(TeX Ebook) - Latex Manual
(TeX Ebook) - Latex Manual
(TeX Ebook) - Latex Manual
Introduction to L
A
T
E
X2
Or L
A
T
E
X2
in 129 minutes
by Tobias Oetiker
Hubert Partl, Irene Hyna and Elisabeth Schlegl
Version 4.12, 13 April, 2003
ii
Copyright 1995-2002 Tobias Oetiker and all the Contributers to LShort. All
rights reserved.
This document is free; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms
of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation;
either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
This document is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT
ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY
or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public
License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with
this document; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave,
Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
Thank you!
Much of the material used in this introduction comes from an Austrian in-
troduction to L
A
T
E
X 2.09 written in German by:
Hubert Partl <partl@mail.boku.ac.at>
Zentraler Informatikdienst der Universitt fr Bodenkultur Wien
Irene Hyna <Irene.Hyna@bmwf.ac.at>
Bundesministerium fr Wissenschaft und Forschung Wien
Elisabeth Schlegl <noemail>
in Graz
If you are interested in the German document, you can nd a version
updated for L
A
T
E
X2
by Jrg Knappen at
CTAN:/tex-archive/info/lshort/german
iv Thank you!
While preparing this document, I asked for reviewers on comp.text.tex.
I got a lot of response. The following individuals helped with corrections,
suggestions and material to improve this paper. They put in a big eort to
help me get this document into its present shape. I would like to sincerely
thank all of them. Naturally, all the mistakes youll nd in this book are
mine. If you ever nd a word that is spelled correctly, it must have been one
of the people below dropping me a line.
Rosemary Bailey, Marc Bevand, Friedemann Brauer, Jan Busa,
Markus Brhwiler, Pietro Braione, David Carlisle, Jos Carlos Santos,
Mike Chapman, Pierre Chardaire, Christopher Chin, Carl Cerecke,
Chris McCormack, Wim van Dam, Jan Dittberner, Michael John Downes,
Matthias Dreier, David Dureisseix, Elliot, Hans Ehrbar, Daniel Flipo, David Frey,
Hans Fugal, Robin Fairbairns, Jrg Fischer, Erik Frisk, Mic Milic Frederickx,
Frank, Kasper B. Graversen, Arlo Griths, Alexandre Guimond, Andy Goth,
Cyril Goutte, Greg Gamble, Neil Hammond, Rasmus Borup Hansen,
Joseph Hilferty, Bjrn Hvittfeldt, Martien Hulsen, Werner Icking, Jakob,
Eric Jacoboni, Alan Jerey, Byron Jones, David Jones,
Johannes-Maria Kaltenbach, Michael Koundouros, Andrzej Kawalec, Alain Kessi,
Christian Kern, Jrg Knappen, Kjetil Kjernsmo, Maik Lehradt, Rmi Letot,
Johan Lundberg, Alexander Mai, Martin Maechler, Aleksandar S Milosevic,
Henrik Mitsch, Claus Malten, Kevin Van Maren, Philipp Nagele,
Lenimar Nunes de Andrade, Urs Oswald, Demerson Andre Polli,
Maksym Polyakov Hubert Partl, John Reing, Mike Ressler, Brian Ripley,
Young U. Ryu, Bernd Rosenlecher, Chris Rowley, Risto Saarelma,
Hanspeter Schmid, Craig Schlenter, Baron Schwartz, Christopher Sawtell,
Georey Swindale, Laszlo Szathmary, Boris Tobotras, Josef Tkadlec, Scott Veirs,
Didier Verna, Fabian Wernli, Carl-Gustav Werner, David Woodhouse, Chris York,
Fritz Zaucker, Rick Zaccone, and Mikhail Zotov.
Preface
L
A
T
E
X [1] is a typesetting system that is very suitable for producing scientic
and mathematical documents of high typographical quality. It is also suitable
for producing all sorts of other documents, from simple letters to complete
books. L
A
T
E
X uses T
E
X [2] as its formatting engine.
This short introduction describes L
A
T
E
X2
documents. You
will also learn a bit about the history of L
A
T
E
X. After reading this
chapter, you should have a roughly understand how L
A
T
E
X works.
Chapter 2 goes into the details of typesetting your documents. It explains
most of the essential L
A
T
E
X commands and environments. After reading
this chapter, you will be able to write your rst documents.
Chapter 3 explains how to typeset formulae with L
A
T
E
X. Many examples
demonstrate how to use one of L
A
T
E
Xs main strengths. At the end
of the chapter are tables listing all mathematical symbols available in
L
A
T
E
X.
Chapter 4 explains indexes, bibliography generation and inclusion of EPS
graphics. It introduces creation of PDF documents with pdfL
A
T
E
X and
presents some handy extension packages.
Chapter 5 shows how to use L
A
T
E
X for creating graphics. Instead of draw-
ing a picture with some graphics program, saving it to a le and then
including it into L
A
T
E
X you describe the picture and have L
A
T
E
X draw
it for you.
Chapter 6 contains some potentially dangerous information about how to
alter the standard document layout produced by L
A
T
E
X. It will tell you
how to change things such that the beautiful output of L
A
T
E
X turns ugly
or stunning, depending on your abilities.
vi Preface
It is important to read the chapters in orderthe book is not that big, after
all. Be sure to carefully read the examples, because a lot of the information
is in the examples placed throughout the book.
L
A
T
E
X is available for most computers, from the PC and Mac to large UNIX
and VMS systems. On many university computer clusters you will nd that
a L
A
T
E
X installation is available, ready to use. Information on how to access
the local L
A
T
E
X installation should be provided in the Local Guide [5]. If you
have problems getting started, ask the person who gave you this booklet.
The scope of this document is not to tell you how to install and set up a
L
A
T
E
X system, but to teach you how to write your documents so that they
can be processed by L
A
T
E
X.
If you need to get hold of any L
A
T
E
X related material, have a look at one
of the Comprehensive T
E
X Archive Network (CTAN) sites. The homepage is
at http://www.ctan.org. All packages can also be retrieved from the ftp
archive ftp://www.ctan.org and its various mirror sites all over the world.
They can be found e.g. at ftp://ctan.tug.org (US), ftp://ftp.dante.de
(Germany), ftp://ftp.tex.ac.uk (UK). If you are not in one of these coun-
tries, choose the archive closest to you.
You will nd other references to CTAN throughout the book, especially
pointers to software and documents you might want to download. Instead of
writing down complete urls, I just wrote CTAN: followed by whatever location
within the CTAN tree you should go to.
If you want to run L
A
T
E
X on your own computer, take a look at what is
available from CTAN:/tex-archive/systems.
If you have ideas for something to be added, removed or altered in this
document, please let me know. I am especially interested in feedback from
L
A
T
E
X novices about which bits of this intro are easy to understand and
which could be explained better.
Tobias Oetiker <oetiker@ee.ethz.ch>
Department of Information Technology and
Electrical Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
The current version of this document is available on
CTAN:/tex-archive/info/lshort
Contents
Thank you! iii
Preface v
1 Things You Need to Know 1
1.1 The Name of the Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 T
E
X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 L
A
T
E
X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Author, Book Designer, and Typesetter . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Layout Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 L
A
T
E
X Input Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 L
A
T
E
X Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Input File Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 A Typical Command Line Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 The Layout of the Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.1 Document Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.2 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.3 Page Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Files You Might Encounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 Big Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Typesetting Text 15
2.1 The Structure of Text and Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Line Breaking and Page Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Justied Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Ready-Made Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Special Characters and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
viii CONTENTS
2.4.1 Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Dashes and Hyphens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.3 Tilde () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.4 Degree Symbol () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.5 The Euro Currency Symbol () . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.6 Ellipsis (. . . ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.7 Ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.8 Accents and Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 International Language Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.1 Support for Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.2 Support for French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.3 Support for German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.4 Support for Korean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.5 Support for Cyrillic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 The Space Between Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Titles, Chapters, and Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.8 Cross References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.9 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.10 Emphasized Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.11 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.11.1 Itemize, Enumerate, and Description . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.11.2 Flushleft, Flushright, and Center . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.11.3 Quote, Quotation, and Verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.11.4 Printing Verbatim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.11.5 Tabular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.12 Floating Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.13 Protecting Fragile Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae 45
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Grouping in Math Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Math Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 Vertically Aligned Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6 Phantoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7 Math Font Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8 Theorems, Laws, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.9 Bold Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.10 List of Mathematical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4 Specialities 65
4.1 Including Encapsulated PostScript Graphics . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
CONTENTS ix
4.4 Fancy Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.5 The Verbatim Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.6 Downloading and Installing L
A
T
E
X Packages . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.7 Working with pdfL
A
T
E
X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.7.1 PDF Documents for the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.7.2 The Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.7.3 Using Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.7.4 Hypertext Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.7.5 Problems with Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.7.6 Problems with Bookmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.8 Creating Presentations with pdfscreen . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Producing Mathematical Graphics 85
5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2 The picture Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.1 Basic Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.2 Line Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.3 Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.4 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2.5 Text and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2.6 The \multiput and the \linethickness command . . 90
5.2.7 Ovals. The \thinlines and the \thicklines command 91
5.2.8 Multiple Use of Predened Picture Boxes . . . . . . . 92
5.2.9 Quadratic Bzier Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2.10 Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2.11 Rapidity in the Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . 95
5.3 X
Y
-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6 Customising L
A
T
E
X 99
6.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages . . . . . . . . . 99
6.1.1 New Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.1.2 New Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1.3 Your Own Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Fonts and Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2.1 Font Changing Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2.2 Danger, Will Robinson, Danger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.3 Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3 Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3.1 Line Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3.2 Paragraph Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3.3 Horizontal Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.3.4 Vertical Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4 Page Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5 More Fun With Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
x CONTENTS
6.6 Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.7 Rules and Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Bibliography 115
Index 117
List of Figures
1.1 A Minimal L
A
T
E
X File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Example of a Realistic Journal Article. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1 Example fancyhdr Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2 Example pdfscreen input le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.1 Example Package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.2 Page Layout Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
List of Tables
1.1 Document Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Document Class Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Some of the Packages Distributed with L
A
T
E
X. . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 The Predened Page Styles of L
A
T
E
X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1 A bag full of Euro symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Accents and Special Characters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Preamble forPortuguese documents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Special commands for French. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 German Special Characters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Bulgarian, Russian, and Ukrainian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Float Placing Permissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1 Math Mode Accents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Lowercase Greek Letters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 Uppercase Greek Letters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4 Binary Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.5 Binary Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6 BIG Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7 Arrows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Delimiters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.9 Large Delimiters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.10 Miscellaneous Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.11 Non-Mathematical Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.12 AMS Delimiters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.13 AMS Greek and Hebrew. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.14 AMS Binary Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.15 AMS Arrows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.16 AMS Negated Binary Relations and Arrows. . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.17 AMS Binary Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.18 AMS Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.19 Math Alphabets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.1 Key Names for graphicx Package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
xiv LIST OF TABLES
4.2 Index Key Syntax Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1 Fonts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Font Sizes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.3 Absolute Point Sizes in Standard Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.4 Math Fonts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.5 T
E
X Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter 1
Things You Need to Know
The rst part of this chapter presents a short overview of the philosophy and
history of L
A
T
E
X2
is pronounced Lay-tech
two e and typed LaTeX2e.
1.2 Basics
1.2.1 Author, Book Designer, and Typesetter
To publish something, authors give their typed manuscript to a publishing
company. One of their book designers then decides the layout of the docu-
ment (column width, fonts, space before and after headings, . . . ). The book
designer writes his instructions into the manuscript and then gives it to a
typesetter, who typesets the book according to these instructions.
A human book designer tries to nd out what the author had in mind
while writing the manuscript. He decides on chapter headings, citations,
examples, formulae, etc. based on his professional knowledge and from the
contents of the manuscript.
In a L
A
T
E
X environment, L
A
T
E
X takes the role of the book designer and
uses T
E
X as its typesetter. But L
A
T
E
X is only a program and therefore
needs more guidance. The author has to provide additional information to
describe the logical structure of his work. This information is written into
the text as L
A
T
E
X commands.
This is quite dierent from the WYSIWYG
1
approach that most modern
word processors, such as MS Word or Corel WordPerfect, take. With these
applications, authors specify the document layout interactively while typing
text into the computer. They can see on the screen how the nal work will
look when it is printed.
When using L
A
T
E
X it is not normally possible to see the nal output while
typing the text, but the nal output can be previewed on the screen after
processing the le with L
A
T
E
X. Then corrections can be made before actually
sending the document to the printer.
1.2.2 Layout Design
Typographical design is a craft. Unskilled authors often commit serious
formatting errors by assuming that book design is mostly a question of
aestheticsIf a document looks good artistically, it is well designed. But
as a document has to be read and not hung up in a picture gallery, the read-
ability and understandability is much more important than the beautiful
look of it. Examples:
The font size and the numbering of headings have to be chosen to make
the structure of chapters and sections clear to the reader.
1
What you see is what you get.
1.2 Basics 3
The line length has to be short enough not to strain the eyes of the
reader, while long enough to ll the page beautifully.
With WYSIWYG systems, authors often generate aesthetically pleasing
documents with very little or inconsistent structure. L
A
T
E
X prevents such
formatting errors by forcing the author to declare the logical structure of his
document. L
A
T
E
X then chooses the most suitable layout.
1.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
When people from the WYSIWYG world meet people who use L
A
T
E
X, they
often discuss the advantages of L
A
T
E
X over a normal word processor or the
opposite. The best thing you can do when such a discussion starts is to keep
a low prole, since such discussions often get out of hand. But sometimes
you cannot escape . . .
So here is some ammunition. The main advantages of L
A
T
E
X over normal
word processors are the following:
Professionally crafted layouts are available, which make a document
really look as if printed.
The typesetting of mathematical formulae is supported in a convenient
way.
Users only need to learn a few easy-to-understand commands that spec-
ify the logical structure of a document. They almost never need to
tinker with the actual layout of the document.
Even complex structures such as footnotes, references, table of con-
tents, and bibliographies can be generated easily.
Free add-on packages exist for many typographical tasks not directly
supported by basic L
A
T
E
X. For example, packages are available to in-
clude PostScript graphics or to typeset bibliographies conforming to
exact standards. Many of these add-on packages are described in The
L
A
T
E
X Companion [3].
L
A
T
E
X encourages authors to write well-structured texts, because this
is how L
A
T
E
X worksby specifying structure.
T
E
X, the formatting engine of L
A
T
E
X2
distribution
provides additional classes for other documents, including letters and slides.
The options parameter customises the behaviour of the document class. The
options have to be separated by commas. The most common options for the
standard document classes are listed in Table 1.2.
