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J. Manuf. Mater. Process., Volume 9, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 19 articles

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15 pages, 4052 KiB  
Article
Viscoelastic, Shape Memory, and Fracture Characteristics of 3D-Printed Photosensitive Epoxy-Based Resin Under the Effect of Hydrothermal Ageing
by Mohamad Alsaadi, Tamer A Sebaey, Eoin P. Hinchy, Conor T. McCarthy, Tielidy A. de M. de Lima, Alexandre Portela and Declan M. Devine
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020046 (registering DOI) - 1 Feb 2025
Abstract
Using 3D-printed (3DPd) polymers and their composites as shape memory materials in various smart engineering applications has raised the demand for such functionally graded sustainable materials. This study aims to investigate the viscoelastic, shape memory, and fracture toughness properties of the epoxy-based ultraviolet [...] Read more.
Using 3D-printed (3DPd) polymers and their composites as shape memory materials in various smart engineering applications has raised the demand for such functionally graded sustainable materials. This study aims to investigate the viscoelastic, shape memory, and fracture toughness properties of the epoxy-based ultraviolet (UV)-curable resin. A UV-based DLP (Digital Light Processing) printer was employed for the 3D printing (3DPg) epoxy-based structures. The effect of the hydrothermal accelerated ageing on the various properties of the 3DPd components was examined. The viscoelastic performance in terms of glass transition temperature (Tg), storage modulus, and loss modulus was evaluated. The shape memory polymer (SMP) performance with respect to shape recovery and shape fixity (programming the shape) were calculated through dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA). DMTA is used to reveal the molecular mobility performance through three different regions, i.e., glass region, glass transition region, and rubbery region. The shape-changing region (within the glass transition region) between the Tg value from the loss modulus and the Tg value from the tan(δ) was analysed. The temperature memory behaviour was investigated for flat and circular 3DPd structures to achieve sequential deployment. The critical stress intensity factor values of the single-edge notch bending (SENB) specimens have been explored for different crack inclination angles to investigate mode I (opening) and mixed-mode I/III (opening and tearing) fracture toughness. This study can contribute to the development of highly complex shape memory 3DPd structures that can be reshaped several times with large deformation. Full article
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Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram of the thermomechanical SMP cycle [<a href="#B4-jmmp-09-00046" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The programming/recovery process: (<b>a</b>) schematic diagram and (<b>b</b>) images of the 3DPd specimens under the programming/recovery process.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic diagram of the geometrical configuration of the SENB specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) DSC analysis before and after thermal post-curing; (<b>b</b>) the change in water uptake versus ageing time of the 3DP-Ep objects.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Viscoelastic properties of the 3DP-Ep before and after the hydrothermal ageing: (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">E’</span>, (<b>b</b>) (<span class="html-italic">tan(δ)</span>), and (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">E</span>”.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Thermomechanical SMP cycle of 3DPd samples using 4-step DMTA test, (<b>a</b>) Ep-135 °C, Ep-170 °C and Me-100 °C samples, (<b>b</b>) EP0h, EP600h, and EP1800 h samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>3DPd epoxy-based structures demonstrate temporary and recovery shapes.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Mode I and mixed mode I/III critical stress intensity factors of the 3DP-Ep beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>(<b>i</b>) SENB specimens under test, and (<b>ii</b>) the samples and fracture surfaces of the (<b>a</b>) mode I θ = 90°, (<b>b</b>) mixed-mode I/III θ = 60°, and (<b>c</b>) mixed-mode I/III θ = 30°.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>SEM micrographs of the tensile test specimen fracture surface (red frame represents the location of the 50 µ image).</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 10367 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Deformation Degree of Combined Loadings on the Structural and Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels
by Magdalena Gabriela Huțanu, Liviu Andrușcă, Marcelin Benchea, Mihai-Adrian Bernevig, Dragoș Cristian Achiței, Ștefan-Constantin Lupescu, Gheorghe Bădărău and Nicanor Cimpoeșu
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020045 (registering DOI) - 1 Feb 2025
Abstract
Stainless steels have many practical applications requiring various mechanical or chemical demands in the working environment. By optimizing a device used in mechanical experiments for torsional loading, several cylindrical samples were tested (both ends twisted with the same torque value in opposite directions) [...] Read more.
