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New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Physics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 2756

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Andrea Mura

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: machine design; tribology; fatigue; lightweight structures; optimization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Luigi Mazza

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: tribology; applied mechanics; pneumatic systems
Dr. Edoardo Goti

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor Assistant
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: tribology; advanced materials; applied mechanics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The study of tribological and fatigue performance of materials and components has gained significant attention due to the increasing demand for high-performance materials in various industries and the improvement in reliability, efficiency, and sustainability of components and systems. This Special Issue focuses on the characterization and optimization of new materials designed to enhance tribological performance and fatigue resistance, including treatments and coatings. By employing advanced characterization techniques and fatigue testing, this Special Issue includes wear mechanisms and failure modes of innovative materials. Another topic of interest is related to artificial intelligence (AI), integrated into the design process, and data analysis enabling the prediction and optimization of material properties for specific applications.

Dr. Andrea Mura
Dr. Luigi Mazza
Guest Editors

Dr. Edoardo Goti
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

 

Keywords

  • fatigue
  • tribology
  • material characterization
  • design methods
  • testing

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 5900 KiB  
Article
Punch Edge Topological Design for Reduction of Work Hardening Damage in Shearing of Non-Oriented Electrical Steel Sheets
by Ryoma Okada, Kentaro Ito, Tatsuya Funazuka, Tatsuhiko Aizawa and Tomomi Shiratori
Materials 2025, 18(4), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18040878 - 17 Feb 2025
Viewed by 200
Abstract
A new shearing tool is necessary to reduce the iron loss of motor cores by minimizing the work hardening damage on the sheared non-oriented electrical steel sheets. The punch edge topology and the clearance between the punch and the die were controlled to [...] Read more.
A new shearing tool is necessary to reduce the iron loss of motor cores by minimizing the work hardening damage on the sheared non-oriented electrical steel sheets. The punch edge topology and the clearance between the punch and the die were controlled to investigate their influence on the sheared surface condition and the work hardening damage of steel sheets. A non-oriented electrical steel sheet with the thickness of 500 µm was used and sheared at the speed of 5 mm/s. After that, the sheared surface was investigated. In particular, hardness mapping was utilized to quantitatively analyze the work-hardened area of the sheared steel sheets and the dissipation of the plastic work. Among the four punch edge topological configurations explored, the nano-grooved punch employed straight along the shearing direction reduced the damage dealt to the sheared steel sheets and the plastic dissipation work to one-third compared to conventional punches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Experimental setup for the dry punching of non-oriented electrical steel sheets: (<b>a</b>) a CNC (computer numerical control) stamper; (<b>b</b>) a die set.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Four types of shearing punches with different edge configurations. Low magnification 1000x SEM images are listed in the upper row, and high magnification 5000x SEM images are listed in the lower row.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Hardness mapping to evaluate the affected zone of the sheared electrical steel sheets using four types of punches.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Discretization of the work hardening area induced in the right-hand side of the sheared steel sheet. The m-th square element has the m-th measuring point of hardness.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Comparison of sheared surface conditions among four punches at a clearance of CL25 μm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Comparison of sheared surface conditions among four punches at a clearance of CL5 μm.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Comparison of sheared surface conditions among four punches at a clearance of CL2.5 μm.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison of the fractured and burnished surface area ratios with the shear droop ratio for the four punches at CL25 μm, CL5 μm, and CL2.5 μm.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Hardness comparison of the work hardening zones for each clearance of CL25 μm, CL5 μm, and CL2.5 μm for the four punches.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Hardness contribution of six work hardening and elastic zone ratios on the whole cross-sectional area at each clearance for the four punching conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Hardness map of transients of the work hardening zone from a sheared state (30%) to a fully sheared state for the four punching conditions. Three shots—N1, N2, and N3—were performed in each shearing experiment.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Effect of tool conditions on the work hardening damage fraction at the short-shot after fully punching out.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 5797 KiB  
Article
Numerical Fatigue Analysis of Dissimilar Lap Joints Fabricated by Dimple Spot Welding for Automotive Application
by Paolo Livieri and Michele Bortolan
Materials 2025, 18(3), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18030627 - 30 Jan 2025
Viewed by 445
Abstract
This paper presents a numerical analysis of dimple spot welding (DSW) as an innovative joining technique for dissimilar materials, namely steel and aluminium alloys. Employing a finite element (FE) model, the study simulates the fatigue performance of DSW joints, considering crucial factors such [...] Read more.
