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Micromachines
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2D-Materials Based Fabrication and Devices
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2D-Materials Based Fabrication and Devices

A special issue of Micromachines (ISSN 2072-666X). This special issue belongs to the section "D：Materials and Processing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2025 | Viewed by 6889

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wu Shi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Nanoelectronic Devices and Quantum Computing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
Interests: 2D materials; van der Waals heterostructures; field-effect transistors; quantum transport
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Hu Long

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical Science & Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: 2D materials; gas sensors; MEMS; micromanufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The abundance of two-dimensional (2D) materials has led to unparalleled research prospects, promoting extensive exploration into their distinct electronic, optical, chemical, thermal and mechanical properties. With their atomic thickness, substantial bandgaps and van der Waals layer coupling, these materials present highly desirable attributes for innovative device applications, providing remarkable tunability and design flexibility. The rapid evolution of controllable and scalable synthesis techniques for high-quality 2D materials and their heterostructures has paved the way for fabricating devices with extraordinary performance, encompassing transistors, memories, spintronic devices, photodetectors, transducers and sensing devices. This Special Issue is dedicated to spotlighting the advancements in devices based on 2D materials. We invite submissions of various types of papers, including research papers, communications and review articles, addressing topics such as (1) the exploration of novel electronic, optical, thermal and mechanical properties of 2D materials and heterostructures, and (2) the fabrication of devices based on 2D materials, covering aspects like stacking, twisting, strain engineering and more, to reveal new physics and device applications.

We look forward to receiving your submissions.

Dr. Wu Shi
Dr. Hu Long
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Micromachines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • two-dimensional materials
  • van der Waals heterostructures
  • transistors
  • gas sensors
  • MEMS

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 2488 KiB  
Article
A Polycarbonate-Assisted Transfer Method for van der Waals Contacts to Magnetic Two-Dimensional Materials
by Kunlin Yang, Guorui Zhao, Yibin Zhao, Jie Xiao, Le Wang, Jiaqi Liu, Wenqing Song, Qing Lan, Tuoyu Zhao, Hai Huang, Jia-Wei Mei and Wu Shi
Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111401 - 20 Nov 2024
Viewed by 175
Abstract
Magnetic two-dimensional (2D) materials have garnered significant attention for their potential to revolutionize 2D spintronics due to their unique magnetic properties. However, their air-sensitivity and highly insulating nature of the magnetic semiconductors present substantial challenges for device fabrication with effective contacts. In this [...] Read more.
Magnetic two-dimensional (2D) materials have garnered significant attention for their potential to revolutionize 2D spintronics due to their unique magnetic properties. However, their air-sensitivity and highly insulating nature of the magnetic semiconductors present substantial challenges for device fabrication with effective contacts. In this study, we introduce a polycarbonate (PC)-assisted transfer method that effectively forms van der Waals (vdW) contacts with 2D materials, streamlining the fabrication process without the need for additional lithography. This method is particularly advantageous for air-sensitive magnetic materials, as demonstrated in Fe3GeTe2. It also ensures excellent interface contact quality and preserves the intrinsic magnetic properties in magnetic semiconductors like CrSBr. Remarkably, this method achieves a contact resistance four orders of magnitude lower than that achieved with traditional thermally evaporated electrodes in thin-layer CrSBr devices and enables the observation of sharp magnetic transitions similar to those observed with graphene vdW contacts. Compatible with standard dry-transfer processes and scalable to large wafer sizes, our approach provides a straightforward and effective solution for developing complex magnetic heterojunction devices and expanding the applications of magnetic 2D materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2D-Materials Based Fabrication and Devices)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram of the PC-assisted transfer method for vdW contacts. Blue arrows indicate the sequence of operations, and red dashed lines highlight the magnified areas. (<b>a</b>) Au electrode arrays fabricated on a silicon wafer using thermal evaporation after lithography. (<b>b</b>) A silicon wafer spin-coated with a PC film, where the black rectangular frame indicates the area cut with a blade, representing the portion to be used. The right panel shows an optical image under a microscope, with a scale bar of 200 μm. (<b>c</b>) Illustration of the process where the PC film with electrodes is flipped and placed onto a PDMS stamp. Left panel: schematic of the operation. The middle optical image shows the Au electrodes transferred onto the PC film during the process, with a scale bar of 200 μm. Right panel: an image of the electrodes/PC on the PDMS stamp, with bubbles near the large electrode pads that will be removed during the heated transfer. Scale bar: 200 μm. (<b>d</b>) Alignment process. The target flake of 2D materials on a substrate is precisely aligned with the electrodes on the PDMS stamp and carefully stacked together using an XYZR transfer stage. Right panel shows a photograph of the motorized transfer stage inside a glovebox. (<b>e</b>) The transferred electrodes establish van der Waals contact with the sample. The PC film is melted when heating the sample to 180 °C and then dissolved in chloroform to complete the transfer.