Example: An input le for a L
A
T
E
X document could start with the line
\documentclass[11pt,twoside,a4paper]{article}
which instructs L
A
T
E
X to typeset the document as an article with a base
font size of eleven points, and to produce a layout suitable for double sided
printing on A4 paper.
1.6.2 Packages
While writing your document, you will probably nd that there are some
areas where basic L
A
T
E
X cannot solve your problem. If you want to include
graphics, coloured text or source code from a le into your document, you
Table 1.1: Document Classes.
article for articles in scientic journals, presentations, short reports,
program documentation, invitations, . . .
report for longer reports containing several chapters, small books, PhD
theses, . . .
book for real books
slides for slides. The class uses big sans serif letters. You might want
to consider using FoilT
E
X
a
instead.
a
macros/latex/contrib/supported/foiltex
10 Things You Need to Know
Table 1.2: Document Class Options.
10pt, 11pt, 12pt Sets the size of the main font in the document. If
no option is specied, 10pt is assumed.
a4paper, letterpaper, . . . Denes the paper size. The default size
is letterpaper. Besides that, a5paper, b5paper,
executivepaper, and legalpaper can be specied.
fleqn Typesets displayed formulae left-aligned instead of centred.
leqno Places the numbering of formulae on the left hand side
instead of the right.
titlepage, notitlepage Species whether a new page should be
started after the document title or not. The article class does
not start a new page by default, while report and book do.
onecolumn, twocolumn Instructs L
A
T
E
X to typeset the document in
one column or two columns.
twoside, oneside Species whether double or single sided output
should be generated. The classes article and report are single
sided and the book class is double sided by default. Note that
this option concerns the style of the document only. The option
twoside does not tell the printer you use that it should actually
make a two-sided printout.
landscape Changes the layout of the document to print in landscape
mode.
openright, openany Makes chapters begin either only on right
hand pages or on the next page available. This does not work
with the article class, as it does not know about chapters. The
report class by default starts chapters on the next page available
and the book class starts them on right hand pages.
1.7 Files You Might Encounter 11
need to enhance the capabilities of L
A
T
E
X. Such enhancements are called
packages. Packages are activated with the
\usepackage[options]{package}
command, where package is the name of the package and options is a list of
keywords that trigger special features in the package. Some packages come
with the L
A
T
E
X2
.
1.6.3 Page Styles
L
A
T
E
X supports three predened header/footer combinationsso-called page
styles. The style parameter of the
\pagestyle{style}
command denes which one to use. Table 1.4 lists the predened page styles.
It is possible to change the page style of the current page with the com-
mand
\thispagestyle{style}
A description how to create your own headers and footers can be found
in The L
A
T
E
X Companion [3] and in section 4.4 on page 69.
1.7 Files You Might Encounter
When you work with L
A
T
E
X you will soon nd yourself in a maze of les
with various extensions and probably no clue. The following list explains
the various le types you might encounter when working with T
E
X. Please
note that this table does not claim to be a complete list of extensions, but
if you nd one missing that you think is important, please drop me a line.
.tex L
A
T
E
X or T
E
X input le. Can be compiled with latex.
.sty L
A
T
E
X Macro package. This is a le you can load into your L
A
T
E
X
document using the \usepackage command.
.dtx Documented T
E
X. This is the main distribution format for L
A
T
E
X style
les. If you process a .dtx le you get documented macro code of the
L
A
T
E
X package contained in the .dtx le.
12 Things You Need to Know
Table 1.3: Some of the Packages Distributed with L
A
T
E
X.
doc Allows the documentation of L
A
T
E
X programs.
Described in doc.dtx
a
and in The L
A
T
E
X Companion [3].
exscale Provides scaled versions of the math extension font.
Described in ltexscale.dtx.
fontenc Species which font encoding L
A
T
E
X should use.
Described in ltoutenc.dtx.
ifthen Provides commands of the form
if. . . then do. . . otherwise do. . . .
Described in ifthen.dtx and The L
A
T
E
X Companion [3].
latexsym To access the L
A
T
E
X symbol font, you should use the
latexsym package. Described in latexsym.dtx and in The
L
A
T
E
X Companion [3].
makeidx Provides commands for producing indexes. Described in
section 4.3 and in The L
A
T
E
X Companion [3].
syntonly Processes a document without typesetting it.
inputenc Allows the specication of an input encoding such as
ASCII, ISO Latin-1, ISO Latin-2, 437/850 IBM code pages,
Apple Macintosh, Next, ANSI-Windows or user-dened one.
Described in inputenc.dtx.
a
This le should be installed on your system, and you should be able to
get a dvi le by typing latex doc.dtx in any directory where you have write
permission. The same is true for all the other les mentioned in this table.
Table 1.4: The Predened Page Styles of L
A
T
E
X.
plain prints the page numbers on the bottom of the page, in the middle
of the footer. This is the default page style.
headings prints the current chapter heading and the page number in
the header on each page, while the footer remains empty. (This is
the style used in this document)
empty sets both the header and the footer to be empty.
1.8 Big Projects 13
.ins The installer for the les contained in the matching .dtx le. If you
download a L
A
T
E
X package from the net, you will normally get a .dtx
and a .ins le. Run L
A
T
E
X on the .ins le to unpack the .dtx le.
.cls Class les dene what your document looks like. They are selected
with the \documentclass command.
.fd Font description le telling L
A
T
E
X about new fonts.
The following les are generated when you run L
A
T
E
X on your input le:
.dvi Device Independent File. This is the main result of a L
A
T
E
X compile
run. You can look at its content with a DVI previewer program or you
can send it to a printer with dvips or a similar application.
.log Gives a detailed account of what happened during the last compiler
run.
.toc Stores all your section headers. It gets read in for the next compiler
run and is used to produce the table of content.
.lof This is like .toc but for the list of gures.
.lot And again the same for the list of tables.
.aux Another le that transports information from one compiler run to the
next. Among other things, the .aux le is used to store information
associated with cross-references.
.idx If your document contains an index. L
A
T
E
X stores all the words that
go into the index in this le. Process this le with makeindex. Refer
to section 4.3 on page 68 for more information on indexing.
.ind The processed .idx le, ready for inclusion into your document on the
next compile cycle.
.ilg Logle telling what makeindex did.
1.8 Big Projects
When working on big documents, you might want to split the input le into
several parts. L
A
T
E
X has two commands that help you to do that.
\include{lename}
You can use this command in the document body to insert the contents of
another le named lename.tex. Note that L
A
T
E
X will start a new page before
processing the material input from lename.tex.
14 Things You Need to Know
The second command can be used in the preamble. It allows you to
instruct L
A
T
E
X to only input some of the \included les.
\includeonly{lename,lename,. . . }
After this command is executed in the preamble of the document, only
\include commands for the lenames that are listed in the argument of
the \includeonly command will be executed. Note that there must be no
spaces between the lenames and the commas.
The \include command starts typesetting the included text on a new
page. This is helpful when you use \includeonly, because the page breaks
will not move, even when some included les are omitted. Sometimes this
might not be desirable. In this case, you can use the
\input{lename}
command. It simply includes the le specied. No ashy suits, no strings
attached.
To make L
A
T
E
X quickly check your document you can use the syntonly
package. This makes L
A
T
E
X skim through your document only checking for
proper syntax and usage of the commands, but doesnt produce any (DVI)
output. As L
A
T
E
X runs faster in this mode you may save yourself valuable
time. Usage is very simple:
\usepackage{syntonly}
\syntaxonly
When you want to produce pages, just comment out the second line (by
adding a percent sign).
Chapter 2
Typesetting Text
After reading the previous chapter, you should know about the basic stu of
which a L
A
T
E
X2
\b o oo \t oo
\oe \OE \ae \AE
\aa \AA
\o \O \l \L
\i \j ! ?
24 Typesetting Text
If you call babel with multiple languages
\usepackage[languageA,languageB]{babel}
you have to use the command
\selectlanguage{languageA}
to set the current language.
Most of the modern computer systems allow you to input letter of na-
tional alphabets directly from the keyboard. In order to handle variety of
input encoding used for dierent groups of languages and/or on dierent
computer platforms L
A
T
E
X employs the inputenc package:
\usepackage[encoding]{inputenc}
When using this package, you should consider that other people might
not be able to display your input les on their computer, because they use a
dierent encoding. For example, the German umlaut on OS/2 is encoded
as 132, on Unix systems using ISO-LATIN 1 it is encoded as 228, while
in cyrillic encoding cp1251 for Windows this letter does not exist at all;
therefore you should use this feature with care. The following encodings
may come in handy, depending on the type of system you are working on
4
Operating encodings
system western latin cyrillic
Mac applemac macukr
Unix latin1 koi8-ru
Windows ansinew cp1251
DOS, OS/2 cp850 cp866nav
If you use multilingual document with conicting input encodings, you
might want to switch to unicode with the help of ucs package.
\usepackage{ucs}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
will enable you to create L
A
T
E
X input les in utf8, a multi-byte encoding in
which each character can be encoded in as little as one byte and as many as
four bytes.
Font encoding is a dierent matter. It denes at which position inside a
T
E
X-font each letter is stored. Multiple input encodings could be mapped
4
To learn more about supported by L
A
T
E
X input encodings for Latin-based and Cyrillic-
based languages, read documentation for inputenc.dtx and cyinpenc.dtx respectively.
Section 4.6 tells how to produce package documentation.
2.5 International Language Support 25
into one font encoding, which reduces number of required font sets. Font
encodings are handled through fontenc package:
\usepackage[encoding]{fontenc}
where encoding is font encoding. It is possible to load several encodings
simultaneously.
The default L
A
T
E
X font encoding is OT1, the encoding of the the original
Computer Modern T
E
X font. It containins only the 128 characters of the 7-
bit ASCII character set. When accented characters are required, T
E
X creates
them by combining a normal character with an accent. While the resulting
output looks perfect, this approach stops the automatic hyphenation from
working inside words containing accented characters. Besides, some of latin
letters could not be created by combining a normal character with an accent,
to say nothing about letters of non-latin alphabets, such as Greek or Cyrillic.
To overcome these shortcomings, several 8-bit CM-like font sets were cre-
ated. Extended Cork (EC) fonts in T1 encoding contains letters and punctu-
ation characters for most of the European languages based on Latin script.
The LH font set contains letters necessary to typeset documents in languages
using Cyrillic script. Because of the large number of Cyrillic glyphs, they are
arranged into four font encodingsT2A, T2B, T2C, and X2.
5
The CB bundle
contains fonts in LGR encoding for the composition of Greek text.
By using these fonts you can improve/enable hyphenation in non-English
documents. Another advantage of using new CM-like fonts is that they
provide fonts of CM families in all weights, shapes, and optically scaled font
sizes.
2.5.1 Support for Portuguese
By Demerson Andre Polli <polli@linux.ime.usp.br>
To enable hyphenation and change all automatic text to Portuguese, use the
command:
\usepackage[portuguese]{babel}
Or if you are in Brazil, substitute the language for brazilian.
5
The list of languages supported by each of these encodings could be found in [11].
26 Typesetting Text
Table 2.3: Preamble forPortuguese documents.
\usepackage[portugese]{babel}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
As there are a lot of accents in Portuguese you might want to use
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
to be able to input them correctly as well as
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
to get the hyphenation right.
See table 2.3 for the preamble you need to write in the Portuguese lan-
guage. Note that we are using the latin1 input encoding here, so this will
not work on a Mac or on DOS. Just use the appropriate encoding for your
system.
2.5 International Language Support 27
2.5.2 Support for French
By Daniel Flipo <daniel.flipo@univ-lille1.fr>
Some hints for those creating French documents with L
A
T
E
X: you can load
French language support with the command
\usepackage[frenchb]{babel}
Note that, for historical reasons, the name of babels option for French is
either frenchb or francais but not french.
This enables French hyphenation, if you have congured your L
A
T
E
X sys-
tem accordingly. It also changes all automatic text into French: \chapter
prints Chapitre, \today prints the current date in French and so on. A set
of new commands also becomes available, which allows you to write French
input les more easily. Check out table 2.4 for inspiration.
Table 2.4: Special commands for French.
\og guillemets \fg{} guillemets
M\up{me}, D\up{r} M
me
, D
r
1\ier{}, 1\iere{}, 1\ieres{} 1
er
, 1
re
, 1
res
2\ieme{} 4\iemes{} 2
e
4
es
\No 1, \no 2 N
o
1, n
o
2
20~\degres C, 45\degres 20C, 45
\bsc{M. Durand} M. Durand
\nombre{1234,56789} 1 234,567 89
You will also notice that the layout of lists changes when switching to
the French language. For more information on what the frenchb option
of babel does and how you can customize its behaviour, run L
A
T
E
X on le
frenchb.dtx and read the produced le frenchb.dvi.
2.5.3 Support for German
Some hints for those creating German documents with L
A
T
E
X: you can load
German language support with the command
\usepackage[german]{babel}
This enables German hyphenation, if you have congured your L
A
T
E
X
system accordingly. It also changes all automatic text into German. Eg.
28 Typesetting Text
Chapter becomes Kapitel. A set of new commands also becomes avail-
able, which allows you to write German input les more quickly even when
you dont use the inputenc package. Check out table 2.5 for inspiration.
With inputenc, all this become moot, but your text also is locked in a par-
ticular encoding world.
Table 2.5: German Special Characters.
"a "s
" "
"< or \flqq "> or \frqq
\flq \frq
\dq "
In German books you often nd French quotation marks (guillemets).
German typesetters, however, use them dierently. A quote in a German
book would look like this. In the German speaking part of Switzerland,
typesetters use guillemets the same way the French do.
A major problem arises from the use of commands like \flq: If you use
the OT1 font (which is the default font) the guillemets will look like the math
symbol , which turns a typesetters stomach. T1 encoded fonts, on the
other hand, do contain the required symbols. So if you are using this type of
quote, make sure you use the T1 encoding. (\usepackage[T1]{fontenc})
2.5.4 Support for Korean
6
To use L
A
T
E
X for typesetting Korean, we need to solve three problems:
1. We must be able to edit Korean input les. Korean input les must
be in plain text format, but because Korean uses its own character set
outside the repertoire of US-ASCII, they will look rather strange with
a normal ASCII editor. The two most widely used encodings for Ko-
rean text les are EUC-KR and its upward compatible extension used
in Korean MS-Windows, CP949/Windows-949/UHC. In these encod-
ings each US-ASCII character represents its normal ASCII character
similar to other ASCII compatible encodings such as ISO-8859-x, EUC-
JP, Shift_JIS, and Big5. On the other hand, Hangul syllables, Han-
jas (Chinese characters as used in Korea), Hangul Jamos, Hirakanas,
6
Considering a number of issues Korean L
A
T
E
X users have to cope with. This section
was written by Karnes KIM on behalf of the Korean lshort translation team. It was
translated into English by SHIN Jungshik and shortened by Tobi Oetiker
2.5 International Language Support 29
Katakanas, Greek and Cyrillic characters and other symbols and let-
ters drawn from KS X 1001 are represented by two consecutive octets.