This paper presents a numerical analysis of dimple spot welding (DSW) as an innovative joining technique for dissimilar materials, namely steel and aluminium alloys. Employing a finite element (FE) model, the study simulates the fatigue performance of DSW joints, considering crucial factors such as contact friction and cyclic loading conditions. While various numerical models are proposed, the simulation incorporating friction and fatigue loading appears to offer the highest accuracy. The research highlights that the fatigue behaviour of DSW joints can be effectively investigated through the non-local theory of the implicit gradient approach by utilising the fatigue curve of arc-welded structures composed of steel or aluminium alloys. Specifically, simulations incorporating friction and fatigue loading demonstrate that the steel spot weld does not represent the weakest point within the joints. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Effective stress <span class="html-italic">σ<sub>eff</sub></span> for spot weld joint evaluated by solving Equation (2), assuming that <span class="html-italic">σ<sub>eq</sub></span> coincides with the maximum principal stress <span class="html-italic">σ</span><sub>1</sub>. The plate is subjected to a nominal tensile stress <span class="html-italic">σ<sub>nom</sub></span>; (<b>a</b>) mesh; (<b>b</b>) maximum principal stress <span class="html-italic">σ</span><sub>1</sub>; and (<b>c</b>) effective stress <span class="html-italic">σ<sub>eff</sub></span>.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Scatter band of steel welded joints [<a href="#B21-materials-18-00627" class="html-bibr">21</a>] in terms of maximum effective stress range (scatter bands related to mean values plus/minus 2 standard deviations; <span class="html-italic">Ps:</span> probability of survival).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Specimen used in the experimental analysis [<a href="#B20-materials-18-00627" class="html-bibr">20</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Comparison between the fatigue strength of dimple spot welding (DSW) joints and the self-piercing riveting (SPR) joints under tensile loading. Nominal load ratio R = 0.1 (F: nominal load; experimental results from reference [<a href="#B20-materials-18-00627" class="html-bibr">20</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Typical fatigue failure at the aluminium plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>FE model and boundary conditions for the dimple spot welding; (<b>a</b>) Boundary conditions used in the model (u: displacement); (<b>b</b>) Mesh detail around the spot weld; (<b>c</b>) Mesh for spot weld and aluminium plate around the hole.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Range of effective stress in the dimple spot welding around the spot weld and the toe for a remote applied force range of 4.5 kN for the frictionless model (<b>a</b>) steel plate; (<b>b</b>) aluminium plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Fatigue life in terms of effective stress range in the dimple spot welding for the FE frictionless model (<b>a</b>) steel plate at the weld; (<b>b</b>) aluminium plate at the hole.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Range of effective stress in the dimple spot welding around the spot weld and the weld toe for a remote applied force range of 4.5 kN for the model with a friction coefficient of 0.45 (<b>a</b>) steel plate; (<b>b</b>) aluminium plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Fatigue life in terms of effective stress range in the dimple spot welding for the FE friction model (steel plate at the weld).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Load history at the nominal section for a nominal load ratio <span class="html-italic">R</span> of 0.1.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Effective stress range versus time at the weld (point A, steel plate) and at the border of the aluminium plate (point B) for the model with a friction coefficient of 0.45 by simulating the fatigue loading (ΔF = 2250 N, F<sub>max</sub> = 2500 N, F<sub>min</sub> = 250 N, nominal load ratio R = 0.1).</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Range of effective stress in the dimple spot welding around the spot weld and the weld toe for a remote applied force range of ΔF = 4.5 kN (F<sub>max</sub> = 5 kN, F<sub>min</sub> = 500 N, nominal load ratio R = 0.1) for the model with a friction coefficient of 0.45 by simulating the fatigue loading (steel plate).</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Fatigue life in terms of effective stress range in the dimple spot welding for the FE with friction simulation and fatigue lading simulation (steel plate).</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 8911 KiB  
Article
Microstructure, Hardness, and Wear Behavior of Layers Obtained by Electric Arc Hardfacing Processes
by Sebastian Balos, Danka Labus Zlatanović, Petar Janjatović, Milan Pećanac, Olivera Erić Cekić, Milena Rosić and Srećko Stopić
Materials 2025, 18(2), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18020299 - 10 Jan 2025
Viewed by 514
Abstract
Hardfacing is a welding-related technique aimed at depositing a harder and tougher layer onto a softer, less wear-resistant substrate or base metal. This process enhances the abrasion resistance of the component, increasing its durability under working conditions. A key feature of hardfacing is [...] Read more.
