAkeley's bookcalled"Elephant Friends and Foes." Severalmorallessonspervadethe chapter, those of human prominently of thegreatanimals--partly becausehunters are onlyafter and ignorance ivory their is of not of the so that and animals' trophies, knowledge only tracking killing, difference closeness tonature embodlives-and ofAkeley's becauseofhisspecial iedinthemagnificent On this witnessed two safari, elephants help elephants. Akeley a woundedcomradeescape from the scene of slaughter, one of the inspiring taxidermist's bronzes. thereader seesan earthy not Butalsointhis chapter, Akeley, toseateight abovemaking a table outofelephant earsfrom a specimen which people himand Delia, despite killed each ofthem intohisheadabout13 shooting nearly Inthis the as anequalwith hiswife. He doesnot times. taxidermist ishunting chapter, hidestories which seema bitseedy orfull ofpersonal his"natural bravado; might yet all theseanecdotes, foran audienceof potential nobility" pervaded particularly donors toAfrican find themselves Hall,whomight shooting biggamein quitelikely Africa. His nearfatalencounter with an elephant whenAkeley occurred had goneoff "four without Delia to get photographs, days'rations, gunboys,porters, taking andso forth meninall."73 He wastracking an elephant camera -about fifteen men, whosetrail was very whenhe suddenly becameawarethattheanimal was fresh, downon himdirectly: bearing
I have no knowledgeof how the warning came....I only know thatas I picked up mygun and It refusedto budge.....Mynextmental wheeled about I triedto shove the safety catch forward. at mychest.I grabbeditwith recordis ofa tuskright hand,theotherone with hand, myleft myright in betweenthemwentto thegroundon myback. This swinging and swinging in betweenthetusks was purelyautomatic.It was theresultof manya timeon thetrailsimagining myself caughtbyan too; forI am convinced elephant'srushand planningwhatto do, and a veryprofitable planning thatifa man imagines such a crisisand plans whathe woulddo, he will,whentheoccasion occurs, do what he planned....He drove his tusksinto the groundon eitherside of me.... automatically When he surgeddown on me, his big tusksevidently struck in thegroundthatstopped something them....He seemstohavethought medead for he left me- bysomegoodfortune notstepping on meand chargedoffafter the boys.74
thiscool description forlife'sbig fullof counselaboutplanning Akeleyfollows with moments remarks aboutwhat todo inother and arereputed elephants charges with ofhisparty. "I never remarks aboutthebehavior information outof gotmuch the boysas to whatdid happen,fortheywerenot proudof their partin the adventure.... It is reasonable to assumethatthey had scattered [thearea through a which theelephant like of thoroughly trampled] covey quail...."75 tells that helayunconscious anduntouched for hours becausehismen felt Akeley he wasdead,andthey camefrom which refused ever to a man. dead touch groups
45
When he cameto,he shouted He relates word andgotattention. that hadbeensent in of atbasecamp, toMrs.Akeley whovaliantly mounted a rescue party themiddle the of her of the of travel thenight wishes (because against guides dangers night She thebush), into toforce whom shepursued their huts their cooperation. through arrived at the to a and sentwordto thenearest doctor, post dispatch government but to her dawn. attributed his sceneoftheinjury arrival, prompt by Akeley recovery whosped Scottish of a neophyte moreto thesubsequent doctor, speedyarrival of of the the man his to the out injured ignorance through jungle help partly mensimply mauledbyan elephant-such ofhurrying to helpanyone foolishness the to payforone'shaste.The moreseasoned didn't survive official, government later. arrived chief medical officer, considerably old handsin other of thechapter recounts chatwith The remainder Akeley's attacks. The toneis reasoned, Africa abouttheir elephant experiences surviving of thoseinteresting on thebehavior and character focused scientific, aspectsof conclusion: inthe ofthe moral behavior. Theconstant chapter emerges again elephant
inhisowndefensewhenattackedbyman,thatis nothis Butalthough theelephantis a terrible fighter and a certain thatstickin mymindare his sagacity,his versatility, chiefcharacteristic. The things back to whichI have nevernoticedto thesame degreeinotheranimals....I liketo think comradeship with a greatball ofbaked dirt....I think, theday I saw thegroupofbabyelephantsplaying too, ofthe each other.They have factthatI have neverheardor seen African elephantsfighting extraordinary It is myfriend the elephantthatI hope to no enemybutman and are at peace amongstthemselves. perpetuatein the central goup in Roosevelt AfricanHall.... In this,which we hope will be an I hope to place the to theAfricathatwas, theAfricathatis fastdisappearing, monument everlasting amongthem.76 place forthe first elephanton a pedestal in the centreof the hall- the rightful
of intheperpetuation, anddignity areconstantly interests conservation, Akeley's ofdeath. Hisownexploits inwhich theintruder, thedealer nature manistheenemy, ifthereader their true todiscern inthehunt inironic refuses stand only juxtaposition in noble cause of a of whose tales a man brings danger pursuit pure meaning--the is a worthy with Thisnature with thebeastshe kills, nature. himintocommunion isprofoundly ofman, foil for hismanhood. brother a worthy male, elephant Akeley's was an The mauling of the possibility of nobility. and representative singular, with death for Delia,butthebrush tale,with actors, including exciting parts many forhisend thecool humor ofa manready and thedetails ofrescueare toldwith theobjectof hisscienhisbestenemy, and brother, dealtbysucha noblefriend theconfrontation The putative of the"boys"underlines tific behavior curiosity. racism between white manhood and thenoblebeast.Casualand institutional only of thesingle theexperience of thelifestory adultman.The actionin heightens on themeeting ofthesingular ofthestage, stories focuses on thecenter Akeley's comicrelief and for The entourage is inaudible, manand animal. invisible, except and class life.In Akeley's anecdotes aboutnative race, by rendering, empowered as white in a similar moralposition white woman stands without muchcomment
man-a hunter, an adult.
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herbiography ofherhusband, The Wilderness MaryL. JobeAkeley published in his after the Hall to Lives four African opened the public, Again, 1940, years Akeley Herpurpose to other dream assured. wasno longer to raisemoney andtellstories herlife's butto promote conservation andfulfill hunters, purpose-accomplishing life be taken Shepresents herhusband's work. Herbiography ofCarlshould literally. her herself scribe for herhusband's vicarious authoras theinspired story. Through African Hall and the not the but and Parc Wilderness, Albert, only ship through L. the Jobe not whose was lives had wilderness, himself, again. Akeley meaning Mary no livedfor a husband. In theyears before hermarriage shehadcompleted always the tenexpeditions toexplore British wilderness. Sherecounts fewer than Columbian shewould live when sheaccepted hiscommission for that sceneat Carl'sdeath her, in Her tofulfill The entire bookissuffused with her this task. thereafter hiswork. joy initsecstasy. as theother isbreathtaking Thestory oftheelephant self-construction her One emendations to facilitate interesting accomplishment. undergoes mauling hisfield bookwith from diaries and must readthis attention becauseCarl'swords at with no differentiation from are length publications quoted great typographical ofthetext. Atnopoint doesthewife for thehusband's therest words; givea source It not the be from does because conversation, lectures, matter, anywhere. they may the twoareoneflesh. The stories ofCarlandMary Jobe blend until imperceptiblyeventhe other versions ofthe"same" oneswritten reader starts incidents, comparing inthedirect ifabsent, ofthetrue, words author-husband. apparently The keyemendation is an absence. The entire ofCarlAkeley byMary biography the nameor presence of Delia. Her role in the JobeAkeleydoes not mention rescueis takenby the Kikuyu manWimbiaGikungu, called Bill,Akeley's gun on several with the bearerand native Bill is credited safaris. companion rousing andnotifying the thus ontheScotsman recalcitrant guides government post, bringing The longquotation thewholestory from Carl in which is toldsimply posthaste.77 ofhisprevious wife. lacksmention and notin Akeley's stories, MaryJobetellsa sequel to themauling published hisfield taken for a from diaries orlectures. Becauseitisnotuncommon apparently after an elephant anddecline tohunt mantolosehisnerve mauling elephants again, itwas necessary to faceelephants as soonas possible. thefirst forAkeley Again, is never that shouldbe to noticeis an absence.-It suchcourage thing questioned Butthe He tracked doesnot ennoble anelephant before actual story Akeley. regained. him tocarry a chair onthetrail for tositon hewasreally his"boys" healthy, needing waswounded from as hetired, andtheelephant shots andnot unsportsmanlike hasty found before itdied.Akeley's is savedinthis hishumility: nobility bynoting story him certain that we would "The boyshelped mebackto camp.I felt find perfectly The wholething andunsportsmanlike."7" dead inthemorning. hadbeenstupid forDelia Akeley's Beforeleaving version tale,one more MaryJobeAkeley's the note. as Carl's of Canadian Northwest deserves She is aspect explorer pictured as hunterand soul but not his co-adventurer and mate, companion buddy really