The rst has its MSB set. Until mid the 1990s, it took a consider-
able amount of time and eort to set up a Korean-capable environ-
ment under a non-localized (non-Korean) operating system. You can
skim through the now much-outdated http://jshin.net/faq to get
a glimpse of what it was like to use Korean under non-Korean OS in
mid-1990s. These days all three major operating systems (Mac OS,
Unix, Windows) come equipped with pretty decent multilingual sup-
port and internationalization features so that editing Korean text le
is not so much of a problem anymore, even on non-Korean operating
systems.
2. T
E
X and L
A
T
E
X were originally written for scripts with no more than
256 characters in their alphabet. To make them work for languages
with considerably more characters such as Korean
7
or Chinese, a sub-
font mechanism was developed. It divides a single CJK font with thou-
sands or tens of thousands of glyphs into a set of subfonts with 256
glyphs each. For Korean, there are three widely used packages; HL
A
T
E
X
by UN Koaunghi, hL
A
T
E
Xp by CHA Jaechoon and the CJK package
by Werner Lemberg.
8
HL
A
T
E
X and hL
A
T
E
Xp are specic to Korean and
provide Korean localization on top of the font support. They both can
process Korean input text les encoded in EUC-KR. HL
A
T
E
X can even
process input les encoded in CP949/Windows-949/UHC and UTF-8
when used along with , .
The CJK package is not specic to Korean. It can process input les
7
Korean Hangul is an alphabetic script with 14 basic consonants and 10 basic vowels
(Jamos). Unlike Latin or Cyrillic scripts, the individual characters have to be arranged
in rectangular clusters about the same size as Chinese characters. Each cluster represents
a syllable. An unlimited number of syllables can be formed out of this nite set of vow-
els and consonants. Modern Korean orthographic standards (both in South Korea and
North Korea), however, put some restriction on the formation of these clusters. Therefore
only a nite the number of orthographically correct syllables exist. The Korean Charac-
ter encoding denes individual code points for each of these syllables (KS X 1001:1998
and KS X 1002:1992). So Hangul, albeit alphabetic, is treated like the Chinese and
Japanese writing systems with tens of thousands of ideographic/logographic characters.
ISO 10646/Unicode oers both ways of representing Hangul used for modern Korean by
encoding Conjoining Hangul Jamos (alphabets: http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U1100.pdf) in addition to encoding all the orthographically allowed Hangul syllables in
modern Korean (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAC00.pdf). One of the most
daunting challenges in Korean typesetting with L
A
T
E
X and related typesetting system is
supporting Middle Koreanand possibly future Koreansyllables that can be only rep-
resented by conjoining Jamos in Unicode. It is hoped that future T
E
X engines like and
will eventually provide solutions to this so that some Korean linguists and historians
will defect from MS Word that already has a pretty good support for Middle Korean.
8
They can be obtained at language/korean/HLaTeX/
language/korean/CJK/ and http://knot.kaist.ac.kr/htex/
30 Typesetting Text
in UTF-8 as well as in various CJK encodings including EUC-KR and
CP949/Windows-949/UHC, it can be used to typeset documents with
multilingual content (especially Chinese, Japanese and Korean). The
CJK package has no Korean localization such as the one oered by
HL
A
T
E
X and it does not come with as many special Korean fonts as
HL
A
T
E
X.
3. The ultimate purpose of using typesetting programs like T
E
X and
L
A
T
E
X is to get documents typeset in an aesthetically satisfying way.
Arguably the most important element in typesetting is a set of well-
designed fonts. The HL
A
T
E
X distribution includes UHC PostScript
fonts of 10 dierent families and Munhwabu
9
fonts (TrueType) of 5
dierent families. The CJK package works with a set of fonts used by
earlier versions of HL
A
T
E
X and it can use Bitstreams cyberbit True-
Type font.
To use the HL
A
T
E
X package for typesetting your Korean text, put the
following declaration into the preamble of your document:
\usepackage{hangul}
This command turns the Korean localization on. The headings of chap-
ters, sections, subsections, table of content and table of gures are all trans-
lated into Korean and the formatting of the document is changed to follow
Korean conventions. The packages also provides automatic particle selec-
tion. In Korean, there are pairs of post-x particles grammatically equiv-
alent but dierent in form. Which of any given pair is correct depends on
whether the preceding syllable ends with a vowel or a consonant. (It is a bit
more complex than this, but this should give you a good picture.) Native
Korean speakers have no problem picking the right particle, but it cannot
be determined which particle to use for references and other automatic text
that will change while you edit the document. It takes a painstaking eort to
place appropriate particles manually every time you add/remove references
or simply shue parts of your document around. HL
A
T
E
X relieves its users
from this boring and error-prone process.
In case you dont need Korean localization features but just want to
typeset Korean text, you can put the following line in the preamble, instead.
\usepackage{hfont}
For more details on typesetting Korean with HL
A
T
E
X, refer to the HL
A
T
E
X
Guide. Check out the web site of the Korean T
E
X User Group (KTUG) at
9
Korean Ministry of Culture
2.5 International Language Support 31
http://www.ktug.or.kr/. There is also a Korean translation of this manual
available.
2.5.5 Support for Cyrillic
By Maksym Polyakov <polyama@myrealbox.com>
Version 3.7h of babel includes support for the T2* encodings and for type-
setting Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian texts using Cyrillic letters.
Support for Cyrillic is based on standard L
A
T
E
X mechanisms through the
fontenc and inputenc packages. But, if you are going to use Cyrillics in math
mode, you need to load mathtext package before fontenc:
10
\usepackage{mathtext}
\usepackage[T1,T2A]{fontenc}
\usepackage[koi8-ru]{inputenc}
\usepackage[english,bulgarian,russian,ukranian]{babel}
Generally, babel will authomatically choose the default font encoding, for
the above three languages this is T2A. However, documents are not restricted
to a single font encoding. For multi-lingual documents using Cyrillic and
Latin-based languages it makes sence to include latin font encoding explicitly.
babel will take care of switching to the appropriate font encoding when a
dierent language is selected within the document.
In addition to enabling hyphenations, translating automatically gener-
ated text strings, and activating some language specic typographic rules
(like \frenchspacing), babel provides some commands allowing typesetting
according to the standards of Bulgarian, Russian, or Ukrainian languages.
For all three languages, language specic punctuation is provided: The
cyrillic dash for the text (it is little narrower than latin dash and surrounded
by tiny spaces), a dash for direct speech, quotes, and commands to facilitate
hyphenation, see Table 2.6.
The Russian and Ukrainian options of babel dene the commands \Asbuk
and \asbuk, which act like \Alph and \alph, but produce capital and small
letters of Russian or Ukrainian alphabets (whichever is the active language
of the document). The Bulgarian option of babel provides the commands
\enumBul and \enumLat (\enumEng), which make \Alph and \alph produce
letters of either Bulgarian or Latin (English) alphabets. The default be-
haviour of \Alph and \alph for the Bulgarian language option is to produce
letters from the Bulgarian alphabet.
10
If you use A
M
S-L
A
T
E
X packages, load them before fontenc and babel as well.
32 Typesetting Text
Table 2.6: The extra denitions made by Bulgarian, Russian, and Ukrainian
options of babel
"| disable ligature at this position.
"- an explicit hyphen sign, allowing hyphenation in the rest of the word.
"--- Cyrillic emdash in plain text.
"--~ Cyrillic emdash in compound names (surnames).
"--* Cyrillic emdash for denoting direct speech.
"" like |"-|, but producing no hyphen sign (for compound words with
hyphen, e.g. |x-""y| or some other signs as disable/enable).
"~ for a compound word mark without a breakpoint.
"= for a compound word mark with a breakpoint, allowing hyphenation
in the composing words.
", thinspace for initials with a breakpoint in following surname.
" for German left double quotes (looks like ,,).
" for German right double quotes (looks like ).
"< for French left double quotes (looks like <<).
"> for French right double quotes (looks like ).
2.6 The Space Between Words
To get a straight right margin in the output, L
A
T
E
X inserts varying amounts
of space between the words. It inserts slightly more space at the end of a
sentence, as this makes the text more readable. L
A
T
E
X assumes that sentences
end with periods, question marks or exclamation marks. If a period follows
an uppercase letter, this is not taken as a sentence ending, since periods after
uppercase letters normally occur in abbreviations.
Any exception from these assumptions has to be specied by the author.
A backslash in front of a space generates a space that will not be enlarged. A
tilde ~ character generates a space that cannot be enlarged and additionally
prohibits a line break. The command \@ in front of a period species that
this period terminates a sentence even when it follows an uppercase letter.
Mr.~Smith was happy to see her\\
cf.~Fig.~5\\
I like BASIC\@. What about you?
Mr. Smith was happy to see her
cf. Fig. 5
I like BASIC. What about you?
The additional space after periods can be disabled with the command
\frenchspacing
which tells L
A
T
E
X not to insert more space after a period than after ordinary
2.7 Titles, Chapters, and Sections 33
character. This is very common in non-English languages, except bibliogra-
phies. If you use \frenchspacing, the command \@ is not necessary.
2.7 Titles, Chapters, and Sections
To help the reader nd his or her way through your work, you should divide
it into chapters, sections, and subsections. L
A
T
E
X supports this with special
commands that take the section title as their argument. It is up to you to
use them in the correct order.
The following sectioning commands are available for the article class:
\section{...}
\subsection{...}
\subsubsection{...}
\paragraph{...}
\subparagraph{...}
If you want to split your document in parts without inuencing the sec-
tion or chapter numbering you can use
\part{...}
When you work with the report or book class, an additional top-level
sectioning command becomes available
\chapter{...}
As the article class does not know about chapters, it is quite easy to add
articles as chapters to a book. The spacing between sections, the numbering
and the font size of the titles will be set automatically by L
A
T
E
X.
Two of the sectioning commands are a bit special:
The \part command does not inuence the numbering sequence of
chapters.
The \appendix command does not take an argument. It just changes
the chapter numbering to letters.
11
L
A
T
E
X creates a table of contents by taking the section headings and page
numbers from the last compile cycle of the document. The command
\tableofcontents
expands to a table of contents at the place it is issued. A new document
has to be compiled (L
A
T
E
Xed) twice to get a correct table of contents.
11
For the article style it changes the section numbering.
34 Typesetting Text
Sometimes it might be necessary to compile the document a third time.
L
A
T
E
X will tell you when this is necessary.
All sectioning commands listed above also exist as starred versions. A
starred version of a command is built by adding a star * after the command
name. This generates section headings that do not show up in the table
of contents and are not numbered. The command \section{Help}, for
example, would become \section*{Help}.
Normally the section headings show up in the table of contents exactly
as they are entered in the text. Sometimes this is not possible, because the
heading is too long to t into the table of contents. The entry for the table of
contents can then be specied as an optional argument in front of the actual
heading.
\chapter[Title for the table of contents]{A long
and especially boring title, shown in the text}
The title of the whole document is generated by issuing a
\maketitle
command. The contents of the title have to be dened by the commands
\title{...}, \author{...} and optionally \date{...}
before calling \maketitle. In the argument to \author, you can supply
several names separated by \and commands.
An example of some of the commands mentioned above can be found in
Figure 1.2 on page 7.
Apart from the sectioning commands explained above, L
A
T
E
X2
intro-
duced three additional commands for use with the book class. They are
useful for dividing your publication. The commands alter chapter headings
and page numbering to work as you would expect it in a book:
\frontmatter should be the very rst command after \begin{document}.
It will switch page numbering to Roman numerals. It is common to use
the starred sectioning commands (eg \chapter*{Preface}) for front
matter as this stops L
A
T
E
X from enumerating them.
\mainmatter comes right before the rst chapter of the book. It turns on
Arabic page numbering and restarts the page counter.
\appendix marks the start of additional material in your book. After this
command chapters will be numbered with letters.
\backmatter should be inserted before the very last items in your book,
such as the bibliography and the index. In the standard document
classes, this has no visual eect.
2.8 Cross References 35
2.8 Cross References
In books, reports and articles, there are often cross-references to gures,
tables and special segments of text. L
A
T
E
X provides the following commands
for cross referencing
\label{marker}, \ref{marker} and \pageref{marker}
where marker is an identier chosen by the user. L
A
T
E
X replaces \ref by
the number of the section, subsection, gure, table, or theorem after which
the corresponding \label command was issued. \pageref prints the page
number of the page where the \label command occurred.
12
As with the
section titles, the numbers from the previous run are used.
A reference to this subsection
\label{sec:this} looks like:
see section~\ref{sec:this} on
page~\pageref{sec:this}.
A reference to this subsection looks like: see
section 19 on page 35.
2.9 Footnotes
With the command
\footnote{footnote text}
a footnote is printed at the foot of the current page. Footnotes should always
be put
13
after the word or sentence they refer to. Footnotes referring to a
sentence or part of it should therefore be put after the comma or period.
14
Footnotes\footnote{This is
a footnote.} are often used
by people using \LaTeX.
Footnotes
a
are often used by people using
L
A
T
E
X.
a
This is a footnote.
12
Note that these commands are not aware of what they refer to. \label just saves the
last automatically generated number.
13
put is one of the most common English words.
14
Note that footnotes distract the reader from the main body of your document. After
all, everybody reads the footnoteswe are a curious species, so why not just integrate
everything you want to say into the body of the document?
15
15
A guidepost doesnt necessarily go where its pointing to :-).
36 Typesetting Text
2.10 Emphasized Words
If a text is typed using a typewriter, important words are emphasized by
underlining them.
\underline{text}
In printed books, however, words are emphasized by typesetting them in
an italic font. L
A
T
E
X provides the command
\emph{text}
to emphasize text. What the command actually does with its argument
depends on the context:
\emph{If you use
emphasizing inside a piece
of emphasized text, then
\LaTeX{} uses the
\emph{normal} font for
emphasizing.}
If you use emphasizing inside a piece of em-
phasized text, then L
A
T
E
X uses the normal
font for emphasizing.