Hardfacing is a welding-related technique aimed at depositing a harder and tougher layer onto a softer, less wear-resistant substrate or base metal. This process enhances the abrasion resistance of the component, increasing its durability under working conditions. A key feature of hardfacing is dilution, which refers to the mixing of the hardfacing layer and the base metal. In this study, shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) was employed to hardface structural steel using chromium carbide vanadium consumables, with results compared to AISI D2 cold-work tool steel. Four different SMAW parameters were tested, and the abrasive test was conducted against SiC discs. Wear rate, represented by the wear loss rate, was correlated to microstructure, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, hardness, microhardness, and surface roughness. The results showed that key SMAW parameters, such as welding speed and current, significantly influence wear resistance. Specifically, slower welding speeds and higher currents, which result in greater heat input, led to the increased wear resistance of the deposited layer through the mechanism of the inoculation of larger and harder carbides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Microstructure of base metal in the form of S235JR structural steel using light microscopy (LM).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>LM images of microstructure of the final layer: (<b>a</b>) Specimen 1; (<b>b</b>) Specimen 2; (<b>c</b>) Specimen 3; (<b>d</b>) Specimen 4; (<b>e</b>) Specimen D2.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) SEM micrograph of Specimen 1 EDS spectra of the carbide particles and the eutectic matrix; (<b>b</b>) Spectrum 1; (<b>c</b>) Spectrum 2; (<b>d</b>) Spectrum 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) SEM micrograph of Specimen 4 EDS spectra of the carbide particles and the eutectic matrix; (<b>b</b>) Spectrum 1; (<b>c</b>) Spectrum 2; (<b>d</b>) Spectrum 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>SEM micrograph of cracked M<sub>7</sub>C<sub>3</sub> carbide in Specimen 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Weight loss rate of tested specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Roughness parameters Ra and Rz for wear tested specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Worn surfaces: (<b>a</b>) Specimen 1; (<b>b</b>) Specimen 2; (<b>c</b>) Specimen 3; (<b>d</b>) Specimen 4; (<b>e</b>) Specimen D2.</p> Full article ">
27 pages, 8507 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Characterization and Computational Analysis of TPU 60A: Integrating Experimental Testing and Simulation for Performance Optimization
by Luan Lang, Rodrigo Antunes, Thiago Assis Dutra, Martim Lima de Aguiar, Nuno Pereira and Pedro Dinis Gaspar
Materials 2025, 18(2), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18020240 - 8 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 539
Abstract
This study investigates the mechanical properties of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) 60A, which is a flexible material that can be used to produce soft robotic grippers using additive manufacturing. Tensile tests were conducted under ISO 37 and ISO 527 standards to assess the effects [...] Read more.