TeddyBear Patriarch),
47
with one exception. in Africa, Jobefired twoshots and killed a magnificent Mary malelion:"anhour later wecameupona fine oldlion, a splendid Carlsaid, and beast, for me to shoot. And so I lion nine feet six measured inches shot....The goodenough from carried a darkandsplendid mane;andbecauseofitssize,age,and topto tip, it a butI was chiefly conCarl valuable considered specimen; rugged personality, I fulfilled andwithout that Carl'sexpectations andhadkilled thelioncleanly cerned a as a biographer doesnotdepend on herbeing assistance."79 Jobe's authority Mary that desirable butthere is no question herstatus wasenhanced most hunter, bythis In thisact, her moralstatusapproachedthatof the transforming experience. inthelife oftheAmericondition for communion with a critical nature sportsman, ofNatural can Museum History. herhusband herself as a joyous andunrepentant but Delia Akeley hunter, pictures in 1930.It is hardto ofJungle Portraits hassomewarts, at leastbythepublication of the moralstatus she simply does not have the authorial believeher stories; whometeasily orhissocially suresecondwife, CarlAkeley, artist/hunter/scientist, institution after hisdeath. with hissafari for a major scientific andcommanded kings the inDelia's taleswhich Thereare somevery helphighlight interesting presences that wasto be suppressed. Hallwasto tell, andthekind kind ofbiography African in African to the perfect to the Hall leads to transcendance, type, Experience oftherescue. mere life. letuslookatDelia'sstory moment First, beyond heightened inconfronting inDelia'sstory, well. ownheroism Billappears andhebehaves Buther herendangered husband thesuperstitions ofthe"boys" andinsaving is,ofcourse, Mr. and cleansing the central tale in the chapter Rescue": "Examining "Jungle hiswounds were that cared were first consideration... wounds .Thefact my Akeley's followandwithout doubt savedhislife....The for so promptly infection, prevented arrived."" a young Scottish medical ingdayDr. Phillips, missionary, at all, aside from an easilyimagined But whydid Delia tellthisstory pain at inherfamily Whatever her life anda desire tosetherroleon record? developments theofficial Delia hada biographical motivation, purpose quiteatoddswith personal intheform offallible shewasintent on showing mediations histories; peoplebehind In theopening lines of"Jungle Rescue" theexperience ofnatural museums. history ofsickness andinjury for theearly collectors issues Delia considers at somelength All thisis sheremarks on insects, and failure. and explorers; weariness, pointedly or thecurrent thetourist, with theexperience contrasted (1930)traveler, provided inpicturing thedevoted visitor. Shedoeshavean interest eventhemuseum indeed, wife ofthe whokept and andunremarked single-minded campinthe jungle explorers in that Herpurpose telling thereader that shemanaged Carl's houseathome. safaris, is inthequestfor there werevery material mediations manhood andnatural truth, at all And then there is her the attention for her scientist-husband: pique patent. "Thethrilling oftheaccident andhismiraculous a frightful death story escapefrom from the But a has been toldmanytimes himself lecture personal platform. by
one ofthedensest, accountofmyequallythrilling night journeytohisrescuethrough
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sowellknown."8' Itis forests on theAfrican continent isnotnearly elephant-infested forests! hardto conjure thepicture ofCarlAkeley aboutelephant-infested talking Thisis notthewife whodevotes ofwilderness. she herself tohisauthorship Indeed, refers to darkest Africa thebook. repeatedly throughout ofthe Thereare other instances ofDelia's insisting on herglory at theexpense The reader ofDelia's bookdiscovers CarlAkeley official ofherhusband. nobility whose sickinhistent, an invalid closetodeath courageous dangerously frequently thecamp, scientific so that he wife notonly for food for butalsofor hunts specimens him.One learns outofthis continent before itclaims mayhasten again dangerous hunt themauling, to restore his thatin theelephant Carlwassearching following inwhat Hiswife isportrayed "morale." washiscompanion as a dangerous endangered in a thrilling killmarked Delia tellsthe huntterminating bya dangerous charge. so that onecannot know whofired thefatal but anda desire tobe shot, story "fatigue ingetting inposition."82 in sure ofhisshot madeMr.Akeley slow hisgun Sheincludes herchapter ofa dashing an extraordinary CarlAkeley a pipe photograph smoking ofa large andlounging on topofthebody fallen hercaption "Carl reads, elephant; he shot ofhismorale." She andthefirst after thequestion Akeley elephant settling hernarrative, whenI concludes havepassedsincethat "Although years morning stoodwith invalid husband on theedgeofthevastbush-covered my swamp looking inthe itallas clearly for I see as ifithappened anelephant can I]tis fog, yesterday....[ of themonumental thisvision which comesto mymindwhenI think groupof I the New Mr. and risked so to obtain for York Natural which Akeley much elephants History Museum.'"83 in theMuseum's archive forthatphotograph of Akeley But hunting lounging and astride hiskillreveals more than Delia's curious, perhaps something revealing and Delia was about that as the compromising compromised story. lying elephant, in which hers the archive demonstrate. the another But lie reveals photos accompany inthearchive The photos a version truth. ofreality, a biography ofAfrica, suggest intheir which theMuseum anditsofficial never wanted representataives displayed A will Hallsoreducational reader not find that of publications. particular photograph in in other than even the staff and archive are 1980s, Akeley any publication Delia's, saidtobe leery ofallowing ofthis The images republication particular photograph. from thephoto haunt archive the mind's as the viewer before the stands eye upstairs in African Hall. elephant group Itisclearthat this with thelounging Carlcouldnothavebeen particular elephant The cast of accompanying killedon theoccasionDelia described. characters is Another taken on the same shows the white occasion hunter, wrong. clearly picture theScotsman Richard John hired in1909 toteach him how Cunninghame, byAkeley with the to hunt Delia on same carcass. The archive museum lounging elephants, "Mrs.Akeley's first It is hardnotto order labelsthephoto theseparate elephant." inthefolder into hard nottotella story. a series, So thenext shows photos snapshot theseparated andstill tusks oftheelephant heldina gothic arch over slightly bloody
49
a pleased,informal Delia. She is standing under thearch,each arm confidently oftheelephantine Buttherealsupport for outtograsp a curve structure. reaching at theedgeofthepicture are four blackarms;the theivory is elsewhere. Cutoff theframing thetusks over the hands comefrom arching spacetoencircle peripheral woman. The museum archive labelsthisphoto"Mrs.Akeley's white triumphant showsa smiling the The nextand lastphotograph Cunninghame holding ivory." forehead with thecut heart ofthedeceasedelephant and touching Mrs.Akeley's her under the now aorta. with headbowed Shestands arch, ivory edgeoftheanimal's solemn African man.The museum's reads, bya single, sparecomment supported "The Christening." 3] [Figure a mark on thesoulsigning a Thisthen is also an image ofan origin, a sacrament, in It is a sacredmoment transformation effected killing. bytheact offirst spiritual nature. This ofthe a rebirth inthebloodofthesacrifice, ofconquered thelife hunter, inthe Halltothis ofanintimate stands a fixed witness African Akeley image elephant herecaptured an iconicmoment where touchshown eye,which bythecamera's In thisgarden, hunter. the camera race, sex, and naturemetforthe Western ofa Christian oforigins, Christian sacrament a retelling a secularized story captured ina baptism thevictim whose death ofbloodfrom adulthood, i.e., brought spiritual in inrisking whoisreborn thestatus ofhunter, thestatus ofthe human life, being fully ofAmerican Versions ofthis recur killing. story againandagaininthehistory is the ofanimal life. tothesciences One version life, especially primate approaches Hall.With ofwhite inAfrica toldinAkeley African manhood Delia,the biography with to achieve a is nearparody; Carlitis nearepiphany. Hiswasauthorized story whoneither hadnor ofscience themore fusion andart. author, Delia,byfar prolific wasa ghostwriter, waserased-bydivorce andbyduplicity. SAFARI: A LIFE OF AFRICA