Please note the dierence between telling L
A
T
E
X to emphasize something
and telling it to use a dierent font:
\textit{You can also
\emph{emphasize} text if
it is set in italics,}
\textsf{in a
\emph{sans-serif} font,}
\texttt{or in
\emph{typewriter} style.}
You can also emphasize text if it is set in ital-
ics, in a sans-serif font, or in typewriter
style.
2.11 Environments
\begin{environment} text \end{environment}
Where environment is the name of the environment. Environments can be
nested within each other as long as the correct nesting order is maintained.
\begin{aaa}...\begin{bbb}...\end{bbb}...\end{aaa}
In the following sections all important environments are explained.
2.11 Environments 37
2.11.1 Itemize, Enumerate, and Description
The itemize environment is suitable for simple lists, the enumerate envi-
ronment for enumerated lists, and the description environment for descrip-
tions.
\flushleft
\begin{enumerate}
\item You can mix the list
environments to your taste:
\begin{itemize}
\item But it might start to
look silly.
\item[-] With a dash.
\end{itemize}
\item Therefore remember:
\begin{description}
\item[Stupid] things will not
become smart because they are
in a list.
\item[Smart] things, though, can be
presented beautifully in a list.
\end{description}
\end{enumerate}
1. You can mix the list environments to
your taste:
But it might start to look silly.
- With a dash.
2. Therefore remember:
Stupid things will not become smart
because they are in a list.
Smart things, though, can be
presented beautifully in a list.
2.11.2 Flushleft, Flushright, and Center
The environments flushleft and flushright generate paragraphs that are
either left- or right-aligned. The center environment generates centred text.
If you do not issue \\ to specify line breaks, L
A
T
E
X will automatically deter-
mine line breaks.
\begin{flushleft}
This text is\\ left-aligned.
\LaTeX{} is not trying to make
each line the same length.
\end{flushleft}
This text is
left-aligned. L
A
T
E
X is not trying to make
each line the same length.
\begin{flushright}
This text is right-\\aligned.
\LaTeX{} is not trying to make
each line the same length.
\end{flushright}
This text is right-
aligned. L
A
T
E
X is not trying to make each
line the same length.
\begin{center}
At the centre\\of the earth
\end{center}
At the centre
of the earth
38 Typesetting Text
2.11.3 Quote, Quotation, and Verse
The quote environment is useful for quotes, important phrases and examples.
A typographical rule of thumb
for the line length is:
\begin{quote}
On average, no line should
be longer than 66 characters.
\end{quote}
This is why \LaTeX{} pages have
such large borders by default and
also why multicolumn print is
used in newspapers.
A typographical rule of thumb for the line
length is:
On average, no line should be
longer than 66 characters.
This is why L
A
T
E
X pages have such large bor-
ders by default and also why multicolumn
print is used in newspapers.
There are two similar environments: the quotation and the verse envi-
ronments. The quotation environment is useful for longer quotes going over
several paragraphs, because it indents the rst line of each paragraph. The
verse environment is useful for poems where the line breaks are important.
The lines are separated by issuing a \\ at the end of a line and an empty
line after each verse.
I know only one English poem by
heart. It is about Humpty Dumpty.
\begin{flushleft}
\begin{verse}
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall:\\
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.\\
All the Kings horses and all
the Kings men\\
Couldnt put Humpty together
again.
\end{verse}
\end{flushleft}
I know only one English poem by heart. It is
about Humpty Dumpty.
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall:
Humpty Dumpty had a great
fall.
All the Kings horses and all
the Kings men
Couldnt put Humpty together
again.
2.11.4 Printing Verbatim
Text that is enclosed between \begin{verbatim} and \end{verbatim} will
be directly printed, as if typed on a typewriter, with all line breaks and
spaces, without any L
A
T
E
X command being executed.
Within a paragraph, similar behavior can be accessed with
\verb+text+
The + is just an example of a delimiter character. You can use any character
except letters, * or space. Many L
A
T
E
X examples in this booklet are typeset
with this command.
2.11 Environments 39
The \verb|\ldots| command \ldots
\begin{verbatim}
10 PRINT "HELLO WORLD ";
20 GOTO 10
\end{verbatim}
The \ldots command . . .
10 PRINT "HELLO WORLD ";
20 GOTO 10
\begin{verbatim*}
the starred version of
the verbatim
environment emphasizes
the spaces in the text
\end{verbatim*}
thestarredversionof
theverbatim
environmentemphasizes
thespacesinthetext
The \verb command can be used in a similar fashion with a star:
\verb*|like this :-) | likethis:-)
The verbatim environment and the \verb command may not be used
within parameters of other commands.
2.11.5 Tabular
The tabular environment can be used to typeset beautiful tables with
optional horizontal and vertical lines. L
A
T
E
X determines the width of the
columns automatically.
The table spec argument of the
\begin{tabular}[pos]{table spec}
command denes the format of the table. Use an l for a column of left-
aligned text, r for right-aligned text, and c for centred text; p{width }
for a column containing justied text with line breaks, and | for a vertical
line.
If the text in a column is too wide for the page, L
A
T
E
X wont automatically
wrap it. Using p{width } you can dene a special type of column which
will wrap-around the text as in a normal paragraph.
The pos argument species the vertical position of the table relative to
the baseline of the surrounding text. Use either of the letters t , b and c
to specify table alignment at the top, bottom or center.
Within a tabular environment, & jumps to the next column, \\ starts
a new line and \hline inserts a horizontal line. You can add partial lines
by using the \cline{j -i }, where j and i are the column numbers the line
should extend over.
40 Typesetting Text
\begin{tabular}{|r|l|}
\hline
7C0 & hexadecimal \\
3700 & octal \\ \cline{2-2}
11111000000 & binary \\
\hline \hline
1984 & decimal \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
7C0 hexadecimal
3700 octal
11111000000 binary
1984 decimal
\begin{tabular}{|p{4.7cm}|}
\hline
Welcome to Boxys paragraph.
We sincerely hope youll
all enjoy the show.\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
Welcome to Boxys paragraph.
We sincerely hope youll all en-
joy the show.
The column separator can be specied with the @{...} construct. This
command kills the inter-column space and replaces it with whatever is be-
tween the curly braces. One common use for this command is explained
below in the decimal alignment problem. Another possible application is to
suppress leading space in a table with @{} .
\begin{tabular}{@{} l @{}}
\hline
no leading space\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
no leading space
\begin{tabular}{l}
\hline
leading space left and right\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
leading space left and right
Since there is no built-in way to align numeric columns to a decimal
point,
16
we can cheat and do it by using two columns: a right-aligned inte-
ger and a left-aligned fraction. The @{.} command in the \begin{tabular}
line replaces the normal inter-column spacing with just a ., giving the ap-
pearance of a single, decimal-point-justied column. Dont forget to replace
the decimal point in your numbers with a column separator (&)! A column
label can be placed above our numeric column by using the \multicolumn
command.
16
If the tools bundle is installed on your system, have a look at the dcolumn package.
2.12 Floating Bodies 41
\begin{tabular}{c r @{.} l}
Pi expression &
\multicolumn{2}{c}{Value} \\
\hline
$\pi$ & 3&1416 \\
$\pi^{\pi}$ & 36&46 \\
$(\pi^{\pi})^{\pi}$ & 80662&7 \\
\end{tabular}
Pi expression Value
3.1416
36.46
(
80662.7
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Ene} \\
\hline
Mene & Muh! \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
Ene
Mene Muh!
Material typeset with the tabular environment always stays together on
one page. If you want to typeset long tables, you might want to have a look
at the supertabular and the longtabular environments.
2.12 Floating Bodies
Today most publications contain a lot of gures and tables. These elements
need special treatment, because they cannot be broken across pages. One
method would be to start a new page every time a gure or a table is too
large to t on the present page. This approach would leave pages partially
empty, which looks very bad.
The solution to this problem is to oat any gure or table that does not
t on the current page to a later page, while lling the current page with
body text. L
A
T
E
X oers two environments for oating bodies; one for tables
and one for gures. To take full advantage of these two environments it is
important to understand approximately how L
A
T
E
X handles oats internally.
Otherwise oats may become a major source of frustration, because L
A
T
E
X
never puts them where you want them to be.
Lets rst have a look at the commands L
A
T
E
X supplies for oats:
Any material enclosed in a figure or table environment will be treated
as oating matter. Both oat environments support an optional parameter
\begin{figure}[placement specier] or \begin{table}[placement specier]
called the placement specier. This parameter is used to tell L
A
T
E
X about the
locations to which the oat is allowed to be moved. A placement specier is
constructed by building a string of oat-placing permissions. See Table 2.7.
A table could be started with the following line e.g.
42 Typesetting Text
\begin{table}[!hbp]
The placement specier [!hbp] allows L
A
T
E
X to place the table right here
(h) or at the bottom (b) of some page or on a special oats page (p), and all
this even if it does not look that good (!). If no placement specier is given,
the standard classes assume [tbp].
L
A
T
E
X will place every oat it encounters according to the placement
specier supplied by the author. If a oat cannot be placed on the current
page it is deferred either to the gures or the tables queue.
17
When a new
page is started, L
A
T
E
X rst checks if it is possible to ll a special oat page
with oats from the queues. If this is not possible, the rst oat on each
queue is treated as if it had just occurred in the text: L
A
T
E
X tries again to
place it according to its respective placement speciers (except h, which is
no longer possible). Any new oats occurring in the text get placed into the
appropriate queues. L
A
T
E
X strictly maintains the original order of appearance
for each type of oat. Thats why a gure that cannot be placed pushes all
further gures to the end of the document. Therefore:
If L
A
T
E
X is not placing the oats as you expected, it is often only
one oat jamming one of the two oat queues.
While it is possible to give L
A
T
E
X single-location placement speciers,
this causes problems. If the oat does not t in the location specied it
becomes stuck, blocking subsequent oats. In particular, you should never,
ever use the [h] optionit is so bad that in more recent versions of L
A
T
E
X,
it is automatically replaced by [ht].
17
These are FIFOrst in rst outqueues!
Table 2.7: Float Placing Permissions.
Spec Permission to place the oat . . .
h here at the very place in the text where it occurred. This is
useful mainly for small oats.
t at the top of a page
b at the bottom of a page
p on a special page containing only oats.
! without considering most of the internal parameters
a
, which
could stop this oat from being placed.
Note that pt and em are T
E
X units. Read more on this in table 6.5 on page
108.
a
Such as the maximum number of oats allowed on one page.
2.12 Floating Bodies 43
Having explained the dicult bit, there are some more things to mention
about the table and figure environments. With the
\caption{caption text}
command, you can dene a caption for the oat. A running number and the
string Figure or Table will be added by L
A
T
E
X.
The two commands
\listoffigures and \listoftables
operate analogously to the \tableofcontents command, printing a list of
gures or tables, respectively. These lists will display the whole caption, so if
you tend to use long captions you must have a shorter version of the caption
for the lists. This is accomplished by entering the short version in brackets
after the \caption command.
\caption[Short]{LLLLLoooooonnnnnggggg}
With \label and \ref, you can create a reference to a oat within your
text.
The following example draws a square and inserts it into the document.
You could use this if you wanted to reserve space for images you are going
to paste into the nished document.
Figure~\ref{white} is an example of Pop-Art.
\begin{figure}[!hbp]
\makebox[\textwidth]{\framebox[5cm]{\rule{0pt}{5cm}}}
\caption{Five by Five in Centimetres.} \label{white}
\end{figure}
In the example above, L
A
T
E
X will try really hard (!) to place the gure right
here (h).
18
If this is not possible, it tries to place the gure at the bottom (b)
of the page. Failing to place the gure on the current page, it determines
whether it is possible to create a oat page containing this gure and maybe
some tables from the tables queue. If there is not enough material for a
special oat page, L
A
T
E
X starts a new page, and once more treats the gure
as if it had just occurred in the text.
Under certain circumstances it might be necessary to use the
\clearpage or even the \cleardoublepage
command. It orders L
A
T
E
X to immediately place all oats remaining in the
queues and then start a new page. \cleardoublepage even goes to a new
right-hand page.
18
assuming the gure queue is empty.
44 Typesetting Text
You will learn how to include PostScript drawings into your L
A
T
E
X2
n
k=1
1
k
2
=
2
6
\begin{displaymath}
\lim_{n \to \infty}
\sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{k^2}
= \frac{\pi^2}{6}
\end{displaymath}
lim
n
n
k=1
1
/
2
=
2
6
There are dierences between math mode and text mode. For example,
in math mode:
1. Most spaces and line breaks do not have any signicance, as all spaces
are either derived logically from the mathematical expressions, or have
to be specied with special commands such as \,, \quad or \qquad.
2. Empty lines are not allowed. Only one paragraph per formula.
3.2 Grouping in Math Mode 47
3. Each letter is considered to be the name of a variable and will be
typeset as such. If you want to typeset normal text within a formula
(normal upright font and normal spacing) then you have to enter the
text using the \textrm{...} commands (see also section 3.7 on page
54).
\begin{equation}
\forall x \in \mathbf{R}:
\qquad x^{2} \geq 0
\end{equation}
r R : r
2
0 (3.2)
\begin{equation}
x^{2} \geq 0\qquad
\textrm{for all }x\in\mathbf{R}
\end{equation}
r
2
0 for all r R (3.3)
Mathematicians can be very fussy about which symbols are used: it
would be conventional here to use blackboard bold, which is obtained using
\mathbb from the package amsfonts or amssymb. The last example becomes
\begin{displaymath}
x^{2} \geq 0\qquad
\textrm{for all }x\in\mathbb{R}
\end{displaymath}
r
2
0 for all r 1
3.2 Grouping in Math Mode
Most math mode commands act only on the next character, so if you want
a command to aect several characters, you have to group them together
using curly braces: {...}.
\begin{equation}
a^x+y \neq a^{x+y}
\end{equation}
o
x
+ j ,= o
x+y
(3.4)
3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula
This section describes the most important commands used in mathematical
typesetting. Take a look at section 3.10 on page 58 for a detailed list of
commands for typesetting mathematical symbols.
Lowercase Greek letters are entered as \alpha, \beta, \gamma, . . . ,
uppercase letters are entered as \Gamma, \Delta, . . .
2
2
There is no uppercase Alpha dened in L
A
T
E
X2
r
_
r
2
+
j
3
[r
2
+ j
2
]
The commands \overline and \underline create horizontal lines di-
rectly over or under an expression.
$\overline{m+n}$ : + n
The commands \overbrace and \underbrace create long horizontal
braces over or under an expression.
$\underbrace{ a+b+\cdots+z }_{26}$
o + / + + .
. .