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Transfer process in a glove box and optical images on different 2D materials. (<b>a</b>) (<b>i</b>–<b>iiii</b>) Sequential images showing the entire PC-assisted transfer process for establishing vdW contacts to air-sensitive ferromagnet Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> inside the glovebox: (<b>i</b>) Optical image of the Au electrodes on a sacrificial silicon wafer layer, covered with spin-coated PC film. (<b>ii</b>) Cleaved few-layer Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> sample on a SiO<sub>2</sub>/Si substrate. (<b>iii</b>) Optical image after the transfer process, showing the electrodes and the Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> sample in van der Waals contact, with the melted PC film on top. (<b>iiii</b>) Optical image of the Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> sample with transferred Au electrodes after removing the PC film in chloroform. (<b>b</b>–<b>e</b>) Optical images of devices with transferred Au electrodes for various 2D materials, including conventional 2D material graphene (<b>b</b>) and transition metal dichalcogenide WSe<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>) as well as antiferromagnetic 2D materials CoPS<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>) and NiPS<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>). All scale bars are indicated in the images.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Electrical transport characterization of air-sensitive ferromagnet Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> device with the PC-assisted transferred Au electrodes. (<b>a</b>) Four-terminal resistance Rxx versus temperature curve of the Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> device, showing metallic behavior with good contact properties. The optical image of the device is shown in <a href="#micromachines-15-01401-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>e. (<b>b</b>) Hall resistance Rxy as a function of magnetic field measured at various temperatures from 2 K to 180 K (indicated on the right), showing clear anomalous Hall effect in the Fe<sub>3</sub>GeTe<sub>2</sub> device. As the temperature increases, the coercive field gradually decreases, and the hysteresis is minimal at 160 K. This trend reflects the material’s robust ferromagnetic properties at lower temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Comparison of contacts in CrSBr-based antiferromagnetic semiconductor devices. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Optical images of CrSBr devices with thermally evaporated Au electrodes (<b>a</b>) and PC-assisted transferred Au electrodes (<b>b</b>), with the crystal axes “a” and “b” marked in each image. All electrodes are numbered for easy identification of measurement configurations. (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) I–V curves measured using the central electrodes for the devices displayed above, from which the two-terminal contact resistance (<span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>2T</sub>) is determined based on the slope. (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) Four-terminal channel resistance (<span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>4T</sub>) for each device, calculated as <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>4T</sub> = V/I. Here, a voltage (V<sub>DS</sub>) is applied across the outermost electrodes to measure the channel current (I), while voltage (V) is monitored at the central electrodes, which are labeled in the figure inserts.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Transport properties of the antiferromagnetic semiconductor CrSBr measured with different types of contacts. (<b>a</b>) Normalized conductance (defined as G/G (T = 300 K)) as a function of temperature (T) measured for CrSBr devices with various thicknesses and types of contacts. (<b>b</b>) Comparison of normalized conductance-vs.-temperature curve for the initial cooling-down process with the curve for the warming-up process after prolonged low-temperature measurements for a few-layer CrSBr device with PC-assisted transferred electrodes. (<b>c</b>) Magnetoresistance ratio, defined as MR (%) = (<span class="html-italic">R</span>(B) − <span class="html-italic">R</span>(0T))/<span class="html-italic">R</span>(0T) measured at various temperatures for the same few-layer CrSBr devices in (<b>b</b>). The external magnetic field applied along the c-axis (perpendicular to the a,b-plane). (<b>d</b>) Magnetoresistance ratio measured at 10 K for the bilayer CrSBr devices with PC-assisted transferred Au electrodes, graphene electrodes, and thermally evaporated Au electrodes. The external magnetic field applied along the easy axis (b-axis of CrSBr).</p> Full article ">
12 pages, 1634 KiB  
Article
A Highly Sensitive Strain Sensor with Self-Assembled MXene/Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sliding Networks for Gesture Recognition
by Fei Wang, Hongchen Yu, Xingyu Ma, Xue Lv, Yijian Liu, Hanning Wang, Zhicheng Wang and Da Chen
Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1301; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111301 - 25 Oct 2024
Viewed by 627
Abstract
Flexible electronics is pursuing a new generation of electronic skin and human–computer interaction. However, effectively detecting large dynamic ranges and highly sensitive human movements remains a challenge. In this study, flexible strain sensors with a self-assembled PDMS/MXene/MWCNT structure are fabricated, in which MXene [...] Read more.