thananyothersI had "Now withfewexceptionsour Kivu savages,lowerin thescale of intelligence affectedme! As I seen in Equatorial Africa,proved kindlymen....How deeply theirsympathy a colliedog....". oftheonly and of think ofthem, childhood, I am reminded early companion my playmate
ofNatural would not exist American Museum TheGreat Hallsofthe History simply Irish in North Americans or the and without thelaborofAfricans (orSouth Negroes butthey toacknowledge this would The Akeleys would be thefirst fact; America). the claim of came from the white safari the managers, always principle organization mind the the elements of scientist-collector andhiscampmanaging wife, overseeing andthe ofexecution. thesafari of1895, travel From uponfoot principle dependent of of the survival of to the motor safaris the backs "natives," 1920s, everyday strong hard inthefield the Euro-Americans work, goodsense, upon knowledge, depended
on seeingas perpetual and enforcedsubordination of people thewhitefolkinsisted
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Ifa blackperson children orevenas wildlife. feat of someexceptional accomplished theexplanation no examples of or daring, was that he or she (though intelligence examined in thisessay)was inspired, sucha womanappearin thetexts literally of themaster. As MaryJobeputit in herunself-conscious moved, by thespirit of his master had descended colonialvoice,"It was as if the spirit upon him, him wasall themore totranscendent effort."85 Thisexplanation powerful activating ifthebodyof themaster farremoved, was literally, bydeathor transphysically inthesafari residence. Aristotle as he wasinthetaxidermic Atlantic wasas present Laborwas not in New Yorkor in thephysiological bodiesof organisms. studios as mind, or as form. authorized as action, intothe books provide Both Carl and MaryJobeAkeley's insight important life.The of thesafari overthethirty yearspanof Akeley's hunting organization thecoreof solemn African around of usually peoplein a semi-circle photographs with inthebackground, thecars,cameras, andabundant white baggage personnel, of theproblems The chapters discuss areeloquent aboutrace,sex,andcolonialism. theprofusion nowhite on ofa headman, oflanguages which cooks,thetasks person numbers ofporters for most ofthe1926trip, thejourney (aboutthirty many spoke, oflocal inkeeping thecontradictory in1895) andproblems more them, cooperation of providing white thedifficulty leaders(often called "sultans"), African people ofpayscalesandfood inan unspoiled thehierarchy andbrandy coffee wilderness, and thepunishment for thebehavior ofgunbearers, forsafari rations personnel, ordered Thechapters a socialorganism, misdeeds. properly bythe portray perceived form: division and of organic hierarchical of laborcalled cooperation principles initslogicofmind wasan iconofthewhole and The safari coordination. enterprise The Africans ofthebodyfor in itsscientific functional efficiency.86 marking body, were ofrace;they with their rolebythe Western construction were inscribed literally out of ofthestory oflife--and written written intothescript authorship.87 inthesafari oftheblackpersonnel individual Veryfew biographies appearwith or life histories. Africans butthere are exceptions, literature, objectlessons type either like nature as or the wereimagined they signified. "spoiled" "unspoiled," themalaise andcity couldnotrelieve oftheimperialist decadence, Spoilednature of evidence the of but dweller, only decay's contagion, germ civilization, presented theAgeofMammals. Andwith wasobliterating theendofthat theinfection which ofmanhood, like time But cametheendoftheessence Africans, hunting. unspoiled of the for in solid evidence resources the manhood the Kivu forest were itself, restoring is worth one of of It these individual studying hunting. healthy activity sportsmanlike ofsomeofthecomplexity oftherelation ofmaster togleana hint and biographies The life is inthepursuit ofscience on thesafari. told from the of servant story point known Bill ofthe white Wimbia the as who Carl view Gikungu, Kikuyu joined person; inBritish ofage,didnot EastAfrica in1905 atthirteen write sources. Akeley years my favorite "native." ofhisbody, buthe wastheAkeley's He wasnottheauthor
Billbeganas an assistant to Delia Akeley's tent as rapidly learnboy,butis portrayed
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there wastoknow the safari hisunflagging and about ing through everything industry toplease. He wassaidtohaveextraordinary but desire andspirit, suffered intelligence with tosavehisearnings. "He has chronic someauthority andfrom inability difficulty He does notliketo take an independence thatfrequently getshimintotrouble. in1905, owncolor."m with orders from oneofhis He served safaris 1909-11, any Akeley and1926, inauthority andpower over the until there wasnoAfrican increasing years whom moreforhistrail andjudgment. Carl Akeley Akeley knowledge respected ofhim sometimes as a man, butusually likeallother maleAfricans. as a boy, speaks been Bill got intosomekindof trouble on theRoosevelt safari, having serving Nonehim recommended Roosevelt andhadhim blacklisted. dismissed byAkeley. innocent rehired hehadhadsomelargely theless, him, immediately Akeley assuming for a white ofhisdistaste (i.e.,notdirected against eruption person) authority.89 he "punished" theseepidescribes three occasionson which Gikungu; Akeley of Akeley's role.Once Bill manifestations assumed sodes are condensed paternal to other to givethekeysforCarl'strunk white refused asked, peoplewhenthey from andhe hadto hemust havean order hisownBwana.It wascheek, that "saying with from hard wasnotsevere, meitwent be punished; butcoming thepunishment talktoprevent hisrunning himandI hadtogivehim a fatherly away.""Fouryears without the theKikuyu shotat an elephant he believed wascharging later, Akeley his"gun didnot it.Akeley hadseentheanimal, butdidnotknow latter's boy" seeing oneofthe first hehadbroken know. "because Akeley Ginkungu spontaneously slapped unless without ofthegame, which a blackboymust never shoot rules is that orders, hismistake, and ofa beast."Akeley realized hismaster is downand at themercy ofa white man would were andas humble as the permit."91 dignity "my apologies prompt inthe with a gun tohunt TheAfrican couldnotbe permitted presence independently on white manhood Theentire ofa white man. threatened depended logicofrestoring waspollution, Bill's shot rule. wasmagic; that (andwell-placed) well-meaning Hunting the1909-11 ofmaturity. hadGinkungu a usurpation Finally, Akeley putinjailduring totake itnecessary tosubmit when when "Bill"actively Carl"found safari declined ofa white mild for another refusal man's orders himinhandfor about punishment" two The African thesafari weekslaterafter caught spending baggage.92 up with couldbe quitea problem. weeksinjail. The white man'spaternal solicitude his reliedon Ginkungu's abilities and knowledge. Always, Akeley Repeatedly, ofa forthemaster. theivory was attributed to hisloyalty Collecting performance therescue after theelephant wounded mauling, assisting Mary organizing elephant, the ofsubordinate about Carl's these deedswere manifestations Jobe Akeley death-includthat havehadother love.Thereis no hint Ginkugu might motives--perhaps in in for the his a a white rain widow forest, superb ing non-subservient pity pleasure other oreven a superior with African hatred skills, dealings complex political groups, of to "Bill" is intentions without shadow forhis masters. doubt;the Attributing in the never his role the safari as African permanently script quitetamed, played
largelyremainedinvisible. good boy. Bill was believed to be visible;otherAfricans
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The willedblindness of thewhite loverof nature remained characteristic of the scientists whowent to theGardento study to study until cracks origins, primates, consciousness around 1970. beganto showinthis IV. The American andtheSocialConstruction of Museum ofNatural History Institution Scientific Knowledge:
"Speak to the Earthand It Shall Teach Thee."'93 fact."94 "Everyspecimenis a permanent