This study investigates the mechanical properties of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) 60A, which is a flexible material that can be used to produce soft robotic grippers using additive manufacturing. Tensile tests were conducted under ISO 37 and ISO 527 standards to assess the effects of different printing orientations (0°, 45°, −45°, 90°, and quasi-isotropic) and test speeds (2 mm/min, 20 mm/min, and 200 mm/min) on the material’s performance. While the printing orientations at 0° and quasi-isotropic provided similar performance, the quasi-isotropic orientation demonstrated the most balanced mechanical behavior, establishing it as the optimal choice for robust and predictable performance, particularly for computational simulations. TPU 60A’s flexibility further emphasizes its suitability for handling delicate objects in industrial and agricultural applications, where damage prevention is critical. Computational simulations using the finite element method were conducted. To verify the accuracy of the models, a comparison was made between the average stresses of the tensile test and the computational predictions. The relative errors of force and displacement are lower than 5%. So, the constitutive model can accurately represent the material’s mechanical behavior, making it suitable for computational simulations with this material. The analysis of strain rates provided valuable insights into optimizing production processes for enhanced mechanical strength. The study highlights the importance of tailored printing parameters to achieve mechanical uniformity, suggesting improvements such as biaxial testing and G-code optimization for variable thickness deposition. Overall, the research study offers comprehensive guidelines for future design and manufacturing techniques in soft robotics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Orientation for the sample ISO 37: (<b>a</b>) at 0°; (<b>b</b>) at 90°; (<b>c</b>) at 0°, 45°, −45°, and 90°; (<b>d</b>) at 45° and −45°.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Batch of printed samples categorized by color for different printing orientations: (<b>a</b>) ISO 527, type 1b.; (<b>b</b>) ISO 37, type 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Cross-section area of the specimens with high and low humidity levels.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Tensile engineering stress–strain curves for quasi-isotropic samples tested at 2 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for quasi-isotropic samples at 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for quasi-isotropic samples at 200 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for the averages of the quasi-isotropic specimens at 2 mm/min (blue), 20 mm/min (orange), and 200 mm/min (green).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for specimens with orientation of 0° at 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for specimens with orientation of 0° at 200 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for specimens with orientation of 45° and −45° at 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for specimens with orientation of 45° and −45° at 200 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for specimens with orientation of 90° at 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Stress (N/mm<sup>2</sup>) vs. Strain (%) for specimens with orientation of 90° at 200 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Stress–Strain of printing orientations at (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>) of 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Stress–Strain of printing orientations at (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>) of 200 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Schematic representation of Boundary conditions for: (<b>a</b>) Unit Cube; (<b>b</b>) Specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Constitutive models and average experimental test data for TPU 60A with quasi-isotropic orientation at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Comparison between the average stresses of the experimental data, the simulation data of the specimens, and for the unit cube.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Specimen during a simulation at 0.5 s with scale of 1:2.</p> Full article ">
27 pages, 17020 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Wear of Ni 200 Alloy After Long-Term Carbon Capture in Molten Salts Process
by Piotr Palimąka, Stanisław Pietrzyk, Maciej Balcerzak, Krzysztof Żaba, Beata Leszczyńska-Madej and Justyna Jaskowska-Lemańska
Materials 2024, 17(24), 6302; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246302 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 563
Abstract
Reducing CO2 emissions is one of the major challenges facing the modern world. The overall goal is to limit global warming and prevent catastrophic climate change. One of the many methods for reducing carbon dioxide emissions involves capturing, utilizing, and storing it [...] Read more.