Flexible electronics is pursuing a new generation of electronic skin and human–computer interaction. However, effectively detecting large dynamic ranges and highly sensitive human movements remains a challenge. In this study, flexible strain sensors with a self-assembled PDMS/MXene/MWCNT structure are fabricated, in which MXene particles are wrapped and bridged by dense MWCNTs, forming complex sliding conductive networks. Therefore, the strain sensor possesses an impressive sensitivity (gauge factor = 646) and 40% response range. Moreover, a fast response time of 280 ms and detection limit of 0.05% are achieved. The high performance enables good prospects in human detection, like human movement and pulse signals for healthcare. It is also applied to wearable smart data gloves, in which the CNN algorithm is utilized to identify 15 gestures, and the final recognition rate is up to 95%. This comprehensive performance strain sensor is designed for a wide array of human body detection applications and wearable intelligent systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2D-Materials Based Fabrication and Devices)
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Figure 1

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<p>The preparation method of PDMS/MXene/MWCNT strain sensor. (<b>a</b>) The preparation of MXene and MWCNT solutions. (<b>b</b>) The PDMS films prepared by plasma treatment. (<b>c</b>) The procedure of the self-assembling method to prepare the conducting layers. (<b>d</b>) An actual image of PDMS/MXene/MWCNT strain sensor and the images of the sensor stretched, twisted, and folded.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) The top-view SEM images of the PDMS/MXene/MWCNT strain sensor. (<b>d</b>) The schematic representation of the MXene/MWCNT structure. (<b>e</b>) The Raman spectra and (<b>f</b>) X-ray diffraction (XRD) results for MWCNTs, MXene, and the conductive layers composed of MXene/MWCNTs.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) The real-time response and (<b>b</b>) sensitivity under the gradually increasing micro-strain step of 0–5%. (<b>c</b>) The real-time response and (<b>d</b>) sensitivity of the strain sensors under a gradually increasing load, exhibiting a strain range from 0% to 40%. (<b>e</b>) The real-time response and (<b>f</b>) sensitivity of the strain sensors with varying ratios of MXene to MWCNTs. The only variable in (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) is the number of self-assembled layers, and (<b>e</b>–<b>f</b>) are based on sensors with 12 cycle self-assembled layers, whose variable is the ratio of materials.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) The response time under a strain of 1%. (<b>b</b>) The relative resistance changes as a function of time under a minimal strain of 0.05%. (<b>c</b>) The real-time relative resistance response curve of the strain sensor during stretching and releasing. (<b>d</b>) The cyclic variation in relative resistance of the strain sensors subjected to different strains. (<b>e</b>) The long-term durability test with 1800 stretch and release cycles under a 10% strain.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>In the PDMS/MXene/MWCNT strain sensor, the relative changes in resistance were measured on (<b>a</b>) the finger, (<b>b</b>) the leg, (<b>c</b>) the muscle, and (<b>d</b>) the throat. (<b>e</b>) The sensing performance recorded during speaking “S D U S T”. (<b>f</b>) The pulse signal in the strain sensor.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) The conceptual diagram of the designed data glove. (<b>b</b>) The actual image of the data glove displaying 15 different gestures. (<b>c</b>) The evolution process of accuracy and training loss during 100 epochs. (<b>d</b>) The confusion matrix illustrating the prediction outcomes generated by the CNN model.</p> Full article ">
11 pages, 2038 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Characterization of 2D Ternary Compound TMD Materials Ta3VSe8
by Yuanji Ma, Yuhan Du, Wenbin Wu, Zeping Shi, Xianghao Meng and Xiang Yuan
Micromachines 2024, 15(5), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15050591 - 28 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1452
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are garnering considerable scientific interest, prompting discussion regarding their prospective applications in the fields of nanoelectronics and spintronics while also fueling groundbreaking discoveries in phenomena such as the fractional quantum anomalous Hall effect (FQAHE) and exciton dynamics. [...] Read more.