intheUnited to 1930, wasatitsheight From 1890 the"Nature Movement" States. inU.S. history, is an old theme and this ambivaAmbivalence about"civilization" thanafter theCivilWar,and during theearly decadesof lencewas never higher refers toa complex of Civilization, obviously, monopoly capital pattern formation.95 domination ofpeople andeverybody often ascribed totechnology-else, (everything) fantasized Nature is sucha potent of innocence as "theMachine." symbol partly ofvision, andso because"she"isimagined tobe without tobe the technology, object a source andpurity. becauseheisnotseen, ofboth health Manisnotinnature partly for is notthespectacle. A constitutive ofmasculine us is tobe the meaning gender theeye(I), theauthor. Indeedthat is part ofthestructure ofexperience in unseen, themuseum, themoral status ofa young one ofthereasons one has,willy boy nilly, Is anyone that initiation visual undergoing through experience. surprised psycholovisual is a find U.S. boysexcelindissecting fields? The museum gists 20th-century visual Itworks desire for notseparation, andone communion, technology. through in thenuclear when we have of itsproducts is gender. Whoneedsinfancy family intheritual rebirth spacesofTeddyBearPatriarchy? on theinversion oftechnolthis ofa causalrelation Obviously, essayis premised I am ofdomination: thesocialrelations ofdomination, ogyto thesocialrelations in arefrozen intothehardware andlogics oftechnology. Nature is, "fact," arguing, social praxis. are meaningconstructed as a technology And dioramas through Machinesare timeslicesintothe social organisms thatmade them. machines. are arrested moments of social relations thatin turn Machines mapsof power, of threaten to govern The owners the machines of the living. great monopoly withexcellent at the meansof production--were, reason, capital-the so-called ofnature ofrace, forefront work-becauseitwasone ofthemeans ofproduction and class.Forthem, "nakedeyescience" couldgivedirect vision ofsocial gender and the of class war and decadence. peace progress despite appearances They a science ofrestored its manhood, required "instaurating" peace,with jungle promise with a transcendent ethic ofhunting; it. andso they bought complete Thisscientific discourse on origins was notcheap;and theservants ofscience, human and animal, werenottame.The relations of knowledge and power at the American are not a tale of the Museum ofNatural caught bytelling great History
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in theskyconspiring to obscure thetruth. thetale Quitetheopposite, capitalists must be ofcommitted to dispel darkness research, Progressives through struggling education and reform. The greatcapitalists werenot in the sky;theywerein the field, armedwith the Gospelof Wealth.96 armedwith Theywerealso often an elephant This entire gun and an Akeleycamera.97 essayhas been aboutthe of knowledge." Thereis no boundary between the "inside" "socialconstruction and "outside" of science,such thatin one universe social relations appear,but in theother thehistory of ideas proceeds. Sciencesare wovenof socialrelations their The conceptof social relations tissues. must includetheentire throughout ofinteractions andingroups ofvarious as individuals sizes; complex among people, and rocks;and animals, books,buildings, objects,including including apes and elephants.9" I wantto explore Butin this section ofTeddyBearPatriarchy, one bandin the ofsocialrelationsofmenin theAmerican thephilanthropic activities spectrum Museum ofNatural which fostered exhibition History (including publiceducation andscientific andeugenics. Theseactivities aretheoptic conservation, collecting), of nakedeye science,i.e., theneuralorgans tectum of integration and interpretation. Thisessayhasmoved from theimmediacy ofexperience, themedithrough ationsof biography we now mustlook at a synthesis of social and story telling; construction." Butfirst a word on decadence, thethreat which exhibition, conservation, against andeugenics wereall directed as coordinated medical as prophylaxis interventions, for an endangered The museum a hygienic wasa medical bodypolitic. technology, of the and the pathology was a potentially fatalorganicsickness intervention, individual and collective to the diseaseproper body.Decadence was a venereal of thepoint of sex,race,andclass.From organs socialandpersonal reproduction: viewof TeddyBear Patriarchy, race suicidewas a clinicalmanifestation whose mechanism was thedifferential ratesof anglo-saxon vs. "non-white" reproductive women. Class war,a pathological of functionally related immigrant antagonism insociety, A burning imminent. inthe ofthe19th seemed decades last groups question concerned theenergetic ofmiddle classwomen century economy undertaking higher education: wastheir andnutritive health, function, reproductive capacity imperiled; werethey unsexed thelimited store oforganic to their headsat bydiverting energy crucial moments? was in Nature threatened the machine thegarden; the organic by interface of the of of Man and the Mammals the could proper Age Age perhaps preserve ofthevision ofnature theenergy ofman. Thesearestrange andso restore potency for concerns the ofthe and late20th whose with stress cyborgs century, preoccupation itsbaroquetechnicist, makes decadence seem code-implicated pathologies quaint. Infection anddecay havebeenincorporated into errors coding signified byacronymsfor middle class Americans World WarII decadence before mattered. AIDS. But white, disease Roosevelt's notto asthma and alcoholic (remember brother, Lung Teddy mention America's version ofMagicMountain), sexual was not disease a sexual (what
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when andCharlotte Perkins Gilman's needtowrite disease, masturbation, leprosy, allqualified?), alldisclosed andsocialdisease strikes andfeminism) (like ontologically oftherelations ofnature andculture. Decaandepistemologically similar disorders in twointerconnected both to dencethreatened related ways, functioning energytheiconicpower limited The machine oftherail(remember systems. productive to consume and exhaust man.Andthe threatened road)and itsfierce artificiality ofmanseemed toexhaustion andonthe sexual vulnerable ontheonehand economy inunruly other tosubmergence andprimitive excess. Thetrustees andofficers ofthe inthese were with the ofpromoting health circumstances. museum task charged public EXHIBITION ofNatural The American Museum was(andis) a "private" as institution, History inthe bedefined U.S. InEurope the natural museums were couldonly history private tothe ofnational ofthestate, connected fates intimately organs Kennedy's politics."? of theAmerican howintimately connected thedevelopMuseum stresses history theorigins ofthe ment ofalltheU.S. natural museums waswith classof history great ofthat ofthe after theCivilWar.The socialfate classwasalso thefate capitalists inthe1930s incrises itsrearrangements andweaknesses were museum; reproduced inthemuseum, from of thehands andorganizationally. ideologically Philanthropy of theallocation theRockefellers was mediated for machinery bya very complex of worthy The American Museumwas not funds and determination recipients. of a few in that on thepersonal beneficence buffered intimate reliance wayfrom for men. TheAmerican Museum isa particularly window wealthy transparent spying intheir ofthemselves. on thewealthy idealincarnation, for madedioramas they from Museum theAmerican The great scientific beganin collecting expeditions ingaining for the museum 1888 tothe1930s. hadresulted andstretched By1910, they inselected a major scientific fields, ornithology, especially paleontology, reputation in 1910boastedninescientific and The museum and mammalogy. departments alsobenefitted, andthelargest scientists. collecting twenty-five Anthropology expemuseum wasthe1890s North Pacific so dition ever mounted bythe Jesup Expedition Thesponsors liked a science that ofthemuseum toFranz Boas'scareer.'0' important likedthepublicpopularity of thenewexhibitions. stored facts Many safely; they middle and upper States thewhite, classesin theUnited peopleamong protestant Roosevelt embodwere tonature, andtheoutdoor committed life; Teddy camping, father was one of the and their ethos.TheodoreRoosevelt's ied theirpolitics in 1868.His son,Kermit, was a trustee the of themuseum during incorporators J.P. William in of trustees were Hall. Others that cohort of African Morgan, building W. Sage,H.F.Osborn, E. Roland K. Vanderbilt, DanielPomeroy, Harriman, Henry D. Rockefeller These are leadersof John ChildsFrick, III, and MadisonGrant.