Stainless steels have many practical applications requiring various mechanical or chemical demands in the working environment. By optimizing a device used in mechanical experiments for torsional loading, several cylindrical samples were tested (both ends twisted with the same torque value in opposite directions) of 316L stainless steel (SS) to evaluate changes in the structural, chemical, and mechanical characteristics. Initially, the experimental samples were pre-loaded by tension in the elastic range (6%) and then subjected to torsion (772°) at different rates: 5, 10, and 20 mm/min. The experimental sequence consisted of a combined loading protocol with an initial tensile test followed by a subsequent torsional test. Two reference tests were performed by fracturing the samples in both torsion and tension to determine the mechanical strength parameters. The macro- and microstructural evolution of the samples as a function of the torsional degree was followed by scanning electron microscopy. The microhardness modification of the material was observed because of the strain (the microhardness variation from the center of the disk sample to the edge was also monitored). Structurally, all samples showed grain size changes because of torsional/compressive deformation zones and an increase in the degree of grain boundary misorientation. From the tensile and torsional behaviors of 316L SS and the structural results obtained, it was concluded that these materials are suitable for complex stress states in the elasto-plastic range through tensile and torsion. A reduction in Young’s modulus of up to four times the initial value at medium and high stress rates was observed when complex stresses were applied. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Forming and Additive Manufacturing)
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<p>Experimental set-up used for the torsion test in (<b>a</b>); 3D model of the torsion device in (<b>b</b>); schematic presentation of the combined stress in (<b>c</b>); main dimensions of the specimen in (<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Tensile/torsion to failure curves of austenitic 316L steel.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>SEM micrographs of the tensile fracture (<b>a</b>) 2D: 100×, 250× and 1000× and (<b>b</b>) 3D.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>SEM micrographs of the torsion fracture (<b>a</b>) 2D: 100×, 250×, and 1000× and (<b>b</b>) 3D.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Combined mechanical test stages applied to experimental materials (<b>a</b>) tensile and (<b>b</b>) torsion.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SEM microstructures (<b>a</b>) middle area and (<b>b</b>) edge for the initial and twisted samples with 5, 10, and 20 mm/min from left to right.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Mechanical properties of the experimental samples (<b>a</b>) Load vs. depth variation, (<b>b</b>) dwell time vs. twist rate variation, (<b>c</b>) hardness vs. twist rate variation, (<b>d</b>) Indentation modulus vs. twist rate variation and (<b>e</b>) contact stiffness vs. twist rate variation.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The friction coefficient variation with distance (<b>a</b>) center against the initial and (<b>b</b>) edge against the initial.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>3D images of the scratch (<b>a</b>) initial, (<b>b</b>) tensile + torsion rate of 5mm/min, (<b>c</b>) tensile + torsion rate of 10 mm/min, and (<b>d</b>) tensile + torsion rate of 20 mm/min.</p> Full article ">
44 pages, 29500 KiB  
Article
Deterministic-Stochastic Subspace Identification of the Modal Parameters of a Machine Tool During Milling
by Willy Reichert, Martin Kolouch, Jan Berthold, Steffen Ihlenfeldt and Max Engelmann
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020044 (registering DOI) - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 81
Abstract
Modal analysis is a standard tool for evaluating the dynamic behaviour of machine tools. Since the dynamic behaviour can differ for operating and analysis conditions, the use of operational modal analysis for machine tools has been researched over the last decade. However, the [...] Read more.
Modal analysis is a standard tool for evaluating the dynamic behaviour of machine tools. Since the dynamic behaviour can differ for operating and analysis conditions, the use of operational modal analysis for machine tools has been researched over the last decade. However, the operation of a machine tool is a special case with respect to the excitation, as the excitation is both deterministic and stochastic in nature. Therefore, a perfect broadband excitation, which can be assumed to be white noise, does not occur in machine tools. This fact must be taken into account for the identification and makes the application of classical techniques of operational modal analysis to milling machines insufficient. The approach for identification of the modal parameters of a milling machine during machining, presented in the paper, is based on the deterministic-stochastic subspace identification, which can consider both the deterministic and the stochastic character of the excitation in machine tools better than the stochastic subspace identification being often used in operational modal analysis. For this purpose, the formulation of the input vector for a milling machine is crucial. The approach is developed with the help of simulations and demonstrated on a real machine tool. The results show an improvement compared to the stochastic subspace identification, which is visible in more clear stability diagrams and in a higher number of identified resonance frequencies. Full article
30 pages, 664 KiB  
Article
The Need for a Quality Strategy in Metal Additive Manufacturing Technology
by Cindy Sithole, Athena Jalalian, Sipke Hoekstra and Ian Gibson
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020043 - 30 Jan 2025
Viewed by 307
Abstract
This study investigates the need for a quality strategy in metal additive manufacturing (AM) technology effective for batch production. We carried out two surveys aimed at gathering data from industry experts to understand the challenges and the requirements of quality strategies in metal [...] Read more.