Two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are garnering considerable scientific interest, prompting discussion regarding their prospective applications in the fields of nanoelectronics and spintronics while also fueling groundbreaking discoveries in phenomena such as the fractional quantum anomalous Hall effect (FQAHE) and exciton dynamics. The abundance of binary compound TMDs, such as MX2 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se, Te), has unlocked myriad avenues of exploration. However, the exploration of ternary compound TMDs remains relatively limited, with notable examples being Ta2NiS5 and Ta2NiSe5. In this study, we report the synthesis of a new 2D ternary compound TMD materials, Ta3VSe8, employing the chemical vapor transport (CVT) method. The as-grown bulk crystal is shiny and can be easily exfoliated. The crystal quality and structure are verified by X-ray diffraction (XRD), while the surface morphology, stoichiometric ratio, and uniformity are determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Although the phonon property is found stable at different temperatures, magneto-resistivity evolves. These findings provide a possible approach for the realization and exploration of ternary compound TMDs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2D-Materials Based Fabrication and Devices)
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Figure 1

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<p>The synthesis and characterization of Ta<sub>3</sub>VSe<sub>8</sub>. (<b>a</b>) Schematic plot of the growth configuration. Starting materials are loaded in an evacuated ampule according to chemical ratios. The ampule is then placed in a dual-zone furnace with Iodine as a transport agent. (<b>b</b>) Image of single crystals. Left panel: Stereo-microscopic images. The size of the sample is 9 to 25 mm<sup>2</sup>. The unit square of the millimeter graph paper is 1 × 1 mm in size. Right panel: Metallurgical microscopic images. Terrace features are presented in the sample surface. The scale bar is 20 μm. (<b>c</b>) Schematic of the crystal structure. The structure belongs to the P-3m1 (No. 164) space group. The beige and brown balls represent the Ta (V) and Se atoms, respectively. (<b>d</b>) X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of Ta<sub>3</sub>VSe<sub>8</sub>. The diffraction peaks at 14.3°, 43.9°, and 59.7° are indicative of the (001) crystallographic plane, revealing the lattice constant along the <span class="html-italic">c</span>-axis to be 6.18 Å.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) analysis. (<b>a</b>) Elemental mapping corresponding to the designated area (white square) (i). The distribution of, Vanadium (V), Selenium (Se), and Tantalum (Ta) is depicted in green (ii), blue (iii), and purple (iv), respectively. The scale bar is 2 μm. It points out the homogeneity within the Ta<sub>3</sub>VSe<sub>8</sub> composition. (<b>b</b>) EDX results derived from the elemental mapping. The observed chemical ratio of the crystal is Ta:V:Se = 24.7:9.3:66.0, which aligns with the expected stoichiometry. (<b>c</b>) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photo of the same crystal in (<b>a</b>). The scale bar is 10 μm. The photo reveals the presence of terrace features on the surface of the sample.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy. (<b>a</b>) The schematic of the Raman spectroscopy experimental setup. The excitation beam (λ = 632.8 nm) is generated by a helium-neon (He-Ne) laser source and is subsequently focused on the Ta<sub>3</sub>VSe<sub>8</sub> through an objective lens. The scattering light is then harvested by the same lens and collected by the spectrometer directly. To realize the temperature control during the experiment, the sample is mounted in the cryostat system carefully. (<b>b</b>) False-color pattern of temperature-dependent Raman spectra. (<b>c</b>) Stacking plot of Raman spectra at different temperatures. According to (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>), the Raman peaks of Ta<sub>3</sub>VSe<sub>8</sub> illustrate stability as the temperature changes.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Magneto-transport measurement. (<b>a</b>) Experimental setup of transport measurement. (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>) Temperature-dependent Magnetoresistance. We perform measurements across a range of temperatures extending from 2 K to over 100 K, as represented by a gradient of colors from red to blue in the plot. From this plot, we observe that Ta<sub>3</sub>VSe<sub>8</sub> demonstrates a mildly positive magnetoresistivity at low temperatures and becomes suppressed at higher temperatures.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 1423 KiB  
Article
Environmental Chamber Characterization of an Ice Detection Sensor for Aviation Using Graphene and PEDOT:PSS
by Dario Farina, Marco Mazio, Hatim Machrafi, Patrick Queeckers and Carlo Saverio Iorio
Micromachines 2024, 15(4), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15040504 - 7 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4136
Abstract
In the context of improving aircraft safety, this work focuses on creating and testing a graphene-based ice detection system in an environmental chamber. This research is driven by the need for more accurate and efficient ice detection methods, which are crucial in mitigating [...] Read more.