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foreugenics, movements and therational ofcapitalist conservation, management ofscience. society. Theyarepatrons The first GreatHall ofdioramas was Frank Hall ofNorth American Chapman's in 1903. was hired to the enhance museum's to preBirds, opened Akeley ability the African and he conceived the pare fascinating game,especially elephants; African Hall idea on his first for the American Museum. Osborn collecting trip American andAsianMammal Hall after theAfrican hopedfor-andgot-a North one. The younger in the 1920sformed trustees an African Club that Game Big invited tojoinincontributing and to wealthy sportsmen specimens money African Hall. The 1920s wereprosperous forthesemen,and they gavegenerously. Thirty to forty in someyears weremounted in the1920s togettheunknown expeditions There wereover one hundred factsof nature. in the fieldforthe expeditions inthat American Museum decade.02 Therewas also a significant ofthemuseum's educational endeavors. expansion Overone million children at "nature cabinets" peryearinNewYorkwerelooking Radio talks, and bookscovered articles, puttogether by themuseum. magazine the museum's whichappearedin many popularactivities, waysto be a science forthe people,like thatof the NationalGeographic, whichtaught republican Americans their in empire after 1898.Significantly, bothNatural responsibilities the museum's and NationalGeographic on reliedheavily History, publication, There was a big building from1909to 1929; and the photographs."03 program of theMuseum AnnualReport for1921quotedtheestimate that by itsdirector decimalplaces?!)peoplewerereachedbythemuseum 2,452,662 (anysignificant anditseducation extension andfood the nature cabinets exhibits program, including thecity health circulating through public department. Osbornsummarized thefondhopesof educators in hisclaimthat likehimself whopassthrough children themuseum's halls"become more more truthreverent, in thesimple and natural lawsof their ful,and moreinterested beingand better citizens of the future He maintained each visit." also thatthe book of through written was proof thefailing of otherbooks:"The nature, onlyin facts, against French and Russiananarchies werebased in books and in oratory in defiance of every law of nature."'" Osbornwentbeyond a pioushopes and constructed Hall oftheAgeofMan to makethemoral lessons ofracialhierarchy andprogress lest theybe missedin gazingat elephants.105 He countered thosewho explicit, criticized theHalls and educational workas too expensive, too much requiring timethatwouldbe better "The exhibits in theseHalls spenton scienceitself. have been criticized onlybythosewhospeakwithout knowledge. Theyall tend to demonstrate theslowupward ascentand struggle ofmanfrom thelower to the and spiritually. and higher stages, physically, morally, intellectually, Reverently a higher towards and better future examined, carefully theyput man upwards and awayfrom thepurely animalstageof life."'"This is theGospel of Wealth,
examined. reverently
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PROPHYLAXIS inthis Twoother atthe American Museum comment: undertakings period require andconservation. linked inphilosophy were andinpersonnel eugenics They closely at themuseum, andthey tiedinclosely with exhibition andresearch. Forexample, thenotorious author of The Passingof theGreatRace, Madision was a Grant, successful a trustee oftheAmerican an organizer of Museum, corporation lawyer, forthe North American of the California Save-theHall, a co-founder support Redwoods for andadjacent Mt.McKinley lands a national League,activist making andthepowerful oftheNewYorkZoological Hispreservapark, secretary Society. tionofnature and germ ofwork. wasnota Grant plasmall seemedthesamesort He represented one terrified a bandofProgressive quackor an extremist. opinion, oftheconsequences ofunregulated failure toreguincluding monopoly capitalism, latetheimportation ofnon-white Jewish included andsouthern (which European) classeswhoinvariably had moreprolific women than the"oldAmerican working in establishing in theBelgian stock." The roleofthemuseum Parc Albert Congo has already been noted.Powerful menin theAmerican scientific establishment wereinvolved in thatsignificant in international venture scientific cooperation: John of theCarnegie of Washington, of C. Merriam Institution GeorgeVincent theRockefeller at theAmerican The first Osborn Museum. Foundation, significant userof thesanctuary in America, wouldbe sentby thefounder of primatology RobertYerkes,fora study of thepsychobiology of wildgorillas. Yerkeswas a in which leaderin themovements forsocial hygiene, thecategory and eugenics also fit. It wasall intheservice ofscience. conservation of Eugenicswas held at the American The Second International Congress ofNatural in 1921 Museum while wasinthefield History Akeley collecting gorillas and initiating an ardent that believed Osborn, plansforParc Albert. eugenicist, themost itwas"[pjerhaps scientific everheldintheMuseum." important meeting All the leadingU.S. universities and stateinstitutions and sentrepresentatives, there weremany eminent The proceedings werecollected in foreign delegates. a volume titled inFamily, hada The Congress Race,andState." plainly "Eugenics savored "Thesection oftheexhibit on immigration specialfruit byOsborn. bearing was thensentto Washington on Immigration of theCongress, bytheCommittee members ofwhich madeseveral totheMuseum visits tostudy theexhibit. Thepress was at first inclined to treat theworkof theCongress as the sound lightly...but ofaddresses and patriotic series andpapers on heredity, theRace and theFamily, theStatesucceededone another, theinfluence of theCongress grewand found itswayintonewsand editorial of theentire of columns the States." United press restriction to the the race a laws, Race, Immigration only needing capital protect from of otherraces,"'0' werepassed by the letter, "submergence by the influx United States in 1923. Congress
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The 1930swerea hiatusforthe Museum.Not onlydid the Depression lead to reducedcontributions, and politics but basic ideologies the shifted, making in thisessayless relevant formations discussed to the American classes, ruling theMuseum the remained with NewYork'speoplewaybeyond although popular sterilization laws have remained 1930sand eugenics on the booksintothe late 20th The changes werenotabrupt; buteventheracial doctrines so openly century. in the 1940s,though criticized not championed by the Museumwere publicly until then. and spiritual Conservation was pursued with different political justifications. A different was being morein thehandsoftheRockefeller born, biology Foundation and in a different socialwomb. The issuewouldbe molecular biology and other forms ofpost-organismic The threat ofdecadence cyborg biology. gave of theobsolescence of man (and of all organic nature) wayto thecatastrophes and the disease of stress, realities afterWorldWar II. announced vigorously forms as Different of capitalist and racism wouldemerge, embodied patriarchy nature. Decadence is a diseaseof organisms; obsolescence alwaysin a retooled and stress are conditions of technological wouldgive wayto systems. Hygiene as thebasisofmedical, andscientific systems engineering religious, political, story telling practices. To summarize thethemes of TeddyBear Patriarchy, let us compare thethree activities oftheMuseum, all dedicated topreserving a threatened manhood. public and conservation. Exhibition has beendescribed Theywereexhibition, eugenics, hereat greatest itwas a practice to produce to arrest length; permanence, decay. was a movement to to preserve to assureracialpurity, stock, Eugenics hereditary racesuicide. Conservation wasa policy to preserve notonly for resources, prevent butalso for moral for theachievement ofmanhood. All three formation, industry, thedreaddiseaseof activities werea prescription to cureor prevent decadence, Allthree wereconsidered culture. activities forms andwhite imperialist, capitalist, ofeducation andforms ofscience; were alsovery and closetoreligious they practice shared as wellas professional ofmedical These interest, certainly practice. qualities, threeactivities wereall aboutpreservation, social order, and the health, purity, of and to transcendence death, Theyattempted insure personal collective. preservafixation in the face of extraordinary tionwithout and paralysis, changein the relations ofsex,race,andclass. The leaders oftheAmerican Museum ofNatural wouldinsist that History they weretrying to know andto savenature, And the real was one. The reality. explicit was holism, There was also an aesthetic to ontology organicism. appropriate and from 1890 to 1930: realism. But in the 1920s conservation, eugenics exhibition, the knew that surrealists behind the ofsexual terror, disembodiment, daylaythe night failure in short, oftheseminal oforder; castration andimpotence had bodywhich all for the white the white the words hunter centuries, great father, spoken important in theheart ofAfrica.'"8 Andthestrongest inthis the evidence presented essayfor
correctnessof theirjudgmenthas been a literalreadingof the realist,organicist
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Museum ofNatural Their oftheAmerican artefacts andpractices History. practice havebeenliteral, dead literal. andmine