This study investigates the need for a quality strategy in metal additive manufacturing (AM) technology effective for batch production. We carried out two surveys aimed at gathering data from industry experts to understand the challenges and the requirements of quality strategies in metal AM. Survey 1 investigated general quality aspects in metal technology, revealing key areas where quality strategies are required, such as process control, material consistency, and post-processing. It also highlighted challenges that directly impact part quality, including process variability, material inconsistencies, and surface finish issues. Survey 2, focused on batch production, showed that 75% of participants strongly agreed with the need for a specific quality strategy to address challenges specific to metal AM. The respondents highlighted critical processes requiring quality strategies, including powder quality, process optimisation, and defect detection, while identifying ongoing issues with process variability and material inconsistency. Both surveys indicate a need for a standardised and effective quality strategy to enhance production consistency, efficiency, and regulatory compliance. Regardless of a limited sample size of 59 respondents, these results emphasise the need for improved quality strategies in metal AM to reduce defects effectively, meet customer expectations, and ensure scalable production. This study provides insights into the strategic development of quality strategies significant for advancing metal AM technology. Full article
12 pages, 3683 KiB  
Article
Plasma Dielectric Etching with C4H2F6 Isomers of Low Global-Warming Potential
by Minsu Choi, Youngseok Lee, Chulhee Cho, Wonnyoung Jeong, Inho Seong, Jami Md Ehsanul Haque, Byeongyeop Choi, Seonghyun Seo, Sijun Kim, Shinjae You and Geun Young Yeom
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020042 - 30 Jan 2025
Viewed by 288
Abstract
This paper presents the observed changes when replacing the widely used CHF3 gas in semiconductor processing with two isomeric gases, C4H2F6-iso and C4H2F6-Z. This study investigates the etching process results [...] Read more.
This paper presents the observed changes when replacing the widely used CHF3 gas in semiconductor processing with two isomeric gases, C4H2F6-iso and C4H2F6-Z. This study investigates the etching process results of SiO2 and Si3N4 by varying the ratios of CHF3, C4H2F6 gases. The process outcomes were analyzed using ellipsometer and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, while plasma radical densities were examined through quadrupole mass spectrometry. The results are compared across five conditions, with substitution gas ratios ranging from 0% to 100%. The process results indicated that the selectivity increased at certain gas ratios. The diagnostic results provided the ratios of various etchants within the plasma. This research advances the development of alternative precursors designed to mitigate the effects of global warming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Manufacturing and Surface Technology)
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<p>Schematic of the experimental setup and gas information.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Sample thicknesses before and after etching with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-iso for (<b>a</b>) SiO<sub>2</sub> and (<b>b</b>) Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Etch rate of SiO<sub>2</sub> and Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) etch selectivity of Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> over SiO<sub>2</sub> with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-iso.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Electron density and (<b>b</b>) radical species densities with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-iso.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>XPS analysis results of C1s spectrum on (<b>a</b>) SiO<sub>2</sub> and (<b>b</b>) Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> surfaces with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-iso.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Sample thicknesses before and after etching with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-Z for (<b>a</b>) SiO<sub>2</sub> and (<b>b</b>) Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>) Etch rate of SiO<sub>2</sub> and Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) etch selectivity of Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> over SiO<sub>2</sub> with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-Z.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Electron density and (<b>b</b>) radical species densities with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-Z.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>XPS analysis results of C1s spectrum on (<b>a</b>) SiO<sub>2</sub> and (<b>b</b>) Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> surfaces with different gas mixing ratios between CHF<sub>3</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>-Z.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 1511 KiB  
Article
Casting Homogeneity of Scaled-Up Multiprincipal Component Alloys
by Gbenga. J. Adeyemi, Claire Utton, Yunus Azakli and Russell Goodall
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020041 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 310
Abstract
High-entropy and multicomponent alloys are believed to offer opportunities for improved properties and are currently of great interest to the research community. Studies on these materials are largely conducted on small samples, but, for many practical applications, larger-scale processing would be needed. The [...] Read more.