Reducing CO2 emissions is one of the major challenges facing the modern world. The overall goal is to limit global warming and prevent catastrophic climate change. One of the many methods for reducing carbon dioxide emissions involves capturing, utilizing, and storing it at the source. The Carbon Capture in Molten Salts (CCMS) technique is considered potentially attractive and promising, although it has so far only been tested at the laboratory scale. This study evaluates the wear of the main structural components of a prototype for CO2 capture in molten salts—a device designed and tested in the laboratories of AGH University of Kraków. The evaluation focused on a gas barbotage lance and a reactor chamber (made from Nickel 200 Alloy), which were in continuous, long-term (800 h) contact with molten salts CaCl2-CaF2-CaO-CaCO3 at temperatures of 700–940 °C in an atmosphere of N2-CO2. The research used light microscopy, SEM, X-ray, computed tomography (CT), and 3D scanning. The results indicate the greatest wear on the part of the lance submerged in the molten salts (3.9 mm/year). The most likely wear mechanism involves grain growth and intergranular corrosion. Nickel reactions with the aggressive salt environment and its components cannot be ruled out. Additionally, the applied research methods enabled the identification of material discontinuities in the reactor chamber (mainly in welded areas), pitting on its surface, and uneven wear in different zones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The concept of the carbon capture in molten salts process.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Diagram of the CCMS process using two chambers and an intermediate tank: TC—thermocouple, MS—molten salts CaCl<sub>2</sub>-CaF<sub>2</sub>-CaO-CaCO<sub>3</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The 3D appearance of a reactor chamber with inlet and outlet transport pipes for molten salts placed within a heating module.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>View of the prototype reactor for carbon capture at the AGH laboratory, (<b>a</b>) overall view: 1, 2—power supplies; 3—absorber; 4—desorber; 5—intermediate tank, (<b>b</b>) view of the system without additional heating modules: 6—high temperature valve; 7—transporting pipe, (<b>c</b>) view of the system with additional heating modules: 8—heating module; (<b>d</b>) view of the system with valves insulation: 9—ceramic wool insulation.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Changes in carbon dioxide concentration during a single, complete operating cycle of the CO<sub>2</sub> capture reactor chamber (green line) and process temperature (red line).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>View: (<b>a</b>) cross-sectional view of the reactor chamber with marked zones with different operating conditions, (<b>b</b>) lance after 800 h tests with marked zones subjected to analysis, (<b>c</b>) reactor chamber after 800 h tests with marked areas and cut-out sections subjected to analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Reaction chamber: (<b>a</b>) main initial dimensions (before experiments), in mm, (<b>b</b>) appearance before testing.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Appearance of samples L1, L2, and L3 and wall thickness measurement points (light microscopy—macro image).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Images of the L3 lance section after testing and before testing (L0). A 50% image transparency was applied for L0.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Microstructure images of sample L3, SEM: (<b>a</b>) magnification 50×, (<b>b</b>) inner section, magnification 200×, (<b>c</b>) outer section, magnification 500×.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Ni, Ca, Cl distribution maps of sample L3; SEM/EDS.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Microstructure images of sample L2, SEM: (<b>a</b>) magnification 50×, (<b>b</b>) inner section, magnification 500×, (<b>c</b>) outer section, magnification 500×.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Ni, Ca, Cl distribution maps of sample L2; SEM/EDS.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Microstructure images of sample L1, SEM: (<b>a</b>) magnification 50×, (<b>b</b>) inner section, magnification 500×, (<b>c</b>) outer section, magnification 500×.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Ni, O distribution maps of sample L1; SEM/EDS.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Comparison of grain size in Ni Alloy 200 before testing (L0) and after testing (L1, L2, L3).</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Selected inspection photos of the reactor chamber after testing.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Analysis of the lower part of the reactor chamber after reconstruction to the 3D model. Yellow arrows indicate voids and discontinuities in the material.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Cross-sectional images of the element R3.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Element R3: (<b>a</b>) 3D view and (<b>b</b>) wall thickness distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Cross-sectional images of the element R2.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Element R2: (<b>a</b>) 3D view and (<b>b</b>) wall thickness distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Cross-sectional images of the element R1.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Element R1: (<b>a</b>) 3D view and (<b>b</b>) wall thickness distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>Thickness measurement of element R3 using the 3D scanning method.</p> Full article ">Figure 26
<p>Lower part of reactor chamber (R3) shown from two views—dimensional comparison with CAD model.</p> Full article ">Figure 27
<p>SEM image of the L3 surface (<b>a</b>) and schematic illustrating the formation of a pore-salt network for Ni Alloy 200 and molten salts (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">
27 pages, 38081 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Testing of Materials for Galvanising Pot Roll Bearings with Improved Performance
by Giovanni Paolo Alparone, James Sullivan, Christopher Mills, James Edy and David Penney
Materials 2024, 17(23), 5837; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17235837 - 28 Nov 2024
Viewed by 510
Abstract
Galvanising pot roll bearings are subjected to severe deterioration due to the corrosion of the bearing materials in liquid Zn, resulting in maintenance stops that can cost thousands of pounds per hour in downtime. Dynamic wear testing in molten Zn-Al and Zn-Al-Mg was [...] Read more.