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS have earned a special thanks in the archivesof the AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory The staff commentedon draftsof forcourtesyand competence. Friendsand colleagues who have generously of Consciousness of the 1984 Feminist Theoryseminarof the History Teddy Bear includethe members Barbara Epstein,Sandra Harding, of CaliforniaSanta Cruz, and JimClifford, Board at the University Val Hartouni,Nancy Hartsock,Rusten Hogness,JayeMiller,DorothyStein,and AdrienneZihlman. researchat a crucial time.WendyGraham of Social Text was a Robert Filomeno helped withlibrary wonderful editor.Alexander,Sojourner,and Moses were unfailingly impatient. NOTES 1. HenryFairfield Osborn,Reportto theTrustees,AmericanMuseumof NaturalHistory, May, 1908, and Science in New YorkCity: The AmericanMuseum of and in JohnMichael Kennedy.Philanthropy Yale University NaturalHistory,1868-1968, Inc., 69-13,347 (hereafter Ph.D., 1968,Univ. Microfilms, AMNH. Kennedy).The AmericanMuseum is hereafter The Man WhoCreatedTarzan(Provo, in Irwin 2. EdgarRice Burroughs EdgarRice Burroughs: Porges, Utah: Brigham Young Univ., 1975),p. 129. Museumexpeditions intotheGobi desert 3. OsbornbelievedHomo sapiensarose inAsia and important stillhad special meaning to provethisposition.However,Africa in the 1920sweremountedin an attempt a reservoir in thesense ofpotential and so as origin oforiginal as thecore ofprimitive nature, restoration, survived.Africawas not establishedas the scene of the original conditionswhere "true primitives" as thelocus for the 1930s.Fora creativeschizo-analysis ofAfrica wellafter emergenceofourspecies until see William Pietz (PitzerCollege), "The Phonographin the inscription of capitalistdesire in history, Phonocentrism fromStanleyto Sarnoff," Africa: International paper fromthe Second International England,1983. Theoryand Text Conference,Southampton, has been a majorthemein feminist See Nancy 4. The bodyas generative theory. politicalconstruction of Consciousness Hartsock,Money, Sex, and Power (NY: Longman,1982); Valerie Hartouni(History in genderedbodies; D.J. Haraway,"Animal UCSC) in ms. on Greek and Roman versionsof citizenship on Sociology and a NaturalEconomy of the Body Politic,"Signs 4 (1978): 21-60; and forreflections theNew School forSocial inthisessay,Social Research,Winter1974,essaysfrom ofcitizenship meanings has probablybeen the Lacanian feminist Research"Conferenceon the Meaningof Citizenship." theory of"woman's" body as not citizen,not author,e.g., mostcreativeand the mostproblematic exploration eds. New French Helene Cixous,"The LaughoftheMedusa," inElaine Marksand Isabelle de Courtivron, Feminisms Univ. of MassachusettsPress, 1980). (Amherst: 5. The Deauvereaux or HotelColorado inGlenwoodSprings, one version of CO, containsa plaque with froma the originof the Teddy Bear, emblem of Theodore Roosevelt: T.R. returned empty-handed bear and gave itto him.Wordspread, stuffed hunting tripto thehotel,and so a hotelmaidcreateda little in Germany thereafter. thelife Another versionhas T.R. sparing and theBear was manufactured shortly hiskindness. It is a pleasureto compose an essayin thestuffed version ofa bearcub,with commemorating animals. feminist on the subjectof stuffed theory
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a form 6. Visual communion, oferoticfusion connectedwiththemesofheroicaction,especiallydeath, inscience,withitspolitics of is builtintomodernscientific ideologies.Itsrolein masculinist epistemology is at least as crucial as ideologiesof separationand objectivism. Feminist so farhas paid rebirth, theory to genderedsubject/objectsplitting and not enough to love in specular domination's more attention See EvelynFox Keller,Genderand Science (New Haven: Yale UP, construction ofnatureand hersisters. Death ofNature(NY: Harperand Row, 1980),and Sandra Hardingand forthcoming), CarolynMerchant, Merrill Hintikka,eds., Discovering Reality: FeministPerspectives on Epistemology,Metaphysics, and Philosophy ofScience (Dordrecht:Reidel, 1983),esp. E.F. Kellerand C.R. Grontkowski, Methodolgy "The Mind's Eye." an analysis 7. I am indebted to WillaimPietz's1983UCSC slidelectureon theChicago FieldMuseumfor of museumsas scenes of ritualtransformation. 8. Carl E. Akeley,In Brightest IBA. Africa(NY: Doubleday, Page, & Co., 1923),p. 162. Hereafter 9. William T.R.: Champion DavisonJohnson, Association, oftheStrenuous Life(NY: TheodoreRoosevelt 1958), p. 138, 126-27; David McCullough, Morningson Horseback (NY:Touchstone of Simon and Schuster,1981); T. Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt's America, Farida Wiley,ed. (Devin, 1955); P.R. and the TheodoreRoosevelttheNaturalist (NY: Harperand Row, 1956).Forthethemeoftravel Cutright, TristesTropiques,and of Brazil, Claude Levi-Strauss, modernWesternself,esp. forthe penetration theSixteenth to theEighteenth "The collectionof theWorld: Accountsof Voyages from Daniel Defert, 7 (1982): 11-20.Travel as science and as heroicquest interdigitate. DialecticalAnthropology Centuries," thatitis womenwhohad all the 10. It is hardly irrelevant to thesymbolism offearofthenewimmigrants babies. It is also hardly irrelevant to thelivesofthewomenwho had to respondto therealities frightening life in a racistsociety.Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right(NY: Grossman, of immigrant 1976); James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue(NY: Basic Books, 1978); Carole McCann, of Consciousness, Political Optionsin the 1920s,"ms., History "Politicsof BirthControland Feminist in theLand (Greenwood reprint of 1963ed.) Rooseveltpopularizedthe UCSC; JohnHigham,Strangers term"race suicide" in a 1905speech. ofnature, theotherthrough an allochronic discoursethatworksby theprimitive, 11. The construction temporaldistancingis explored in JohannesFabian, Time and the Other (NY: Columbia UP, 1983). in chronopolitics." p. 144. "Woman" is also constructed "[G]eopolitics has its ideological foundation time. outsidesharedor coeval time,as well as outsidehistorical 12. Akeleyto Osborn,29 March 1911,in Kennedy,p. 186. The change fromAfricanHall's dioramas ofmorerecentAMNH practiceis at leastevidencefor decontextualized to theradically boutiquedisplays relaxed anxiety about decadence. 13.JamesClark,"The Image of Africa,"in The CompleteBook of AfricanHall (NY: AMNH, 1936), of composition;special issues on AfricanHall, The Mentor,January 1926,and p. 69-73forprinciples NaturalHistory, 1936. See also Handasyde Buchanan,Nature into Art: A Treasuryof Great January History Books (Gloucester, MA: Smith, Natural 1980);Donald Lowe, TheHistory ofBourgeois Perception of the transcendental (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1982) forexcellentdiscussionof the production subject of humaneye/eye-subject/technical from the structured relations apparatus. menand womenin thishall,as wellas herheadsofAfricans at 14. MalvinaHoffman's bronzesofAfrican to a craftedhumanbeautyin Akeley'stempleof the entranceto the hall, are extraordinary testimony in his to enlistHoffman of naturalprimitives. On Osborn'sfailedeffort nature.They hardlytell a story "The Rise to Parnassus:Henry Fairfield Osbornand theHall Porter see Charlotte (Smithsonian), projects, AmericanArt and Antiques of the Age of Man," unpublished ms. JoshuaTaylor,"Malvina Hoffman," 2 (July/Aug. 1979): 96-103. He and I readthedioramastogether in 15. I am indebted this toJames Clifford's perception. sharpeyefor see Misia L. textsas narrative, New York City in March, 1982. For a methodof readingevolutionary as a Genre of Literature,Yale Univ. Ph.D. Landau, The Anthropogenic:Paleontological Writing AmericanScientist 72 (May/June 1981,and "HumanEvolutionas Narrative," 1984): 262-68. dissertation, 16. IBA, 190.