High-entropy and multicomponent alloys are believed to offer opportunities for improved properties and are currently of great interest to the research community. Studies on these materials are largely conducted on small samples, but, for many practical applications, larger-scale processing would be needed. The processing of metallic parts of high dimensionality conventionally begins with casting, but an increase in the scale of the melt increases the potential for effects dependent on segregation, diffusion and thermal transport. The objective here is to determine the effect of scale-up on the as-cast condition of an example multicomponent alloy, Cu-Zn-Mn-Ni medium-entropy (ME) brass, in a larger quantity. The ingot was produced by metallic mould casting after induction melting. The hardness, microstructures and chemical composition were assessed in the as-cast state across a section through the material. A range of hardness values were found, particularly in the vertical direction, where the upper region was found to have a hardness of 188 ± 15 HV0.5, a middle of 161 ± 11 HV0.5 and a bottom of 184 ± 16 HV0.5. These values can be correlated with the casting conditions experienced locally, but the average hardness values are close to that of the original reports of the alloy. To overcome this, it is likely that a heat treatment would need to be used for this alloy in practical production before the products could be applied for engineering uses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Copper-Based Alloys)
17 pages, 3405 KiB  
Article
Removing High-Velocity Oxyfuel Coatings Through Electrolytic Dissolution
by Zdeněk Pitrmuc, Vivek Rana, Michal Slaný, Jiří Kyncl, Sunil Pathak and Libor Beránek
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020040 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 286
Abstract
High-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) coatings are used to protect components from corrosion and wear at higher temperatures and from wearing out after a certain period of time. Hence, to enhance the life of components, further recoating is required, but removing the older coating is [...] Read more.
High-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) coatings are used to protect components from corrosion and wear at higher temperatures and from wearing out after a certain period of time. Hence, to enhance the life of components, further recoating is required, but removing the older coating is a challenging task due to its high hardness. Thus, this research work studied the electrolytic dissolution process of removing WC-CoCr 86/10/4 HVOF coatings and found that at a voltage of 3 V, the coating was not removed, but at a slightly higher voltage of 6 V, the coating was removed completely. When the voltage was 12 V, the surface was damaged, and corrosion also occurred. A combination of tartaric acid (C4H6O6), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), and water was used as an electrolyte. By using a combination of a voltage of 4.5 V, a current of 1.6 A, and an electrode distance of 55 mm, the coating was completely removed after 10 h, with negligible attacks on the base material. Where the corrosion of the base material is unacceptable, voltages in the range of 4 to 6 V are recommended. If parts have coatings on all surfaces, a voltage within the range of 6 to 12 V can be recommended. The coating from tab SB-002JI-5 TOOLOX-11 and hexagonal mandrel SB-00EA-1 160 TIS was also removed successfully. Full article
23 pages, 2146 KiB  
Article
Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems: Enhancing Efficiency via Product Family Optimization
by Bahtat Chaymae and El Barkany Abdellah
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020039 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 309
Abstract
In response to the increasing complexity of modern production environments driven by heightened competition, customer demands, and sustainability goals, this work presents a focused methodology for forming product families within reconfigurable manufacturing systems (RMSs). Unlike traditional approaches, our method emphasizes the practical implementation [...] Read more.