In the context of improving aircraft safety, this work focuses on creating and testing a graphene-based ice detection system in an environmental chamber. This research is driven by the need for more accurate and efficient ice detection methods, which are crucial in mitigating in-flight icing hazards. The methodology employed involves testing flat graphene-based sensors in a controlled environment, simulating a variety of climatic conditions that could be experienced in an aircraft during its entire flight. The environmental chamber enabled precise manipulation of temperature and humidity levels, thereby providing a realistic and comprehensive test bed for sensor performance evaluation. The results were significant, revealing the graphene sensors’ heightened sensitivity and rapid response to the subtle changes in environmental conditions, especially the critical phase transition from water to ice. This sensitivity is the key to detecting ice formation at its onset, a critical requirement for aviation safety. The study concludes that graphene-based sensors tested under varied and controlled atmospheric conditions exhibit a remarkable potential to enhance ice detection systems for aircraft. Their lightweight, efficient, and highly responsive nature makes them a superior alternative to traditional ice detection technologies, paving the way for more advanced and reliable aircraft safety solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2D-Materials Based Fabrication and Devices)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Sketch of the electrodes engineered and utilized in all characterization studies. Measurements are depicted in millimeters. (<b>b</b>) The unified system featuring the graphene electrodes, PEDOT:PSS detection layer, data gathering system, and interpretable output display.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Diagram of the setup. The environmental chamber is depicted with the main components. (<b>b</b>) A schematic of the climate chamber setup used for the ice detection experiments, featuring an Arduino-based control system, humidity and temperature regulation, and real-time monitoring capabilities via cameras and sensors.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Example of drop injection (side view).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Temperature-controlled chamber experiment. Single drop. T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 8 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C, T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C. (<b>a</b>) Resistance behavior. (<b>b</b>) Temperature behavior of the sensing element.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Characteristic water and ice signals at T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = −25 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C and T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C. (<b>a</b>) Resistance behavior. (<b>b</b>) Temperature behavior of the sensing element.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Temperature-controlled chamber experiment. (<b>a</b>) Single drop (zoom). T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = −25 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C, T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C. (<b>b</b>) Ice formation.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Temperature-controlled chamber experiment. Single drop (zoom). (<b>a</b>) T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = −20 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C, T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C. (<b>b</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = −15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C, T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Temperature-controlled chamber experiment with T<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C illustrating the resistance change due to ice formation at a fixed chamber temperature of 15 °C. The subfigures (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) demonstrate the sensor’s response over time at various cold junction temperatures: (<b>a</b>) −25 °C, (<b>b</b>) −20 °C, (<b>c</b>) −15 °C, and (<b>d</b>) −10 °C. The sharp increase in resistance indicates the onset of ice formation on the sensor surface.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Response of the ice detection sensor at (<b>a</b>) (<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 °C and (<b>b</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 10 °C with <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = −20 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Sensor resistance behavior at different <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> levels with <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 15 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mspace width="-0.16em"/> </mrow> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C.</p> Full article ">
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