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17. IBA, 203. and theirNeighbors 18. Carl E. Akeleyand MaryL. JobeAkeley, Lions,Gorillas, (NY: Dodd and Mead, LGN. 1922),hereafter 19. IBA, 211. The jealous mistress tropeis a ubiquitouselementof the heterosexist genderanxieties about theirendeavors.See esp. Keller, Genderand Science. scientists' writing pervading How toHuntwith theCamera (NY: Dutton,1926);G.A. Guggisberg, 20. WilliamNesbit, EarlyWildlife Hunters(Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, (NY: Talpinger,1977); Colin Allison, The Trophy Photographers Man and Game in EasternAfrica(Dufour,1967). Animal Twilight: 1981); J.L.Cloudsley-Thompson, 21. IBA, 221. 22. IBA, 222. 23. IBA, 226. Forthewhite woman'saccountofthistrip, see MaryHastings On theGorillaTrail Bradley, (NY: Appelton,1922). 24. IBA, 230. 25. IBA, 235. 26. IBA, 248. Scientific cancelleddeath;onlydeathbeforeknowledge was final, an abortive knowledge act in the naturalhistory of progress. 27. MaryL. JobeAkeley,CarlAkeley'sAfrica(NY: Dodd and Mead, 1929),chpt.XV. Hereafter CAA. 28. Mary Lee Jobe Akeley, The Wilderness Lives Again. Carl Akelev and the GreatAdventure (NY: Dodd and Mead, 1940),p. 341. Hereafter WLA. 29. CAA, 189-90. 30. Dian Fossey,Gorillasin the Midst(Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1983),p. 3. 31. Osborn in IBA, xii. 32. IBA, 216. 33. Cyborgs are cybernetic whose birth shouldbe soughtin social reality and science fiction organisms fromthe 1950s. For considerationsof cyborg existence,see D.J. Haraway, "Manifestofor Cyborg Socialist Review, forthcoming. For insight on the fictions of cyborgs, see Katie King (Hist. Feminists," in Feminist Con. UCSC), "The Pleasuresof Repetition and theLimits of Identification Science Fiction: oftheBodyafter ofmasculinist theCyborg";fora theory Zoe Sofoulis Reimaginations cyborg replication, (Hist. Con. UCSC), "Jupiter Space," papers deliveredat the CaliforniaAmericanStudies Association 1984. meetings, 34. IBA, 1. in AmericanSocial Thought 35. Cynthia Russett,The Concept ofEquilibrium (New Haven: Yale UP, 1966); Mary Alice Evans and Howard EnsignEvans, WilliamMorton Wheeler,Biologist(Cambridge: HarvardUP, 1970);WilliamMortonWheeler, EssaysinPhilosophical Biology(Cambridge:HarvardUP). Fororganicism inthehistory ofecologyand primatology, see D.J.Haraway,"SignsofDominance: Froma to a Cybernetics of PrimateSociety,"Studiesin History Physiology of Biology6 (1983): 129-219. 36. WLA, chpt. III; IBA, chpt. 1. 37. WLA, 340. 38. Clark, CompleteBook ofAfricanHall, p. 73. 39. IBA, II and X; WLA, VI and X; Clark. 40. WLA, 38. 41. Virtually in New York, FrankChapman of the Departmentof Mammalogyand simultaneously was working on NorthAmericanbirdhabitat whichwereinstalled forthepublicin a Ornithology groups, evidencesof a generouspolicybythetrustees from about 1890to 1930. largehall in 1903,one of thefirst Fromthe mid 1880s,British Museum workers innovatedmethodsformounting birds,including making life-like The AmericanMuseumfoundeditsown department of taxidermy in 1885 extremely vegetation. and hiredtwo London taxidermists, the brother and sisterHenryMinturn and Mrs. E.S. Mogridge,to teachhowto mount thegroups.JoelAsaph Abel, Head ofMammalology and Ornithology, was able tohire FrankChapman in 1887; Chapman is a major figure in the history of Americanornithology and had an inthe 1930s.Birdgroupsdone at theAmerican roleto playin theinitiation offieldprimatology important
61
Museumfrom about 1886on werevery popularwiththepublicand inducedmajorchangesinthefortunes of the museum."Wealthysportsmen, in particular, began to give to the museum."This turning pointis criticalin thehistory of theconservation movement in theUnitedStates,whichwillbe discussedfurther below. Significantly because of the scientific of thestaff of theDepartment of Mammalogyand activity thescientific inthelastyearsof oftheAmericanMuseumimproved Ornithology, reputation dramatically the 19thcentury. Kennedy,pp. 97-104;FrankM. Chapman:Autobiography ofa BirdLover (NY: 1933); ofChicago FieldColumbiaMuseum,1902,"The FourSeasons"; "The WorkofCarl E. Akeleyin pamphlet the Field Museum of NaturalHistory" (Chicago: Field Museum, 1927). 42. The termis MaryJobeAkeley's,WLA, 217. 43. Clark,71. 44. IBA, 265. 45. IBA, 261. 46. Fabian, chpt.4, "The Otherand the Eye," in Time and the Other. 47. IBA, chpt.X. 48. MartinJohnson, "Camera Safaris,"in CompleteBook ofAfricanHall, p. 47. 49. See JaneGoodall inAmongthe WildChimpanzees(NationalGeographicsocietyfilm, 1984);David Brown& Co., 1979)and BBC TV seriesofthe Attenborough, Life On Earth(Bostonand Toronto: Little, same name; and forastonishing picturesof humanmother, baby,and wild elephantintimacy, Iain and Oria Douglas-Hamilton, Among the Elephants(NY: Viking,1975). 50. Kennedy,p. 204. 51. Susan Sontag,On Photography (NY: Delta, 1977),p. 15. 52. CAA, 116. 54. IBA, chpt.VIII; EdwardNorth TwoAfricanTrips, With and 1902;C.G. Schillings, Burton, Flashlight in theAfricanWilds,1910. Rifle,1905; A. Radclyffe Dugmore,Camera Adventures 55. CAA, 127-30;WLA, 115. 56. JaneGoodall, "My Life among the Wild Chimpanzees,"National Geographic,August 1963, pp. withMountainGorillas,"NationalGeographic, 272-308;Dian Fossey,"MakingFriends 1970,pp. January Indonesia's'People of theForest,"' NationalGeographic, 48-67;Birute Galdikas-Brindamour, "Orangutans, October 1975,pp. 444-473, and "Living with theGreatOrangeApes,"NationalGeographic, June1980,pp. 57. IBA, 166. 58. IBA, 166. 59. IBA, 167. 60. IBA, 223-24.Akeleyrecognizedtheutility of hiscamera to anthropologists, who could (and would) use the telephotofeature"in makingmotionpicturesof nativesof uncivilizedcountrieswithouttheir is a wonderful and IBA, 166.The photoarchiveoftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory knowledge." sourceofearlyanthropological These imagesshouldbe systematically disturbing photography. compared withthe contemporary safarimaterial. 61. IBA, 197. 62. NeilHarris, Brown& Co., 1973);HermanMelville, (Boston:Little, Humbug: TheArtofP. T. Barnum The ConfidenceMan, first betweenBarnumin thedemocratictradition published1857.The difference of hoax and Walt Disney's proliferations of simulationmatters.Jean Baudrillard,Simulations(NY: Semiotext(e),1983), pp. 23-26; Louis Marin, Utopique,jeux d'espaces; Richard Schickel, The Disney Version(NY: Simon and Schuster,1968). 63. October,1923,prospectus, AMNH archives; Martin "Camera Safaris," The CompleteBook Johnson, on Martin Johnson FilmExpedition Hall, 1936;CAA, 129;July 26, 1923,Akeleymemorandum ofAfrican and additionalmaterialfrom1923 AMNH archive,microfilm 1114a and 1114b. See MartinJohnson, theSouthSeas with JackLondon (Dodd and Mead); CannibalLand (HoughtonMifflin); Through Trailing and Simba, made on the Eastman-Pomeroy African WildAnimals (Century);and the films expedition, Trailing AfricanWildAnimals.
53.IBA, 155.
830-853.
62
Haraway
64. LewisCarroll,"The Hunting of theSnark,"inAlice in Wonderland, NortonCriticalEdition,p. 225. 65. October 1923,prospectusto the AMNH, archivesmicrofilim 1114a. 66. October 1923,Osbornendorsement, AMNH archivemicrofilm 1114a. 67. Martin 1114a.The expectation microfilm that a film made in Johnson, draft, 26, 1923,prospectus July in retrospect. the middle 1920swould be the last wild lifeextravaganzais breathtaking But thisserious statement of the beliefthatnaturedid existin essentially one formand could be hope is a wonderful of theeye were adequate. The film made by theJohnsons capturedin one vision,ifonlythe technology was "Simba." is a response 68. Much ofthis to Sontag,On Photography. On thefears and need formirrors of paragraph the Americanmythical self-made The Horrorsof theHalf Known Life man,see J.G. Barker-Benfield, Womanand Nature(NY: Harperand Row, 1978). (NY: Harperand Row, 1976) and Susan Griffin, 69. The principal sectionare correspondance, annualreports, and sourcesforthis archives, photographic artefacts in theAMNH: IBA; MaryJobeAkeley'sbiography of her husband,WLA; MaryJobeand Carl Portraits book,Jungle (NY: Akeley'sarticlesin The World'sWork;LGN; and Delia Akeley'sadventure Macmillan,1930). Delia is Delia Denning,Delia Akeley,Delia A. Howe. See N.Y. Times,23 May, 1970, ofMargaretMead makesMary p. 23. The buoyantracismin thebooks and articlesof thiscontemporary Jobeand Carl look cautious. 's Writing 70. JoannaRuss, How to Suppress Women (Austin: Texas UP, 1983), p. 76. For a superb discussion of the world in which Delia and Mary Jobe worked,see MargaretW. Rossiter,Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore:Johns HopkinsUP, 1982). 71. WLA, 222. 72. WLA, 223. 73. IBA, 45. 74. IBA, 48-49. 75. IBA, 49. 76. IBA, 54-55. 77. WLA, IX. 78. WLA, 126. 79. WLA, 303. 80. JP,249. 81. JP,233. 82. JP,93. 83. JP,90, 95. 84. CAA, 200. 85. CAA, 199. 86. The literature in scientific functionalism discourseis large,butcriticalto thisessayare: examining AlfredSohn Rethel,Intellectual and Manual Labor (London: Macmillan,1978); Bob Young,"Science Is Social Relations,"Radical Science Journal5 (1977): 65-129; HilaryRose, "Hand, Brain,and Heart: A forthe NaturalSciences," Signs9 (1983):73-90. Feminist Epistemology 87. CAA, V; WLA, XV; IBA, VII. 88. IBA, 143. 89. IBA, 144. 90. IBA, 134."Father included thehighest ofcolonialism to thegame"obviously gameofall inthehistory the submission of man. 91. WLA, 132. 92. IBA, 144. 93. Job 12:8, engravedon a plaque at the entranceto theEarthHistory Hall, AMNH. 94. H.F. Osborn,54thAnnual Reportto the Trustees,p. 2, AMNH archives. 95. Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden (London, Oxford, NY: OxfordUP, 1964); RoderickNash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd rev. ed. (New Haven: Yale UP, 1982); RoderickNash, "The
63
AmericanHistoryXII (1979): 517-60.
as a Commodity and Importing ofNature: in 1850-1980," Perspectives Exporting Nature-Appreciation