Galvanising pot roll bearings are subjected to severe deterioration due to the corrosion of the bearing materials in liquid Zn, resulting in maintenance stops that can cost thousands of pounds per hour in downtime. Dynamic wear testing in molten Zn-Al and Zn-Al-Mg was conducted to assess the corrosion and wear resistance of three material pairs using a bespoke testing rig. The materials investigated in this study were Wallex6TM coated with WC-Co, stainless steel 316L coated with Al2O3, and as-received Wallex6TM and Wallex4TM alloys. It was found that only the Al2O3 coating remained unreactive in Zn alloy, whereas the materials containing Co were corroded, as evidenced by the formation of intermetallic compounds containing Al-Co-Zn-Fe. The results also highlighted that the dissolution of the Co matrix and diffusion of Zn and Al from the bath occurred in Wallex6TM and Wallex4TM. However, the diffusion of Zn into the WallexTM alloys was reduced by approximately 60% in the Zn-Al-Mg bath compared to Zn-Al. The wear scars were analysed to determine the wear coefficient of the worn specimens. Out of the three material couplings investigated in this study, minimal wear damage in both Zn-Al and Zn-Al-Mg was only obtained by pairing Wallex6TM with Al2O3 coatings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Bespoke dynamic testing rig showing the main components.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Cross-section of the as-received Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> bar coated with WC-Co (<b>a</b>); details of the WC-Co coating (<b>b</b>). Please note the different magnifications.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>SEM image of the cross-section of high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> coated onto the surface of stainless steel (SS) 316 L.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>SEM images of the cross-sections of Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> captured at the interface (<b>a</b>) and in the bulk of the material (<b>b</b>). Please note the different magnifications.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>SEM images of the cross-sections of Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> captured at the interface (<b>a</b>) and in the bulk of the material (<b>b</b>). Please note the different magnifications.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>EDS phase elemental analysis of Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>. The numbers refer to the phases in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>, where (1) is the Co solid solution phase, (2) is the CrCoWMo phase and (3) the CoWCr phase.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>EDS phase elemental analysis of Wallex4<sup>TM</sup>. The numbers refer to the phases in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>, where (1) is the CoCrW phase, (2) is the WCoCr phase and (3) the CoCrW phase.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>SEM image of the WC-Co/Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> bar after testing in Zn-Al.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Higher magnification image of the intermetallic phases observed on the WC-Co coating after testing in Zn-Al.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>EDS phase elemental analysis of the intermetallic compounds on the WC-Co coating shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Cross-section of Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> pad after testing in Zn-Al: (1) Zn phase, (2) intermetallic particles, (3,4) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>EDS point spectrum analysis of the phases present in the Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> pad after testing in Zn-Al. The numbers refer to the phases shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a>, namely the (1) Zn phase, (2) intermetallic particles and (3,4) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Cross-section of the WC-Co/Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> bar specimen after exposure to Zn-Al-Mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Higher magnification image of the intermetallic phases observed on the WC-Co coating after testing in Zn-Al-Mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>EDS phase elemental analysis of the intermetallic compounds observed on the WC-Co coating after exposure to Zn-Al-Mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Phase diagram showing the Zn-rich corner of the Zn-Al-Fe system at 460 °C. The diagram illustrates the Fe solubility limit for Al concentrations up to ~0.3 wt.% Al [<a href="#B35-materials-17-05837" class="html-bibr">35</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Cross-section of the Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> pad specimen after exposure to Zn-Al-Mg: (1) intermetallic particles, (2,3) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>EDS point spectrum analysis of the phases present in Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after exposure to Zn-Al-Mg. The numbers refer to the phases shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f017" class="html-fig">Figure 17</a>, namely the (1) intermetallic particles and (2,3) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Cross-section of the WC-Co/Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> bar after dynamic testing against Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> in Zn-Al.