In response to the increasing complexity of modern production environments driven by heightened competition, customer demands, and sustainability goals, this work presents a focused methodology for forming product families within reconfigurable manufacturing systems (RMSs). Unlike traditional approaches, our method emphasizes the practical implementation of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the Average Linkage Clustering (ALC) algorithm to optimize RMS configurations. By evaluating specific comparison criteria—such as assembly sequence, machining sequence, components, production tools, and production demand—we aim to enhance resource utilization and adaptability to market changes. The proposed methodology enables a systematic assessment of RMS performance tailored to diverse product requirements. A detailed example of machining systems demonstrates the use of machining sequence and tool usage as primary criteria, showcasing the practical application and decision-making capabilities of the approach. This work contributes to the field by providing a structured framework for decision-making in RMS, facilitating efficient and precise product family formation to meet evolving manufacturing demands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Smart Product Design and Manufacturing on Industrial Internet)
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<p>Diagram of adopted research methodology.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p><a href="#jmmp-09-00039-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a> outlines the proposed methodology for product family formation.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Comparing assembly sequences A and B using Robinson–Foulds distance.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>AHP algorithm-based product family formation in RMS.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Generation of a dendrogram through the ALC method.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Dendrogram of product family clustering using ALC.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 2306 KiB  
Article
The Preparation and Characterization of Poly(lactic acid)/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Polymer Blends: The Effect of Bisphenol A Diglycidyl Ether Addition as a Compatibilizer
by Aitor Arbelaiz, Beñat Landa and Cristina Peña-Rodriguez
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020038 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 271
Abstract
The problems created by conventional polymers after their end use have driven research into new biodegradable polymeric materials. PLA is a compostable polymer obtained from renewable sources, but its main drawbacks are its fragility and slow crystallization kinetics. These drawbacks limit its use [...] Read more.
The problems created by conventional polymers after their end use have driven research into new biodegradable polymeric materials. PLA is a compostable polymer obtained from renewable sources, but its main drawbacks are its fragility and slow crystallization kinetics. These drawbacks limit its use in different applications. In order to overcome fragility, in the current study, different compositions of PLA/PCL blends, rich in PLA content and without and with DGEBA, were prepared and characterized by means of different techniques, such as FTIR, DSC, DMA, and the mechanical properties. Some compositions show a certain improvement in the deformation capacity compared to the neat PLA at a low test speed. However, when the test speed increases, no improvement is observed in terms of deformation capacity. By SEM, the morphology of injection-molded specimens was observed. All blends showed a biphasic morphology where the PCL droplets are dispersed within the continuous PLA matrix. In the current study, an attempt has been made to improve the compatibility and adhesion between the phases by incorporating a diglycidyl bisphenol A compound. The results obtained indicate that the epoxy groups seem to react with the end groups of the PLA chain; however, the interactions that it creates with the PCL phase are weak, which is in agreement with the FTIR and DSC results obtained. Full article
15 pages, 4305 KiB  
Article
Pellet-Based Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Lightweight Parts Using Inflatable Hollow Extrudates
by Md Ahsanul Habib, Rawan Elsersawy and Mohammad Abu Hasan Khondoker
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020037 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 348
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) has become a key element of Industry 4.0, particularly the extrusion AM (EAM) of thermoplastic materials, which is recognized as the most widely used technology. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), however, depends on expensive commercially available filaments, making pellet extruder-based EAM [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing (AM) has become a key element of Industry 4.0, particularly the extrusion AM (EAM) of thermoplastic materials, which is recognized as the most widely used technology. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), however, depends on expensive commercially available filaments, making pellet extruder-based EAM techniques more desirable. Large-format EAM systems could benefit from printing lightweight objects with reduced material use and lower power consumption by utilizing hollow rather than solid extrudates. In this study, a custom extruder head was designed and an EAM system capable of extruding inflatable hollow extrudates from a variety of materials was developed. By integrating a co-axial nozzle-needle system, a thermoplastic shell was extruded while creating a hollow core using pressurized nitrogen gas. This method allows for the production of objects with gradient part density and varied mechanical properties by controlling the inflation of the hollow extrudates. The effects of process parameters— such as extrusion temperature, extrusion speed, and gas pressure were investigated—using poly-lactic acid (PLA) and styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene (SEBS) pellets. The preliminary tests identified the optimal range of these parameters for consistent hollow extrudates. We then varied the parameters to determine their impact on the dimensions of the extrudates, supported by analyses of microscopic images taken with an optical microscope. Our findings reveal that pressure is the most influential factor affecting extrudate dimensions. In contrast, variations in temperature and extrusion speed had a relatively minor impact, whereas changes in pressure led to significant alterations in the extrudate’s size and shape. Full article