Who Rules America? (NJ: Prentice-Hall,1967); Waldemar A. Nielson, The Big Foundations (NY:
American "TheGospelofWealth," North 96.Andrew Review, 1889;G. William Domhoff, Carnegie,
Columbia (NY: FreePress,1977);James UP, 1972);GabrielKolko, The Triumph of Conservatism Richard 1877-1920 Search Hofstadter, 1966); (NY: Knopf, (NY: HillandWang, AgeofReform forOrder, Men(Berkeley: U Calif. The Medicine Press, 1978);Paul Starr, Brown, 1955);E. Richard Rockefeller UP, 1979). Hopkins an objectlessonin themonopoly with was GeorgeEastman, in thefield 97.One capitalist Akeley to that realism is an aesthetics I am than of death. fear of decadence claiming proper greater capitalist's a septagenarian ina literature kind iscelebrated what ofrealism but about decadence, describing anxiety when hiswhite hunter to at 20feet ofa charging a close-up Eastman rhino, directing getting photograph toenjoy Mr.Eastman this adventure lookson?"With while hispersonal thegun, shoot began physician Africa WLA,270. thoroughly..." KarinKnorrdevicesand"phenomenotechnique"; Hillsand London:Sage, 1979), esp. on inscription NewDelhi:Sage,1983). andMichael London, Cetina Hills, eds.,ScienceObserved (Beverly Mulkay, sources for this andAMNHarchives), cited(esp.Kennedy to material 99.In addition major already TheGreat F. Scott ofwhite manhood: crisis andthe include: section 1)Ondecadence Gatsby Fitzgerald, Adams(privately 1907);Ernest Adams,TheEducation Hemingway, printed (1925);Henry ofHenry andthe Roderick ofconservation: HillsofAfrica Nash, ed.,Environment Green 2) Onthehistory (1935).
98. BrunoLatour,Les microbes.Guerreetpaix suivide irreductions (Paris: Metailie,1984),pp. 171-265; Facts (Beverly BrunoLatourand Steve Woolgar,Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific The CorporateIdeal in theLiberalState,1900-18 (Boston: Beacon, 1969); RobertWiebe, The Weinstein,
Social Transformation ofAmericanMedicine, esp. chpts.3-6 (NY: Basic, 1982); AlexandraOleson and JohnVoss, eds., The Organizationof Knowledge in Modern America, 1860-1920(Baltimore: Johns
Americans:Problemsand Priorities (Melbourne,Florida: Kreiger,1979) and AmericanEnvironment: 2nd ed. (Reading,MA: Addison-Wesley, 1976); Samuel Hays, of Conservation, Readings in theHistory Conservationand the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920
Send John andimmigration: racedoctrines, Harvard 3) On eugenics, Higham, UP, 1959). (Cambridge:
in UrbanAmerica(NY: Atheneum, Haller,Outcasts 1975);John These to Me: Jewsand otherImmigrants
Kenneth Allan Illinois 1977); Evolution (NY: Knopf, Chase, UP, 1971); Legacy ofMalthus (Urbana: from Johns and American Genetics UP, 1972);Donald Pickens, (Baltimore: Ludmerer, Hopkins Society
(Nashville:VanderbiltUP, 1968); S.J. Gould, The Mismeasureof Man Eugenics and the Progressives
MIT Press, to Genocide FromGenesis L. Chorover, 1979); (Cambridge: 1981);Stephan (NY: Norton,
aboutsex, sexuality, concerns Univ.Of Pennsylvania 1900-41 Press,1978).Complex (Philadelphia: ofthe inthe decades ofsexresearch arecrucial totheproduction birth control decadence, early hygiene, this research. a keyroleingenerating Women scientists inlife andsocialsciences. 20th played century of intheconstruction tosaythe hasbeeninstrumental, Theincitement todiscourse least, Yale UP, 1982). A. MacKinnon, See Catharine as a socialgroup. of women and selfdescription "selfconsciousness" The issueis for andtheState:AnAgenda 7, no.3 (1982). Method, Marxism, Signs Theory," "Feminism, ofexperience. a feminist andtheneedfor as spectacle tothe ofwoman connected theory "being" closely Teresade Lauretis, offeminist sites oneoftherichest film isbecoming that wonder Small theory. theory
Alice Doesn 't:Feminism, Semiotics,and Cinema (Bloomington:Indiana UP, 1984) and AnnetteKuhn, Women's Pictures:Feminismand Cinema (London, Boston, Melbourne,Henley: Routledge & Kegan Rosalind Rosenberg,Beyond Separate Spheres: IntellectualRoots of Modern Feminism(New Haven:
and theHeredity-Environment Scientists American Hamilton Controversy, Cravens,Triumph ofEvolution:
Paul,1982). des sciences, et de sociopolitique d'histoire at L'Institut and hiscollaborators 100.Camille Limoges the from museums natural Paris ofthe most the de Montreal, Universite history analysis complete provide The and Its Public: Science A. William and Holton Gerald eds., 19th Changing Blanpied, century. early Relation 1976). Reidel, (Dordrecht:
64
Harawav
141ff. 101. Osborn over considerable disbursements tothe ofAnthropology, Kennedy, presided Department that waslargely ofnatives." his own "the wasmore Osborn inclined to despite opinion anthropology gossip favor theskeletons ofdinosaurs andmammals, andheisresponsible for oneofthe world's finest building AMNH,1930). 192. 102.Kennedy,
Years ofResearch,Observation, collections.H.F. Osborn,Fifty-two and Publication(NY: paleontology 103. PhilipPauly,AmericanQuarterly, 1982.
104. Museum andCitizenship," 53rd Annual archives. Osborn, "TheAmerican 1922, Report, p.2.AMNH 105.Osborn, TheHall ofthe no.52. Series, Age ofMan,AMNHGuideLeaflet 106.Osborn, 54th Annual "Citizenship," Report, p.2. 107.Osborn, 53rd Annual Ethel Tobachofthe AMNHhelped meinterpret and 1921, Report, pp.31-32. find material on socialnetworks, andsexism at theMuseum. The organizing racism, eugenics, meetings theGalton for wereheldinOsborn's home. Society 108.Joseph iscrucial tothis ofmy for Conrad, ofDarkness, esp.Heart aspect story, especially exploring oflanguage anddesire. SeealsoFredric "Romance andReification: Plot ConstrucJameson, complexities tionandIdeological Closure inJoseph ThePolitical Unconscious Conrad," (Ithaca:Cornell UP, 1981).
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Donna Haraway Teddy Bear

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Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908-1936 Author(s): Donna Haraway Source:

inthe Taxidermy TeddyBearPatriarchy: 1908-1936 Garden of Eden,NewYork City,

Teddy Bear Patriarchy

Teddy Bear Patriarchy

AmericanHistoryXII (1979): 517-60.

as a Commodity and Importing ofNature: in 1850-1980," Perspectives Exporting Nature-Appreciation

American "TheGospelofWealth," North 96.Andrew Review, 1889;G. William Domhoff, Carnegie,

and theHeredity-Environment Scientists American Hamilton Controversy, Cravens,Triumph ofEvolution:

?i- - ?::i;-:1:: : : ::::::i::::::: ,1ii-::--ii--

-:: :i:: *-:::':: i

1. The Giantof Karisimbi. Figure

shotbyH.E. Bradley. 2. Gorilla Figure

3. The Christening. Figure

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