26
To add mathematical accents such as small arrows or tilde signs to vari-
ables, you can use the commands given in Table 3.1 on page 58. Wide hats
and tildes covering several characters are generated with \widetilde and
\widehat. The symbol gives a prime.
\begin{displaymath}
y=x^{2}\qquad y=2x\qquad y=2
\end{displaymath}
j = r
2
j
= 2r j
= 2
Vectors often are specied by adding small arrow symbols on top of
a variable. This is done with the \vec command. The two commands
\overrightarrow and \overleftarrow are useful to denote the vector from
to 1.
3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula 49
\begin{displaymath}
\vec a\quad\overrightarrow{AB}
\end{displaymath}
o
1
Usually you dont typeset an explicit dot sign to indicate the multiplica-
tion operation; however sometimes it is written to help the readers eyes in
grouping a formula. You should use \cdot in these cases:
\begin{displaymath}
v = {\sigma}_1 \cdot {\sigma}_2
{\tau}_1 \cdot {\tau}_2
\end{displaymath}
=
1
2
1
2
Names of log-like functions are often typeset in an upright font, and
not in italics as variables are, so L
A
T
E
X supplies the following commands to
typeset the most important function names:
\arccos \cos \csc \exp \ker \limsup \min
\arcsin \cosh \deg \gcd \lg \ln \Pr
\arctan \cot \det \hom \lim \log \sec
\arg \coth \dim \inf \liminf \max \sin
\sinh \sup \tan \tanh
\[\lim_{x \rightarrow 0}
\frac{\sin x}{x}=1\]
lim
x0
sinr
r
= 1
For the modulo function, there are two commands: \bmod for the binary
operator o mod / and \pmod for expressions such as r o (mod /).
$a\bmod b$\\
$x\equiv a \pmod{b}$
o mod /
r o (mod /)
A built-up fraction is typeset with the \frac{...}{...} command.
Often the slashed form 1,2 is preferable, because it looks better for small
amounts of fraction material.
$1\frac{1}{2}$~hours
\begin{displaymath}
\frac{ x^{2} }{ k+1 }\qquad
x^{ \frac{2}{k+1} }\qquad
x^{ 1/2 }
\end{displaymath}
1
1
2
hours
r
2
/ + 1
r
2
k+1
r
1/2
To typeset binomial coecients or similar structures, you can use the
command \binom from the amsmath package.
50 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
\begin{displaymath}
\binom{n}{k}\qquad\mathrm{C}_n^k
\end{displaymath}
_
n
/
_
C
k
n
For binary relations it may be useful to stack symbols over each other.
\stackrel puts the symbol given in the rst argument in superscript-like
size over the second, which is set in its usual position.
\begin{displaymath}
\int f_N(x) \stackrel{!}{=} 1
\end{displaymath}
_
)
N
(r)
!
= 1
The integral operator is generated with \int, the sum operator with
\sum, and the product operator with \prod. The upper and lower limits
are specied with ^ and _ like subscripts and superscripts.
3
\begin{displaymath}
\sum_{i=1}^{n} \qquad
\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \qquad
\prod_\epsilon
\end{displaymath}
n
i=1
_
2
0
0<i<n
1<j<m
1(i, ,) =
iI
1<j<m
Q(i, ,)
T
E
X provides all sorts of symbols for braces and other delimiters (e.g. [ | ).
Round and square braces can be entered with the corresponding keys and
curly braces with \{, but all other delimiters are generated with special
commands (e.g. \updownarrow). For a list of all delimiters available, check
Table 3.8 on page 60.
\begin{displaymath}
{a,b,c}\neq\{a,b,c\}
\end{displaymath}
o, /, c ,= o, /, c
3
A
M
S-L
A
T
E
X in addition has multi-line super-/subscripts
3.4 Math Spacing 51
If you put the command \left in front of an opening delimiter or \right
in front of a closing delimiter, T
E
X will automatically determine the correct
size of the delimiter. Note that you must close every \left with a corre-
sponding \right, and that the size is determined correctly only if both are
typeset on the same line. If you dont want anything on the right, use the
invisible \right. !
\begin{displaymath}
1 + \left( \frac{1}{ 1-x^{2} }
\right) ^3
\end{displaymath}
1 +
_
1
1 r
2
_
3
In some cases it is necessary to specify the correct size of a mathematical
delimiter by hand, which can be done using the commands \big, \Big, \bigg
and \Bigg as prexes to most delimiter commands.
4
$\Big( (x+1) (x-1) \Big) ^{2}$\\
$\big(\Big(\bigg(\Bigg($\quad
$\big\}\Big\}\bigg\}\Bigg\}$\quad
$\big\|\Big\|\bigg\|\Bigg\|$
_
(r + 1)(r 1)
_
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
There are several commands to enter three dots into a formula. \ldots
typesets the dots on the baseline and \cdots sets them centred. Besides
that, there are the commands \vdots for vertical and \ddots for diagonal
dots. You can nd another example in section 3.5.
\begin{displaymath}
x_{1},\ldots,x_{n} \qquad
x_{1}+\cdots+x_{n}
\end{displaymath}
r
1
, . . . , r
n
r
1
+ + r
n
3.4 Math Spacing
If the spaces within formulae chosen by T
E
X are not satisfactory, they can be
adjusted by inserting special spacing commands. There are some commands
for small spaces: \, for
3
18
quad ( ), \: for
4
18
quad ( ) and \; for
5
18
quad
( ). The escaped space character \ generates a medium sized space and
\quad ( ) and \qquad ( ) produce large spaces. The size of a \quad
corresponds to the width of the character M of the current font. The \!
command produces a negative space of
3
18
quad ( ).
4
These commands do not work as expected if a size changing command has been used,
or the 11pt or 12pt option has been specied. Use the exscale or amsmath packages to
correct this behaviour.
52 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
\newcommand{\ud}{\mathrm{d}}
\begin{displaymath}
\int\!\!\!\int_{D} g(x,y)
\, \ud x\, \ud y
\end{displaymath}
instead of
\begin{displaymath}
\int\int_{D} g(x,y)\ud x \ud y
\end{displaymath}
__
D
p(r, j) drdj
instead of
_ _
D
p(r, j)drdj
Note that d in the dierential is conventionally set in roman.
/
/
o-L
A
T
E
X provides another way for ne-tuning the spacing between
multiple integral signs, namely the \iint, \iiint, \iiiint, and \idotsint
commands. With the amsmath package loaded, the above example can be
typeset this way:
\newcommand{\ud}{\mathrm{d}}
\begin{displaymath}
\iint_{D} \, \ud x \, \ud y
\end{displaymath}
__
D
drdj
See the electronic document testmath.tex (distributed with /
/
o-L
A
T
E
X)
or Chapter 8 of The L
A
T
E
X Companion [3] for further details.
3.5 Vertically Aligned Material
To typeset arrays, use the array environment. It works somewhat similar
to the tabular environment. The \\ command is used to break the lines.
\begin{displaymath}
\mathbf{X} =
\left( \begin{array}{ccc}
x_{11} & x_{12} & \ldots \\
x_{21} & x_{22} & \ldots \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots
\end{array} \right)
\end{displaymath}
X =
_
_
_
r
11
r
12
. . .
r
21
r
22
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_
_
_
The array environment can also be used to typeset expressions that have
one big delimiter by using a . as an invisible \right delimiter:
\begin{displaymath}
y = \left\{ \begin{array}{ll}
a & \textrm{if $d>c$}\\
b+x & \textrm{in the morning}\\
l & \textrm{all day long}
\end{array} \right.
\end{displaymath}
j =
_
_
_
o if d c
/ + r in the morning
| all day long
3.5 Vertically Aligned Material 53
Just as with the tabular environment, you can also draw lines in the
array environment, e.g. separating the entries of a matrix:
\begin{displaymath}
\left(\begin{array}{c|c}
1 & 2 \\
\hline
3 & 4
\end{array}\right)
\end{displaymath}
_
1 2
3 4
_
For formulae running over several lines or for equation systems, you can
use the environments eqnarray, and eqnarray* instead of equation. In
eqnarray each line gets an equation number. The eqnarray* does not num-
ber anything.
The eqnarray and the eqnarray* environments work like a 3-column
table of the form {rcl}, where the middle column can be used for the equal
sign, the not-equal sign, or any other sign you see t. The \\ command
breaks the lines.
\begin{eqnarray}
f(x) & = & \cos x \\
f(x) & = & -\sin x \\
\int_{0}^{x} f(y)dy &
= & \sin x
\end{eqnarray}
)(r) = cos r (3.5)
)
r
7
7!
+ (3.8)
54 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{ \cos x = 1
-\frac{x^{2}}{2!} +{} }
\nonumber\\
& & {}+\frac{x^{4}}{4!}
-\frac{x^{6}}{6!}+{}\cdots
\end{eqnarray}
cos r = 1
r
2
2!
+
+
r
4
4!
r
6
6!
+ (3.9)
The \nonumber command tells L
A
T
E
X not to generate a number for this
equation.
It can be dicult to get vertically aligned equations to look right with
these methods; the package amsmath provides a more powerful set of alter-
natives. (see align, flalign, gather, multline and split environments).
3.6 Phantoms
We cant see phantoms, but they still occupy some space in many peoples
minds. L
A
T
E
X is no dierent. We can use this for some interesting spacing
tricks.
When vertically aligning text using ^ and _ L
A
T
E
X is sometimes just a
little bit too helpful. Using the \phantom command you can reserve space
for characters that do not show up in the nal output. The easiest way to
understand this is to look at the following examples.
\begin{displaymath}
{}^{12}_{\phantom{1}6}\textrm{C}
\qquad \textrm{versus} \qquad
{}^{12}_{6}\textrm{C}
\end{displaymath}
12
6
C versus
12
6
C
\begin{displaymath}
\Gamma_{ij}^{\phantom{ij}k}
\qquad \textrm{versus} \qquad
\Gamma_{ij}^{k}
\end{displaymath}
k
ij
versus
k
ij
3.7 Math Font Size
In math mode, T
E
X selects the font size according to the context. Super-
scripts, for example, get typeset in a smaller font. If you want to typeset
part of an equation in roman, dont use the \textrm command, because the
font size switching mechanism will not work, as \textrm temporarily escapes
3.8 Theorems, Laws, . . . 55
to text mode. Use \mathrm instead to keep the size switching mechanism ac-
tive. But pay attention, \mathrm will only work well on short items. Spaces
are still not active and accented characters do not work.
5
\begin{equation}
2^{\textrm{nd}} \quad
2^{\mathrm{nd}}
\end{equation}
2
nd
2
nd
(3.10)
Sometimes you still need to tell L
A
T
E
X the correct font size. In math
mode, this is set with the following four commands:
\displaystyle (123), \textstyle (123), \scriptstyle (123) and
\scriptscriptstyle (123).
Changing styles also aects the way limits are displayed.
\begin{displaymath}
\mathop{\mathrm{corr}}(X,Y)=
\frac{\displaystyle
\sum_{i=1}^n(x_i-\overline x)
(y_i-\overline y)}
{\displaystyle\biggl[
\sum_{i=1}^n(x_i-\overline x)^2
\sum_{i=1}^n(y_i-\overline y)^2
\biggr]^{1/2}}
\end{displaymath}
corr(A, Y ) =
n
i=1
(r
i
r)(j
i
j)
_
n
i=1
(r
i
r)
2
n
i=1
(j
i
j)
2
_
1/2
This is one of those examples in which we need larger brackets than the
standard \left[ \right] provides.
3.8 Theorems, Laws, . . .
When writing mathematical documents, you probably need a way to typeset
Lemmas, Denitions, Axioms and similar structures. L
A
T
E
X supports
this with the command
\newtheorem{name}[counter]{text}[section]
The name argument is a short keyword used to identify the theorem.
With the text argument you dene the actual name of the theorem, which
will be printed in the nal document.
The arguments in square brackets are optional. They are both used to
specify the numbering used on the theorem. Use the counter argument to
5
The A
M
S-L
A
T
E
X (amsmath) package makes the \textrm command work with size
changing.
56 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
specify the name of a previously declared theorem. The new theorem
will then be numbered in the same sequence. The section argument allows
you to specify the sectional unit within which the theorem should get its
numbers.
After executing the \newtheorem command in the preamble of your doc-
ument, you can use the following command within the document.
\begin{name}[text]
This is my interesting theorem
\end{name}
This should be enough theory. The following examples should remove
any remaining doubt, and make it clear that the \newtheorem environment
is way too complex to understand.
% definitions for the document
% preamble
\newtheorem{law}{Law}
\newtheorem{jury}[law]{Jury}
%in the document
\begin{law} \label{law:box}
Dont hide in the witness box
\end{law}
\begin{jury}[The Twelve]
It could be you! So beware and
see law~\ref{law:box}\end{jury}
\begin{law}No, No, No\end{law}
Law 1 Dont hide in the witness box
Jury 2 (The Twelve) It could be you! So
beware and see law 1
Law 3 No, No, No
The Jury theorem uses the same counter as the Law theorem, so it
gets a number that is in sequence with the other Laws. The argument in
square brackets is used to specify a title or something similar for the theorem.
\flushleft
\newtheorem{mur}{Murphy}[section]
\begin{mur}
If there are two or more
ways to do something, and
one of those ways can result
in a catastrophe, then
someone will do it.\end{mur}
Murphy 3.8.1 If there are two or more
ways to do something, and one of those ways
can result in a catastrophe, then someone
will do it.
The Murphy theorem gets a number that is linked to the number of
the current section.You could also use another unit, for example chapter or
subsection.
3.9 Bold Symbols 57
3.9 Bold Symbols
It is quite dicult to get bold symbols in L
A
T
E
X; this is probably intentional
as amateur typesetters tend to overuse them. The font change command
\mathbf gives bold letters, but these are roman (upright) whereas mathe-
matical symbols are normally italic. There is a \boldmath command, but
this can only be used outside mathematics mode. It works for symbols too.
\begin{displaymath}
\mu, M \qquad \mathbf{M} \qquad
\mbox{\boldmath $\mu, M$}
\end{displaymath}
j, ` M , M
Notice that the comma is bold too, which may not be what is required.
The package amsbsy (included by amsmath) as well as the bm from the
tools bundle make this much easier as they include a \boldsymbol command.
\begin{displaymath}
\mu, M \qquad
\boldsymbol{\mu}, \boldsymbol{M}
\end{displaymath}
j, ` , M
58 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
3.10 List of Mathematical Symbols
The following tables demonstrate all the symbols normally accessible from
math mode.