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<p>Extrusion nozzle: (<b>a</b>) Microscopic observation from top; (<b>b</b>) Cross-section of nozzles; (<b>c</b>) Microscopic observation from bottom; (<b>d</b>) Three-dimensional printed nozzle; (<b>e</b>) Transverse section view of Hot-end assembly; (<b>f</b>) Manufactured extruder head.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Experimental setup of the full extruder head mounted to the printer and the gas cylinder with the pressure sensor and regulator.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Spiral Cylindrical Printed Part: (<b>a</b>) Print Path Preview; (<b>b</b>) Printed Part; (<b>c</b>) Cross-section. Multi-layer cylindrical part: (<b>d</b>) Print path preview; (<b>e</b>) Printed part; (<b>f</b>) Cross-section. Part with gradient density: (<b>g</b>) Print path; (<b>h</b>) Printed part; (<b>i</b>) Front view.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Velocity profile for different pressure gradients; (<b>b</b>) Viscosity as a function of temperature and shear rate for Amorphous PLA.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Outer diameter of PLA extrudates as a function of temperature; (<b>b</b>) Outer diameter of SEBS extrudates as a function of temperature; (<b>c</b>) Core diameter of PLA extrudates as a function of temperature; (<b>d</b>) Core diameter of SEBS extrudates as a function of temperature; (<b>e</b>) Shell thickness of PLA extrudates as a function of temperature; (<b>f</b>) Shell thickness of SEBS extrudates as a function of temperature.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Effect of gas pressure on PLA extrudates’ outer diameter; (<b>b</b>) Effect of gas pressure on SEBS extrudates’ outer diameter; (<b>c</b>) Effect of gas pressure on PLA extrudates’ core diameter; (<b>d</b>) Effect of gas pressure on SEBS extrudates’ core diameter; (<b>e</b>) Effect of gas pressure on PLA extrudates’ shell thickness; (<b>f</b>) Effect of gas pressure on SEBS extrudates’ shell thickness.</p> Full article ">Figure 6 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>) Effect of gas pressure on PLA extrudates’ outer diameter; (<b>b</b>) Effect of gas pressure on SEBS extrudates’ outer diameter; (<b>c</b>) Effect of gas pressure on PLA extrudates’ core diameter; (<b>d</b>) Effect of gas pressure on SEBS extrudates’ core diameter; (<b>e</b>) Effect of gas pressure on PLA extrudates’ shell thickness; (<b>f</b>) Effect of gas pressure on SEBS extrudates’ shell thickness.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Effect of extrusion speed over OD/ID/ST: (<b>a</b>) at 205° C with PLA, and (<b>b</b>) at 220° C with PLA; effect of extrusion speed over OD/CD/ST: (<b>c</b>) at 220 °C with SEBS, and (<b>d</b>) at 230 °C with SEBS.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Microscopic observation of PLA Extrudates cross-sections.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Microscopic observation of cross-sections of SEBS extrudates.</p> Full article ">
51 pages, 13094 KiB  
Review
A Review of Friction Stir Welding of Industrial Alloys: Tool Design and Process Parameters
by Vincenzo Lunetto, Manuela De Maddis, Franco Lombardi and Pasquale Russo Spena
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020036 - 28 Jan 2025
Viewed by 425
Abstract
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a pivotal technology with ongoing relevance across industries. Renowned for its ability to join materials with dissimilar melting points while mitigating thermal distortions, FSW offers relevant advantages over traditional fusion welding. However, the adoption of FSW for high-strength [...] Read more.
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a pivotal technology with ongoing relevance across industries. Renowned for its ability to join materials with dissimilar melting points while mitigating thermal distortions, FSW offers relevant advantages over traditional fusion welding. However, the adoption of FSW for high-strength alloys poses notable challenges, including: (i) accelerated tool wear, (ii) the need for special tool features tailored to these alloys, and (iii) a narrow process window. This review provides a comprehensive overview of FSW as an advanced technique for joining metal alloys for several industrial fields. Emphasis is on materials such as Mg-, Cu-, Ti-, and Ni-based alloys, automotive steels, stainless steels, and maraging steels. The research highlights the critical influence of tool design—main dimensions, features, and materials—and process parameters—rotational and welding speeds, tilt angle, and plunge depth or vertical load—also considering their influences on defect formation. Detailed insights are provided into material flow and the formation of the different weld regions, including SZ, TMAZ, and HAZ. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Welding Technology)
19 pages, 10271 KiB  
Article
Advanced Rheological, Dynamic Mechanical and Thermal Characterization of Phase-Separation Behavior of PLA/PCL Blends
by Evgeni Ivanov, Rumiana Kotsilkova, Vladimir Georgiev, Todor Batakliev and Verislav Angelov
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020035 - 27 Jan 2025
Viewed by 535
Abstract
This research presents a comprehensive investigation of PLA/PCL polymer blends using advanced rheological characterization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and dynamic mechanical, thermal analysis (DMTA) to evaluate phase-separation behavior and functional properties. Polymer composites with various PLA/PCL ratios were fabricated [...] Read more.