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Composition of the intermetallic phase present in the WC-Co coating after dynamic testing with Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> in Zn-Al.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Cross-section of the Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> pad specimen after exposure to Zn-Al: (1) intermetallic particles, (2) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>EDS analysis of the corrosion products in Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after exposure to Zn-Al. The numbers refer to the phases shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f021" class="html-fig">Figure 21</a>: (1) intermetallic compounds and (2) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>EDS mapping of the elements present in Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after testing in Zn-Al.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Cross-section of WC-Co/Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after dynamic testing with Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> in Zn-Al-Mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>EDS analysis on the reaction layer shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f024" class="html-fig">Figure 24</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 26
<p>SEM image of the Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> pad after dynamic testing in Zn-Al-Mg: (1) intermetallic particles, (2) possible wear debris, (3) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 27
<p>EDS analysis conducted on Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after exposure to Zn-Al-Mg. The numbers refer to the phases shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f026" class="html-fig">Figure 26</a>: (1) intermetallic particles, (2) possible wear debris, (3) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 28
<p>EDS mapping of the elements present in Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after testing in Zn-Al-Mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 29
<p>Visual inspection of the bar specimens tested in Zn-Al (<b>left</b>) and Zn-Al-Mg (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 30
<p>Cross-section of the Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>/SS 316L bar after dynamic testing in Zn-Al.</p> Full article ">Figure 31
<p>SEM image of the Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> pad after dynamic testing with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> in Zn-Al: (1) intermetallic particles, (2,3) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 32
<p>Composition of the phases present in Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after dynamic testing with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> in Zn-Al. The numbers refer to the phases shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f031" class="html-fig">Figure 31</a>, namely the (1) intermetallic particles and (2,3) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 33
<p>Cross-section of the Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>/SS 316L bar after dynamic testing in Zn-Al-Mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 34
<p>SEM image of the Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> pad after dynamic testing with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> in Zn-Al-Mg: (1,2) intermetallic particles, (3,4) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 35
<p>Composition of the phases in Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after dynamic testing with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> in Zn-Al-Mg. The numbers refer to the phases shown in <a href="#materials-17-05837-f034" class="html-fig">Figure 34</a>, which were detected within the (1,2) intermetallic particles and (3,4) diffusion layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 36
<p>Composition of the diffusion layers developed in the pads for each material pair.</p> Full article ">Figure 37
<p>The average thickness of the diffusion layers developed in the pads for each material pair.</p> Full article ">Figure 38
<p>Three-dimensional (3D) imaging of the wear scars produced on the specimens tested in Zn-Al: (<b>a</b>) Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>/WC-Co; (<b>b</b>) Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>/WC-Co; (<b>c</b>) Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. Deep scars formed after contact with the WC-Co-coated bars, whereas a more superficial scar formed after contact with the Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-coated bar specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 39
<p>Three-dimensional (3D) imaging of the wear scars produced on the pad specimens tested in Zn-Al-Mg: (<b>a</b>) Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>/WC-Co; (<b>b</b>) Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>/WC-Co; (<b>c</b>) Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. The scars are more superficial compared to those formed in the Zn-Al bath.</p> Full article ">Figure 39 Cont.
<p>Three-dimensional (3D) imaging of the wear scars produced on the pad specimens tested in Zn-Al-Mg: (<b>a</b>) Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>/WC-Co; (<b>b</b>) Wallex4<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with Wallex6<sup>TM</sup>/WC-Co; (<b>c</b>) Wallex6<sup>TM</sup> after sliding with SS 316L/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. The scars are more superficial compared to those formed in the Zn-Al bath.</p> Full article ">
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