To use the symbols listed in Tables 3.123.16,
6
the package amssymb must
be loaded in the preamble of the document and the AMS math fonts must
be installed on the system. If the AMS package and fonts are not installed
on your system, have a look at
macros/latex/required/amslatex. An even more comprehensive list of
symbols can be found at info/symbols/comprehensive.
Table 3.1: Math Mode Accents.
o \hat{a} o \check{a} o \tilde{a} o \acute{a}
` o \grave{a} o \dot{a} o \ddot{a} o \breve{a}
o \bar{a} o \vec{a}
\widehat{A}
\widetilde{A}
Table 3.2: Lowercase Greek Letters.
\alpha \theta o o \upsilon
\beta \vartheta \pi \phi
\gamma \iota c \varpi \varphi
\delta \kappa \rho \chi
c \epsilon \lambda \varrho \psi
\varepsilon j \mu \sigma \omega
\zeta \nu \varsigma
\eta \xi \tau
Table 3.3: Uppercase Greek Letters.
\Gamma \Lambda \Sigma \Psi
\Delta \Xi \Upsilon \Omega
\Theta \Pi \Phi
6
These tables were derived from symbols.tex by David Carlisle and subsequently
changed extensively as suggested by Josef Tkadlec.
3.10 List of Mathematical Symbols 59
Table 3.4: Binary Relations.
You can negate the following symbols by prexing them with a \not com-
mand.
< < > = =
\leq or \le \geq or \ge \equiv
\ll \gg
.
= \doteq
\prec ~ \succ \sim
_ \preceq _ \succeq \simeq
\subset \supset \approx
\subseteq \supseteq
= \cong
` \sqsubset
a
a \sqsupset
a
I \Join
a
_ \sqsubseteq _ \sqsupseteq > \bowtie
\in \ni , \owns \propto
\vdash \dashv [= \models
[ \mid | \parallel \perp
\smile \frown \asymp
: : , \notin ,= \neq or \ne
a
Use the latexsym package to access this symbol
Table 3.5: Binary Operators.
+ + -
\pm \mp \triangleleft
\cdot \div > \triangleright
\times \setminus \star
\cup \cap \ast
. \sqcup \sqcap \circ
\vee , \lor \wedge , \land \bullet
\oplus \ominus \diamond
\odot \oslash \uplus
\otimes _ \bigcirc H \amalg
\bigtriangleup _ \bigtriangledown \dagger
\lhd
a
\rhd
a
\ddagger
\unlhd
a
\unrhd
a
/ \wr
60 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Table 3.6: BIG Operators.
\sum
\bigcup
_
\bigvee
\bigoplus
\prod
\bigcap
_
\bigwedge
\bigotimes
\coprod
\bigsqcup
\bigodot
_
\int
_
\oint
\biguplus
Table 3.7: Arrows.
\leftarrow or \gets \longleftarrow \uparrow
\rightarrow or \to \longrightarrow \downarrow
\leftrightarrow \longleftrightarrow \updownarrow
\Leftarrow = \Longleftarrow \Uparrow
\Rightarrow = \Longrightarrow \Downarrow
\Leftrightarrow \Longleftrightarrow \Updownarrow
\mapsto \longmapsto \nearrow
\hookleftarrow \hookrightarrow \searrow
\leftharpoonup \rightharpoonup \swarrow
\leftharpoondown \rightharpoondown \nwarrow
= \rightleftharpoons \iff (bigger spaces) Y \leadsto
a
a
Use the latexsym package to access this symbol
Table 3.8: Delimiters.
( ( ) ) \uparrow \Uparrow
[ [ or \lbrack ] ] or \rbrack \downarrow \Downarrow
\{ or \lbrace \} or \rbrace \updownarrow \Updownarrow
\langle ) \rangle [ | or \vert | \| or \Vert
\lfloor | \rfloor \lceil | \rceil
, / \backslash . (dual. empty)
Table 3.9: Large Delimiters.
_
_
\lgroup
_
_
\rgroup
_
_
\lmoustache
_
_
\rmoustache
\arrowvert
_
_
\Arrowvert
\bracevert
3.10 List of Mathematical Symbols 61
Table 3.10: Miscellaneous Symbols.
. . . \dots \cdots
.
.
. \vdots
.
.
.
\ddots
/ \hbar \imath , \jmath / \ell
' \Re \Im \aleph \wp
\forall \exists H \mho
a
\partial
Thnh. pdfT
E
X produces PDF
output where normal T
E
X produces DVI. There is also a pdfL
A
T
E
X, which
produces PDF output from L
A
T
E
X sources.
Both pdfT
E
X and pdfL
A
T
E
X are installed automatically by most modern
T
E
X distributions, such as teT
E
X, fpT
E
X, MikT
E
X, T
E
XLive and CMacT
E
X.
To produce a PDF instead of DVI, it is sucient to replace the com-
mand latex file.tex by pdflatex file.tex. On systems where L
A
T
E
X
is not called from the command line, you may nd a special button in the
T
E
XControlCenter.
In L
A
T
E
X you can dene the the paper size with an optional documentclass
argument such as a4paper or letterpaper. This works in pdfL
A
T
E
X too, but
on top of this pdfT
E
X also needs to know the physical size of the paper and
not just the area to use for the layout. If you use the hyperref package (see
page 76), the papersize will be adjusted automatically. Otherwise you have
to do this manually by putting the following lines into the preamble of the
document:
\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth
\pdfpageheight=\paperheight
The following section will go into more detail regarding the dierences
between normal L
A
T
E
X and pdfL
A
T
E
X. The main dierences concern three
areas: the fonts to use, the format of images to include, and the manual
conguration of hyperlinks.
4.7.2 The Fonts
pdfL
A
T
E
X can deal with all sorts of fonts (PK bitmaps, TrueType, PostScript
type 1. . . ) but prime L
A
T
E
X font format, the bitmap PK fonts produce very
ugly results when the document is displayed with Acrobat Reader. It is best
to use PostScript Type 1 fonts exclusively to produce documents that
display well.
The PostScript Type 1 implementation of the Computer Modern and
AMSFonts was produced by Blue Sky Research and Y&Y, Inc., who then
transferred copyright to the American Mathematical Society. The fonts were
made publicly available in early 1997 and currently come with most of T
E
X
distributions.
74 Specialities
However, if you are using L
A
T
E
X to create documents in languages other
than English, you might want to use EC, LH, or CB fonts (see the discussion
about OT1 fonts on the page 25). Vladimir Volovich has created the cm-super
font bundle which covers the entire EC/TC, EC Concrete, EC Bright and
LH font sets. It is available from CTAN:/fonts/ps-type1/cm-super and is
included with T
E
XLive7 and MikT
E
X. Similar type 1 CB Greek fonts created
by Apostolos Syropoulos are available at CTAN:/tex-archive/fonts/greek/cb.
Unfortunately, both of these font sets are not of the same typographic quality
as the Type1 CM fonts by Blue Sky/Y&Y. They were automatically hinted,
and the document might look as neat on the screen as the ones using Blue
Sky/Y&Y type 1 CM fonts, on high resolution output devices they produce
results identical to the original bitmap EC/LH/CB fonts.
If you are creating document in one of Latin-based languages, you have
several other options.
You might want to use aeguill package, aka Almost European Computer
Modern with Guillemets. Just put the line \usepackage{aeguill} into
the preamble of your document, to enable AE virtual fonts instead of
EC fonts.
Alternatively, you can use mltex package, but this only works when
your pdfT
E
X has been compiled with the mltex option.
The AE virtual fontset, like the MlT
E
X system, makes T
E
X believe it has
a full 256 character fontset at its disposal by creating most of the missing
letters from characters of the CM font and rearranging them in the EC
order, this allows to use the excellent type 1 format CM fonts available on
most systems. As the font now is in T1 encoding hyphenation will well in
Latin-based European languages. The only disadvantage of this approach is
that the articial AE characters do not work with Acrobat Readers Find
function, so you cannot search for words with accented characters in your
nal PDF le.
For the Russian language a similar solution is to use C1 virtual fonts
available at ftp://ftp.vsu.ru/pub/tex/font-packs/c1fonts. These fonts
combine the standard CM type 1 fonts from Bluesky collection and CMCYR
type 1 fonts from Paradissa and BaKoMa collection, all available on CTAN.
Because Paradissa fonts contain only Russian letters, C1 fonts are missing
other Cyrillic glyphs.
Another solution is to switch to other PostScript type 1 fonts. Ac-
tually, some of them are even included with every copy of Acrobat Reader.
Because these fonts have dierent character sizes, the text layout on your
pages will change. Generally it will use more space than the CM fonts, which
are very space-ecient. Also, the overall visual coherence of your document
will suer because Times, Helvetica and Courier (the primary candidates for
4.7 Working with pdfL
A
T
E
X 75
such a replacement job) have not been designed to work in harmony in a
single document as has been done for the Computer Modern fonts.
Two ready-made font sets are available for this purpose: pxfonts, which
is based on Palatino as its main text body font, and the txfonts package,
which is based on Times. To use them it is sucient to put the following
lines into the preamble of your document:
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{pxfonts}
Note: you may nd lines like
Warning: pdftex (file eurmo10): Font eurmo10 at ... not found
in the .log le after compiling your input le. They mean that some font
used in the document has not been found. You really have to x these
problems, as the resulting PDF document may not display the pages with
the missing characters at all.
This whole font business, especially the lack of a good EC fontset equiv-
alent in quality to the CM font in type 1 format, is occupying the minds of
many people, so new solutions are cropping up all the time.
4.7.3 Using Graphics
Including graphics into a document works best with the graphicx package
(see page 65). By using the special driver option pdftex the package will
work with pdfL
A
T
E
X as well:
\usepackage[pdftex]{color,graphicx}
In the sample above I have included the color option, as using color in doc-
uments displayed on the web comes quite naturally.
So much for the good news. The bad news is that graphics in Encapsu-
lated PostScript format do not work with PdfL
A
T
E
X. If you dont dene a
le extension in the \includegraphics command, graphicx will go looking
for a suitable le on its own, depending on the setting of the driver op-
tion. For pdftex this is formats .png, .pdf, .jpg, .mps ( METAPOST), and
.tifbut not .eps.
The simple way out of this problem is to just convert your EPS les into
PDF format using the epstopdf utility found on many systems. For vector
graphics (drawings) this is a great solution. For bitmaps (photos, scans) this
is not ideal, because the PDF format natively supports the inclusion of PNG
and JPEG images. PNG is good for screenshots and other images with few
colors. JPEG is great for photos, as it is very space-ecient.
It may even be desirable not to draw certain geometric gures, but rather
describe the gure with a specialized command language, such as META-
POST, which can be found in most T
E
X distributions, and comes with its
own extensive manual.
76 Specialities
4.7.4 Hypertext Links
The hyperref package will take care of turning all internal references of your
document into hyperlinks. For this to work properly some magic is necessary,
so you have to put \usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref} as the last command
into the preamble of your document.
Many options are available to customize the behaviour of the hyperref
package:
either as a comma separated list after the pdftex option
\usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref}
or on individual lines with the command \hypersetup{options}.
The only required option is pdftex; the others are optional and allow
you to change the default behaviour of hyperref.
7
In the following list the
default values are written in an upright font.
bookmarks (=true,false ) show or hide the bookmarks bar when display-
ing the document
unicode (=false,true ) allows to use characters of non-latin based lan-
guages in Acrobats bookmarks
pdftoolbar (=true,false ) show or hide Acrobats toolbar
pdfmenubar (=true,false ) show or hide Acrobats menu
pdffitwindow (=true,false ) adjust the initial magnication of the pdf
when displayed
pdftitle (={text}) dene the title that gets displayed in the Document
Info window of Acrobat
pdfauthor (={text}) the name of the PDFs author
pdfnewwindow (=true,false ) dene if a new window should get opened
when a link leads out of the current document
colorlinks (=false,true ) surround the links by color frames (false) of
colors the text of the links (true). The color of these links can be
congured using the following options (default colors are shown):
linkcolor (=red) color of internal links (sections, pages, etc.),
7
It is worth noting that the hyperref package is not limited to work with pdfT
E
X. It
can also be congured to embed PDF-specic information into the DVI output of normal
L
A
T
E
X, which then gets put into the PS le by dvips and is nally picked up by Adobe
Distiller when it is used to turn the PS le into PDF.
4.7 Working with pdfL
A
T
E
X 77
citecolor (=green) color of citation links (bibliography)
filecolor (=magenta) color of le links
urlcolor (=cyan) color of URL links (mail, web)
If you are happy with the defaults, use
\usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref}
To have the bookmark list open and links in color (the =true values are
optional):
\usepackage[pdftex,bookmarks,colorlinks]{hyperref}
When creating PDFs destined for printing, colored links are not a good
thing as they end up in gray in the nal output, making it dicult to read.
You can use color frames, which are not printed:
\usepackage{hyperref}
\hypersetup{colorlinks=false}
or make links black:
\usepackage{hyperref}
\hypersetup{colorlinks,%
citecolor=black,%
filecolor=black,%
linkcolor=black,%
urlcolor=black,%
pdftex}
When you just want to provide information for the Document Info sec-
tion of the PDF le:
\usepackage[pdfauthor={Pierre Desproges}%
pdftitle={Des femmes qui tombent},%
pdftex]{hyperref}
In addition to the automatic hyperlinks for cross references, it is possible
to embed explicit links using
\href{url }{text}
The code
The \href{http://www.ctan.org}{CTAN} website.
78 Specialities
produces the output CTAN; a click on the word CTAN will take you to
the CTAN website.
If the destination of the link is not a URL but a local le, you can use
use the \href command:
The complete document is \href{manual.pdf}{here}
Which produces the text The complete document is here. A click on the
word here will open the le manual.pdf. (The lename is relative to the
location of the current document).
The author of an article might want her readers to easily send email
messages by using the \href command inside the \author command on the
title page of the document:
\author{Mary Oetiker $<$\href{mailto:mary@oetiker.ch}%
{mary@oetiker.ch}$>$
Note that I have put the link so that my email address appears not only in
the link but also on the page itself. I did this because the link
\href{mailto:mary@oetiker.ch}{Mary Oetiker}
would work well within Acrobat, but once the page is printed the email
address would not be visible anymore.
4.7.5 Problems with Links
Messages like the following:
! pdfTeX warning (ext4): destination with the same identifier
(name{page.1}) has been already used, duplicate ignored
appear when a counter gets reinitialized, for example by using the command
\mainmatter provided by the book document class. It resets the page num-
ber counter to 1 prior to the rst chapter of the book. But as the preface of
the book also has a page number 1 all links to page 1 would not be unique
anymore, hence the notice that duplicate has been ignored.