This research presents a comprehensive investigation of PLA/PCL polymer blends using advanced rheological characterization, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and dynamic mechanical, thermal analysis (DMTA) to evaluate phase-separation behavior and functional properties. Polymer composites with various PLA/PCL ratios were fabricated via melt extrusion, a sustainable and scalable approach. The rheological studies revealed significant insights into the blends’ viscoelastic behavior, while SEM analyses provided detailed observations of microstructural phase separation. Thermal transitions and crystallization behaviors were evaluated through DSC, and the dynamic mechanical properties were examined via DMTA. The results confirmed that the tailored PLA/PCL blends exhibit properties suitable for advanced additive manufacturing (AM) and shape memory applications, merging flexibility and environmental sustainability. This study emphasizes the novelty of integrating multidisciplinary characterization methods to unravel the structure–property relationships in PLA/PCL systems. By addressing modern demands for eco-friendly, high-performance materials, this work establishes a foundation for the development of innovative polymer composites with potential applications in smart and responsive technologies. Full article
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<p>Processing and characterization workflow of PLA/PCL polymer blends.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM micrographs of blends with ratios of 95/5, 70/30, 60/40, and 30/70 <span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">w</span> PLA/PCL at low and high magnifications of 20 µm and 5 µm. Arrows pointed to the PLA and the PCL phases.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>h</b>) Dynamic rheological characteristics, G′&amp;G″, and <b><span class="html-italic">η</span></b>* vs. angular frequency (ω) of melts at 190 °C: (<b>a</b>) PLA, (<b>b</b>) 95PLA/5PCL, (<b>c</b>) 70PLA/30PCL, (<b>d</b>) 60PLA/40PCL, (<b>e</b>) 30PLA/70PCL, (<b>f</b>) PCL, and (<b>g</b>,<b>h</b>) comparison of <b><span class="html-italic">η</span></b>* and G′&amp; G″ vs. (ω) for all samples at 190 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Phase angle (δ) as a function of angular frequency (<b>a</b>) and Cole–Cole plots (<b>b</b>) for PCL/PLA blends at various weight ratios at 190 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>) Storage and loss moduli (G′&amp;G″) vs. temperature (T) at heating rates of 3 °C/min and 5 °C/min under airflow of (<b>a</b>) PLA, (<b>b</b>) 95PLA/5PCL, (<b>c</b>) 70PLA/30PCL, (<b>d</b>) 60PLA/40PCL, (<b>e</b>) 30PLA/70PCL, (<b>f</b>) PCL, and (<b>f</b>,<b>g</b>) comparison of G′&amp;G″ vs. T at 3 °C/min and 5 °C/min, respectively.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Tan δ curves for the neat PLA and the PLA/PCL blends with increasing the PCL content from 5 to 70 wt.% at heating rates 3 °C/min (<b>a</b>) and 5 °C/min (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Glass transition temperature (T<sub>g,PLA</sub>) determined from DMTA tests for PLA and its blends with varying PCL content at two different heating rates: 3 °C/min (black dots) and 5 °C/min (red dots).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) DSC thermograms of PLA, PCL, and blends: (<b>a</b>) heating run and (<b>b</b>) cooling run at a ramp of 10 °C/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The crystallinity of the PLA, PCL, and total crystallinity depending on the blend ratio.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>TGA thermograms of weight loss vs. temperature (<b>a</b>) and their first derivative (<b>b</b>) of the PLA/PCL blends.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Temperatures corresponding to the 2% (dark green circle), 5% (red triangle), 10% (blue star), and 50% (light green square) weight loss vs. the PCL content in the PLA/PCL.</p> Full article ">
32 pages, 24581 KiB  
Article
Interfacial Stability of Additively Manufactured Alloy 625–GRCop-42 Bimetallic Structures
by Ariel Rieffer and Andrew Wessman
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020034 - 24 Jan 2025
Viewed by 483
Abstract
This study examines the diffusion behavior, thermal stability, and mechanical properties of the bimetallic interface between additively manufactured copper alloy GRCop-42 and nickel alloy 625 (UNS N06625) following elevated temperature exposure at service-relevant conditions for high-temperature superalloys. The copper alloy was additively manufactured [...] Read more.