The counter measure consists of putting plainpages=false into the hy-
perref options. This unfortunately only helps with the page counter. An
even more radical solution is to use the option hypertexnames=false, but
this will cause the page links in the index to stop working.
4.7.6 Problems with Bookmarks
The text displayed by bookmarks does not always look like you expect it to
look. Because bookmarks are just text, much fewer characters are available
for bookmarks than for normal L
A
T
E
X text. Hyperref will normally notice
such problems and put up a warning:
4.7 Working with pdfL
A
T
E
X 79
Package hyperref Warning:
Token not allowed in a PDFDocEncoded string:
You can now work around this problem by providing a text string for the
bookmarks, which replaces the oending text:
\texorpdfstring{T
E
X text}{Bookmark Text}
Math expressions are a prime candidate for this kind of problem:
\section{\texorpdfstring{$E=mc^2$}%
{E\ =\ mc\texttwosuperior}}
which turns \section{$E=mc^2$} to E=mc2 in the bookmark area.
Color changes also do not travel well into bookmarks:
\section{\textcolor{red}{Red !}}
produces the string redRed!. The command \textcolor gets ignored but
its argument (red) gets printed.
If you use
\section{\texorpdfstring{\textcolor{red}{Red !}}{Red\ !}}
the result will be much more legible.
Source Compatibility Between L
A
T
E
X and pdfL
A
T
E
X
Ideally your document would compile equally well with L
A
T
E
X and pdfL
A
T
E
X.
The main problem in this respect is the inclusion of graphics. The simple
solution is to systematically drop the le extension from \includegraphics
commands. They will then automatically look for a le of a suitable format
in the current directory. All you have to do is create appropriate versions of
the graphics les. L
A
T
E
X will look for .eps, and pdfL
A
T
E
X will try to include
a le with the extension .png, .pdf, .jpg, .mps or .tif (in that order).
For the cases where you want to use dierent code for the PDF version
of your document, you can add:
\newif\ifPDF
\ifx\pdfoutput\undefined\PDFfalse
\else\ifnum\pdfoutput > 0\PDFtrue
\else\PDFfalse
\fi
\fi
as the very rst few lines of your document. This denes a special command
that will allow you to easily write conditional code:
80 Specialities
\ifPDF
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{aeguill}
\usepackage[pdftex]{graphicx,color}
\usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage[dvips]{graphicx}
\usepackage[dvips]{hyperref}
\fi
In the example above I have included the hyperref package even in the non-
PDF version. The eect of this is to make the \href command work in
all cases, which saves me from wrapping every occurrence into a conditional
statement.
Note that in recent T
E
X distributions (T
E
XLive for example), the choice
between pdftex and dvips when calling graphicx and color will happen auto-
matically according to the settings made automatically in the conguration
les graphics.cfg and color.cfg.
4.8 Creating Presentations with pdfscreen
By Daniel Flipo <Daniel.Flipo@univ-lille1.fr>
You can present the results of your scientic work on a blackboard, with
transparencies, or directly from your laptop using some presentation soft-
ware.
pdfL
A
T
E
X combined with the pdfscreen package allows you to create pre-
sentations in PDF, equally as colorful and lively as is possible with Power-
Point, but much more portable because Acrobat Reader is available on many
more systems.
The pdfscreen class uses graphicx, color and hyperref with options adapted
to screen presentations.
To create this type of document you normally work within the article
class. Figure 4.2 shows an example input le. First you have to load the
pdfscreen package together with appropriate options:
screen : screen presentation. Use print to create a printable version.
panelright put a navigation panel on the right side of the screen. If the
panel should be on the left side use panelleft. If you do not want
panels use nopanel.
french or some other supported language will render the text on the nav-
igation buttons appropriately. This option is independent of the op-
tions set with the babel package. If your language is not suppoted by
4.8 Creating Presentations with pdfscreen 81
\documentclass[pdftex,12pt]{article}
%%% misc extensions %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[english]{babel}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{aeguill}
%%% pdfscreen %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\usepackage[screen,panelleft,chocolate]{pdfscreen}
% Screen Format
\panelwidth=25mm
%% height width
\screensize{150mm}{200mm}
%% left right top bottom
\marginsize{42mm}{8mm}{10mm}{10mm}
% Color or image for background
\overlayempty
\definecolor{mybg}{rgb}{1,0.9,0.7}
\backgroundcolor{mybg}
% Logo
\emblema{MyLogo}
%%% For PPower4 (post-processor) %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\usepackage{pause}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\begin{document}
\begin{slide}
\begin{itemize}
\item Good News\dots \pause
\item Bad News
\end{itemize}
\end{slide}
\end{document}
Figure 4.2: Example pdfscreen input le
82 Specialities
pdfscreen, you still can localize navigation panel buttons by using le
pdfscreen.cfg, see pdfscreen.cfg..specimen for an example.
chocolate color scheme for the navigation panel. Other choices are gray,
orange, palegreen, bluelace and blue, which is the default.
Then you congure the display format. Because the presentation will al-
ways scale to the real size of the screen when displayed, this can be used to
congure the overall font size:
\panelwidth denes the width of the navigation panel
\screensize{width}{height} dene the width and height of the screen in-
cluding the navigation panel.
\marginsize{left}{right}{top}{bottom} denes the margins of the docu-
ment. In the example the document is not centered because the section
numbers are kept in the left margin.
It is possible to use a background image in any of the image formats
supported by pdfT
E
X using the command
\overlay{image}
or if you prefer a plain background you can dene its color using
\background{color}
Finally if you want to place the logo of your organization into the navi-
gation panel use the command
\emblema{logo}
If you believe in the presentational power of successive exposure of your
bullet points you may want to make use of the pause package. It provides the
command \pause. You can place this command right into the ow of your
text wherever you want Acrobat to pause the display of your document. The
pause package is part of the ppower4 (1
4
: Pdf Presentation Post-Processor)
system, which can post-process pdf output from pdfT
E
X and make it sing
and dance and beg for food. On the command line it looks like this:
ppower4 xy.pdf xyz.pdf
To control what goes onto a single slide, use the environment \begin{slide}
. . . \end{slide}. The content of each slide will get displayed centered verti-
cally on its page.
Compiling the example above, will end in an error message:
4.8 Creating Presentations with pdfscreen 83
! pdfTeX warning (dest): name{contents} has been
referenced but does not exist, replaced by a fixed one
This is because there is a button in the navigation panel that wants to
point to the table of contents, because this example does not contain a
\tableofcontents command the resolution of the link fails.
If you want the table of contents to be displayed right inside the navi-
gation panel, you can use the option paneltoc when calling pdfscreen. This
will only produce satisfactory results if your presentation has very few and
short entries in the table of contents. You may want to provide short titles
for your section headings in square brackets.
This short introduction only scratches the surface of what is possible with
pdfscreen and PPower4. Both come with their own extensive documentation.
Chapter 5
Producing Mathematical
Graphics
Most people use L
A
T
E
X for typesetting their text. But as the non content and
structure oriented approach to authoring is so convenient, L
A
T
E
X also oers a,
if somewhat restricted, possibility for producing graphical output from textual
descriptions. Furthermore, quite a number of L
A
T
E
X extensions have been created
in order to overcome these restrictions. In this section, you will learn about a
few of them.
5.1 Overview
The picture environment allows programming pictures directly in L
A
T
E
X. A
etailed description can be found in the L
A
T
E
X Manual [1]. On the one hand,
there are rather severe constraints, as the slopes of line segments as well as
the radii of circles are restricted to a narrow choice of values. On the other
hand, the picture environment of L
A
T
E
X2
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
y
g
g
g
g
g
gy
_
,__
_
`
_
`
_
`
_
`
_
_
, g _
The command
\put(r, j){\circle{diameter}}
draws a circle with center (r, j) and diameter (not radius) diameter. The
picture environment only admits diameters up to approximately 14 mm,
and even below this limit, not all diameters are possible. The \circle*
command produces disks (lled circles).
As in the case of line segments, one may have to resort to additional pack-
ages, such as eepic or pstricks. For a thorough description of these packages,
see The L
A
T
E
X Graphics Companion [4].
There is also a possibility within the picture environment. If one is not
afraid of doing the necessary calculations (or leaving them to a program),
arbitrary circles and ellipses can be patched together from quadratic Bzier
curves. See Graphics in L
A
T
E
X2
r
r
r
r
r
r
1
C
o
/
c
1 =
_
:(: o)(: /)(: c)
: :=
o + / + c
2
As this example shows, text and formulas can be written into a picture
environment with the \put command in the usual way.
5.2.6 The \multiput and the \linethickness command
\setlength{\unitlength}{2mm}
\begin{picture}(30,20)
\linethickness{0.075mm}
\multiput(0,0)(1,0){31}%
{\line(0,1){20}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,1){21}%
{\line(1,0){30}}
\linethickness{0.15mm}
\multiput(0,0)(5,0){7}%
{\line(0,1){20}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,5){5}%
{\line(1,0){30}}
\linethickness{0.3mm}
\multiput(5,0)(10,0){3}%
{\line(0,1){20}}
\multiput(0,5)(0,10){2}%
{\line(1,0){30}}
\end{picture}
The command
\multiput(r, j)(r, j){n}{object}
has 4 arguments: the starting point, the translation vector from one ob-
5.2 The picture Environment 91
ject to the next, the number of objects, and the object to be drawn. The
\linethickness command applies to horizontal and vertical line segments,
but neither to oblique line segments, nor to circles. It does, however, apply
to quadratic Bzier curves!
5.2.7 Ovals. The \thinlines and the \thicklines command
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)
\linethickness{0.075mm}
\multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}%
{\line(0,1){4}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}%
{\line(1,0){6}}
\thicklines
\put(2,3){\oval(3,1.8)}
\thinlines
\put(3,2){\oval(3,1.8)}
\thicklines
\put(2,1){\oval(3,1.8)[tl]}
\put(4,1){\oval(3,1.8)[b]}
\put(4,3){\oval(3,1.8)[r]}
\put(3,1.5){\oval(1.8,0.4)}
\end{picture}
9
8
6
7
_
9
8 7
6
7
The command
\put(r, j){\oval(n, /)}
or
\put(r, j){\oval(n, /)[position]}
produces an oval centered at (r, j) and having width n and height /. The
optional position arguments b, t, l, r refer to top, bottom, left, right,
and can be combined, as the example illustrates.
Line thickness can be controlled by two kinds of commands:
\linethickness{length} on the one hand, \thinlines and \thicklines
on the other. While \linethickness{length} applies only to horizontal and
vertical lines (and quadratic Bzier curves), \thinlines and \thicklines
apply to oblique line segments as well as to circles and ovals.
92 Producing Mathematical Graphics
5.2.8 Multiple Use of Predened Picture Boxes
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.5mm}
\begin{picture}(120,168)
\newsavebox{\foldera}% declaration
\savebox{\foldera}
(40,32)[bl]{% definition
\multiput(0,0)(0,28){2}
{\line(1,0){40}}
\multiput(0,0)(40,0){2}
{\line(0,1){28}}
\put(1,28){\oval(2,2)[tl]}
\put(1,29){\line(1,0){5}}
\put(9,29){\oval(6,6)[tl]}
\put(9,32){\line(1,0){8}}
\put(17,29){\oval(6,6)[tr]}
\put(20,29){\line(1,0){19}}
\put(39,28){\oval(2,2)[tr]}
}
\newsavebox{\folderb}% declaration
\savebox{\folderb}
(40,32)[l]{% definition
\put(0,14){\line(1,0){8}}
\put(8,0){\usebox{\foldera}}
}
\put(34,26){\line(0,1){102}}
\put(14,128){\usebox{\foldera}}
\multiput(34,86)(0,-37){3}
{\usebox{\folderb}}
\end{picture}
A picture box can be declared by the command
\newsavebox{name}
then dened by
\savebox{name}(width,height)[position]{content}
and nally arbitrarily often be drawn by
\put(r, j)\usebox{name}
The optional position parameter has the eect of dening the anchor
point of the savebox. In the example it is set to bl which puts the anchor
point into the bottom left corner of the savebox. The other position speciers
are top and right.
5.2 The picture Environment 93
The name argument refers to a L
A
T
E
X storage bin and therefore is of a
command nature (which accounts for the backslashes in the current exam-
ple). Boxed pictures can be nested: In this example, \foldera is used within
the denition of \folderb.
The \oval command had to be used as the \line command does not
work if the segment length is less than about 3 mm.
5.2.9 Quadratic Bzier Curves
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)
\linethickness{0.075mm}
\multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}
{\line(0,1){4}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}
{\line(1,0){6}}
\thicklines
\put(0.5,0.5){\line(1,5){0.5}}
\put(1,3){\line(4,1){2}}
\qbezier(0.5,0.5)(1,3)(3,3.5)
\thinlines
\put(2.5,2){\line(2,-1){3}}
\put(5.5,0.5){\line(-1,5){0.5}}
\linethickness{1mm}
\qbezier(2.5,2)(5.5,0.5)(5,3)
\thinlines
\qbezier(4,2)(4,3)(3,3)
\qbezier(3,3)(2,3)(2,2)
\qbezier(2,2)(2,1)(3,1)
\qbezier(3,1)(4,1)(4,2)
\end{picture}
$
$
$
$
$
$
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
As this example illustrates, splitting up a circle into 4 quadratic Bzier
curves is not satisfactory. At least 8 are needed. The gure again shows the
eect of the \linethickness command on horizontal or vertical lines, and of
the \thinlines and the \thicklines commands on oblique line segments.
It also shows that both kinds of commands aect quadratic Bzier curves,
each command overriding all previous ones.
Let 1
1
= (r
1
, j
1
), 1
2
= (r
2
, j
2
) denote the end points, and :
1
, :
2
the
respective slopes, of a quadratic Bzier curve. The intermediate control point
o = (r, j) is then given by the equations
_
_
_
r =
:
2
r
2
:
1
r
1
(j
2
j
1
:
2
:
1
,
j = j
i
+ :
i
(r r
i
) (i = 1, 2).
(5.1)
See Graphics in L
A
T
E
X2
r
`
j
g
In this gure, each symmetric half of the catenary j = coshr 1 is
approximated by a quadratic Bzier curve. The right half of the curve ends
in the point (2, 2.7622), the slope there having the value : = 3.6269. Using
again equation (5.1), we can calculate the intermediate control points. They
turn out to be (1.2384, 0) and (1.2384, 0). The crosses indicate points of
the real catenary. The error is barely noticeable, being less than one percent.
This example points out the use of the optional argument of the
\begin{picture} command. The picture is dened in convenient mathe-
matical coordinates, whereas by the command
\begin{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25)
its lower left corner (marked by the black disk) is assigned the coordinates
(2.5, 0.25).
5.3 X
Y
-pic 95
5.2.11 Rapidity in the Special Theory of Relativity
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)(-3,-2)
\put(-2.5,0){\vector(1,0){5}}
\put(2.7,-0.1){$\chi$}
\put(0,-1.5){\vector(0,1){3}}
\multiput(-2.5,1)(0.4,0){13}
{\line(1,0){0.2}}
\multiput(-2.5,-1)(0.4,0){13}
{\line(1,0){0.2}}
\put(0.2,1.4)
{$\beta=v/c=\tanh\chi$}
\qbezier(0,0)(0.8853,0.8853)
(2,0.9640)
\qbezier(0,0)(-0.8853,-0.8853)
(-2,-0.9640)
\put(-3,-2){\circle*{0.2}}
\end{picture}
`
= ,c = tanh
g
The control points of the two Bzier curves were calculated with formu-
las (5.1). The positive branch is determined by 1
1
= (0, 0), :
1
= 1 and
1
2
= (2, tanh 2), :
2
= 1, cosh
2
2. Again, the picture is dened in mathe-
matically convenient coordinates, and the lower left corner is assigned the
mathematical coordinates (3, 2) (black disk).
5.3 X
Y
-pic
By Alberto Manuel Brando Simes <albie@alfarrabio.di.uminho.pt>
xy is a special package for drawing diagrams. To use it, simply add the
following line to the preamble of your document:
\usepackage[options]{xy}
options is a list of functions fromX
Y
-pic you want to load. These options
are primarily useful when debugging the package. I recommend you pass the
all option, making L
A
T
E
X load all the X
Y
commands.
X
Y
-pic diagrams are drawn over a matrix-oriented canvas, where each
diagram element is placed in a matrix slot:
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{A & B \\
C & D }
\end{displaymath}
1
C 1
96 Producing Mathematical Graphics
The \xymatrix command must be used in math mode. Here, we specied
two lines and two columns. To make this matrix a diagram we just add
directed arrows using the \ar command.
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{ A \ar[r] & B \ar[d] \\
D \ar[u] & C \ar[l] }
\end{displaymath}
/
1
1
O
C
o
The arrow command is placed on the origin cell for the arrow. The
arguments are the direction the arrow should point to (up, down, right and
left).
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
A \ar[d] \ar[dr] \ar[r] & B \\
D & C }
\end{displaymath}
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
/
1
1 C
To make diagonals, just use more than one direction. In fact, you can
repeat directions to make bigger arrows.
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
A \ar[d] \ar[dr] \ar[drr] & & \\
B & C & D }
\end{displaymath}
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
'
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1 C 1
We can draw even more interesting diagrams by adding labels to the
arrows. To do this, we use the common superscript and subscript operators.
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
A \ar[r]^f \ar[d]_g &
B \ar[d]^{g} \\
D \ar[r]_{f} & C }
\end{displaymath}
f
/
g
1
g
1
f
/
C
As shown, you use these operators as in math mode. The only dierence
is that that superscript means on top of the arrow, and subscript means
under the arrow. There is a third operator, the vertical bar: | It causes
text to be placed in the arrow.
5.3 X
Y
-pic 97
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
A \ar[r]|f \ar[d]|g &
B \ar[d]|{g} \\
D \ar[r]|{f} & C }
\end{displaymath}
f
/
g
1
g
1
f
/
C
To draw an arrow with an hole in it, use \ar[...]|\hole.
In some situations, it is important to distinguish between dierent types
of arrows. This can be done by putting labels on them, or changing their
appearance:
\shorthandoff{"}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
\bullet\ar@{->}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{.<}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{~)}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{=(}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{~/}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{^{(}->}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@2{->}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@3{->}[rr] && \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{=+}[rr] && \bullet
}
\end{displaymath}
\shorthandon{"}
_
?
/o /o /o /o /o /o /o
/o /o /o /o /o /o /o
/
_4
//
(
6
The modiers between the slashes dene how the curves are drawn. X
Y
-
pic oers many ways to inuence the drawing of curves; for more information,
check X
Y
-pic documentation.
Chapter 6
Customising L
A
T
E
X
Documents produced with the commands you have learned up to this point will
look acceptable to a large audience. While they are not fancy-looking, they obey
all the established rules of good typesetting, which will make them easy to read
and pleasant to look at.
However, there are situations where L
A
T
E
X does not provide a command or
environment that matches your needs, or the output produced by some existing
command may not meet your requirements.
In this chapter, I will try to give some hints on how to teach L
A
T
E
X new tricks
and how to make it produce output that looks dierent from what is provided
by default.
6.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages
You may have noticed that all the commands I introduce in this book are
typeset in a box, and that they show up in the index at the end of the book.
Instead of directly using the necessary L
A
T
E
X commands to achieve this, I
have created a package in which I dened new commands and environments
for this purpose. Now I can simply write:
\begin{lscommand}
\ci{dum}
\end{lscommand}
\dum
In this example, I am using both a new environment called lscommand,
which is responsible for drawing the box around the command, and a new
command named \ci, which typesets the command name and makes a corre-
sponding entry in the index. You can check this out by looking up the \dum
command in the index at the back of this book, where youll nd an entry
for \dum, pointing to every page where I mentioned the \dum command.
100 Customising L
A
T
E
X
If I ever decide that I do not like the commands to be typeset in a box
any more, I can simply change the denition of the lscommand environment
to create a new look. This is much easier than going through the whole
document to hunt down all the places where I have used some generic L
A
T
E
X
commands to draw a box around some word.
6.1.1 New Commands
To add your own commands, use the
\newcommand{name}[num]{denition}
command. Basically, the command requires two arguments: the name of
the command you want to create, and the denition of the command. The
num argument in square brackets is optional and species the number of
arguments the new command takes (up to 9 are possible). If missing it
defaults to 0, i.e. no argument allowed.
The following two examples should help you to get the idea. The rst
example denes a new command called \tnss. This is short for The Not
So Short Introduction to L
A
T
E
X2
The next example illustrates how to dene a new command that takes
one argument. The #1 tag gets replaced by the argument you specify. If you
wanted to use more than one argument, use #2 and so on.
\newcommand{\txsit}[1]
{This is the \emph{#1} Short
Introduction to \LaTeXe}
% in the document body:
\begin{itemize}
\item \txsit{not so}
\item \txsit{very}
\end{itemize}
This is the not so Short Introduction
to L
A
T
E
X2
L
A
T
E
X will not allow you to create a new command that would overwrite
an existing one. But there is a special command in case you explicitly want
this: \renewcommand. It uses the same syntax as the \newcommand command.
In certain cases you might also want to use the \providecommand com-
mand. It works like \newcommand, but if the command is already dened,
L
A
T
E
X2
,= 1
19
\mathit{...} $\mathit{ffi}\neq ffi$ ,= ))i
6.3 Spacing 105
\begin{Large}
This is not true.
But then again, what is these
days \ldots
\end{Large}
This is not true. But then again,
what is these days . . .
This will save you from counting lots of curly braces.
6.2.2 Danger, Will Robinson, Danger
As noted at the beginning of this chapter, it is dangerous to clutter your
document with explicit commands like this, because they work in opposition
to the basic idea of L
A
T
E
X, which is to separate the logical and visual markup
of your document. This means that if you use the same font changing com-
mand in several places in order to typeset a special kind of information, you
should use \newcommand to dene a logical wrapper command for the font
changing command.
\newcommand{\oops}[1]{\textbf{#1}}
Do not \oops{enter} this room,
its occupied by a \oops{machine}
of unknown origin and purpose.
Do not enter this room, its occupied by a
machine of unknown origin and purpose.
This approach has the advantage that you can decide at some later
stage that you want to use some visual representation of danger other than
\textbf, without having to wade through your document, identifying all the
occurrences of \textbf and then guring out for each one whether it was
used for pointing out danger or for some other reason.
6.2.3 Advice
To conclude this journey into the land of fonts and font sizes, here is a little
word of advice:
Remember! The MORE fonts you use in a document, the
more readable and beautiful it becomes.
6.3 Spacing
6.3.1 Line Spacing
If you want to use larger inter-line spacing in a document, you can change
its value by putting the
\linespread{factor}
command into the preamble of your document. Use \linespread{1.3} for
106 Customising L
A
T
E
X
one and a half line spacing, and \linespread{1.6} for double line spac-
ing. Normally the lines are not spread, so the default line spread factor
is 1.
Note that the eect of the \linespread command is rather drastic and
not appropriate for published work. So if you have a good reason for changing
the line spacing you might want to use the command:
\setlength{\baselineskip}{1.5\baselineskip}
{\setlength{\baselineskip}%
{1.5\baselineskip}
This paragraph is typeset with the
baseline skip set to 1.5 of what
it was before. Note the par command
at the end of the paragraph.\par}
This paragraph has a clear purpose,
it show that after the curly brace
has been closed everything is back
to normal.
This paragraph is typeset with the baseline
skip set to 1.5 of what it was before. Note the
par command at the end of the paragraph.
This paragraph has a clear purpose, it show
that after the curly brace has been closed ev-
erything is back to normal.
6.3.2 Paragraph Formatting
In L
A
T
E
X, there are two parameters inuencing paragraph layout. By placing
a denition like
\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
\setlength{\parskip}{1ex plus 0.5ex minus 0.2ex}
in the preamble of the input le, you can change the layout of paragraphs.
These two commands increase the space between two paragraphs while set-
ting the paragraph indent to zero.
The plus and minus parts of the length above tell T
E
X that it can com-
press and expand the inter paragraph skip by the amount specied, if this
is necessary to properly t the paragraphs onto the page.
In continental Europe, paragraphs are often separated by some space and
not indented. But beware, this also has its eect on the table of contents.
Its lines get spaced more loosely now as well. To avoid this, you might want
to move the two commands from the preamble into your document to some
place after the \tableofcontents or to not use them at all, because youll
nd that most professional books use indenting and not spacing to separate
paragraphs.
6.3 Spacing 107
If you want to indent a paragraph that is not indented, you can use
\indent
at the beginning of the paragraph.
2
Obviously, this will only have an eect
when \parindent is not set to zero.
To create a non-indented paragraph, you can use
\noindent
as the rst command of the paragraph. This might come in handy when you
start a document with body text and not with a sectioning command.
6.3.3 Horizontal Space
L
A
T
E
X determines the spaces between words and sentences automatically. To
add horizontal space, use:
\hspace{length}
If such a space should be kept even if it falls at the end or the start of
a line, use \hspace* instead of \hspace. The length in the simplest case is
just a number plus a unit. The most important units are listed in Table 6.5.
This\hspace{1.5cm}is a space
of 1.5 cm.
This is a space of 1.5 cm.
The command
\stretch{n}
generates a special rubber space. It stretches until all the remaining space
on a line is lled up. If two \hspace{\stretch{n}} commands are issued
on the same line, they grow according to the stretch factor.
x\hspace{\stretch{1}}
x\hspace{\stretch{3}}x
x x x
When using horizontal space together with text, it may make sense to
make the space adjust its size relative to the size of the current font. This
can be done by using the text-relative units em and ex:
2
To indent the rst paragraph after each section head, use the indentrst package in
the tools bundle.
Table 6.5: T
E
X Units.
mm millimetre 1,25 inch
cm centimetre = 10 mm
in inch = 25.4 mm
pt point 1,72 inch
1
3
mm
em approx width of an M in the current font
ex approx height of an x in the current font
{\Large{}big\hspace{1em}y}\\
{\tiny{}tin\hspace{1em}y}
big y
tin y
6.3.4 Vertical Space
The space between paragraphs, sections, subsections, . . . is determined au-
tomatically by L
A
T
E
X. If necessary, additional vertical space between two
paragraphs can be added with the command:
\vspace{length}
This command should normally be used between two empty lines. If the
space should be preserved at the top or at the bottom of a page, use the
starred version of the command, \vspace*, instead of \vspace.
The \stretch command, in connection with \pagebreak, can be used to
typeset text on the last line of a page, or to centre text vertically on a page.
Some text \ldots
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
This goes onto the last line of the page.\pagebreak
Additional space between two lines of the same paragraph or within a
table is specied with the
\\[length]
command.
With \bigskip and \smallskip you can skip a predened amount of
vertical space without having to worry about exact numbers.
6.4 Page Layout 109
6.4 Page Layout
L
A
T
E
X2
`
_
1
_
3
_
10
_
9
`
_
11
_
2
`
_
4
`
_
5
`
_
6
`
distribution as usrguide.tex.
[7] L
A
T
E
X3 Project Team. L
A
T
E
X2
distribution as clsguide.tex.
[8] L
A
T
E
X3 Project Team. L
A
T
E
X2
distribution as fntguide.tex.
[9] D. P. Carlisle. Packages in the graphics bundle. Comes with the graph-
ics bundle as grfguide.tex, available from the same source your L
A
T
E
X
distribution came from.
[10] Rainer Schpf, Bernd Raichle, Chris Rowley. A New Implementation
of L
A
T
E
Xs verbatim Environments. Comes with the tools bundle as
116 BIBLIOGRAPHY
verbatim.dtx, available from the same source your L
A
T
E
X distribution
came from.
[11] Vladimir Volovich, Werner Lemberg and L
A
T
E
X3 Project Team. Cyrillic
languages support in L
A
T
E
X. Comes with the L
A
T
E
X2
distribution as
cyrguide.tex.
[12] Graham Williams. The TeX Catalogue is a very complete listing of
many T
E
X and L
A
T
E
X related packages. Available online from CTAN:
/tex-archive/help/Catalogue/catalogue.html
[13] Keith Reckdahl. Using EPS Graphics in L
A
T
E
X2
Documents, which
explains everything and much more than you ever wanted to know about
EPS les and their use in L
A
T
E
X documents. Available online from
CTAN:/tex-archive/info/epslatex.ps
[14] Kristoer H. Rose. X
Y
-pic Users Guide. Downloadable from CTAN
with X
Y
-pic distribution
[15] John D. Hobby. A Users Manual for MetaPost. Downloadable from
http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/hobby/
[16] Alan Hoenig. T
E
X Unbound. Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-
19-509685-1; 0-19-509686-X (pbk.)
[17] Urs Oswald. Graphics in L
A
T
E
X2