This study examines the diffusion behavior, thermal stability, and mechanical properties of the bimetallic interface between additively manufactured copper alloy GRCop-42 and nickel alloy 625 (UNS N06625) following elevated temperature exposure at service-relevant conditions for high-temperature superalloys. The copper alloy was additively manufactured using laser powder bed fusion. The nickel alloy was subsequently deposited directly onto the copper alloy using powder-based directed energy deposition. The samples were held at a temperature of 816 °C (1500° F) for varying exposure times between 50 and 500 h. Significant material loss (averaging ~430 at 50 h and ~1830 at 500 h) due to oxidation was noted in the copper alloy. The bondline interface was examined using optical microscopy as well as electron microprobe analysis. Composition maps from the electron microprobe showed the formation of oxides in the copper alloy and Laves phase in the nickel alloy at thermal exposure times of 200 h or more. By analyzing diffusion across the bondline, this study demonstrates the ability of machine learning-based diffusion models to predict diffusion coefficients of copper into alloy 625 () and of nickel into GRCop-42 () and the ability of commercially available diffusion code (Pandat) to provide reasonably accurate diffusion profiles for this system. Tensile and fatigue tests were performed in the as-built and 200 h thermal exposure conditions. The thermally exposed samples exhibited an average 18.6% reduction in yield strength compared to the as-built samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Manufacturing in the Era of Industry 4.0)
21 pages, 10515 KiB  
Article
Material Characterisation Experiments and Data Preparation for a Finite Element Analysis of the Deep Drawing Process Using AA 1050-O
by Blessed Sarema, Stephen Matope, Matthias Nagel and Andreas Sterzing
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020033 - 24 Jan 2025
Viewed by 384
Abstract
The use of computer simulation to imitate physical processes has proven to be a time-efficient and cost-effective way of performing scenario testing for process optimisation in different applications. The finite element analysis (FEA) is the dominant numerical simulation method for analysing sheet metal [...] Read more.
The use of computer simulation to imitate physical processes has proven to be a time-efficient and cost-effective way of performing scenario testing for process optimisation in different applications. The finite element analysis (FEA) is the dominant numerical simulation method for analysing sheet metal forming processes. It uses mathematical tools and computer-aided engineering software programmes to predict forming processes. To improve the quality of output from the simulation, accurate material characterisation data that correctly model the behaviour of the material when it undergoes deformation must be provided. This paper outlines the stages of conducting material characterisation experiments, such as tensile, hardness, and formability tests, using the aluminium alloy AA1050-O. Sample preparation, the machine setup, and testing procedures for the material characterisation tests are given. Subsequent data preparation methods for input into an FEA software programme are also outlined. Implications of the testing results to a deep drawing process are examined while considering the formation of a rectangular monolithic component measuring 2300 mm by 1400 mm with a drawing depth of approximately 150 mm. The results from the characterisation tests indicate that the forming process for the product can be achieved using cold forming at room temperatures as a 25% strain was recorded before necking against an anticipated uniaxial strain of 5.93%. The aluminium alloy AA1050-O demonstrated a negligible strain rate sensitivity in the forming region, thus eliminating tool velocity from the key process parameters that should be considered during FEA simulations. A 50% increase in hardness was recorded after strain hardening. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deformation and Mechanical Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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<p>Typical tensile test specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Typical stress–strain curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Typical stress–strain curve (source: ISO-6507-1:2018 [<a href="#B29-jmmp-09-00033" class="html-bibr">29</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Typical forming limit diagram (source: Holmberg, Enquist, and Thilderkvist [<a href="#B38-jmmp-09-00033" class="html-bibr">38</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>AA1050 test specimen dimensions with 1.5 mm thickness.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>AA1050-O tensile test specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Tensile testing at Fraunhofer IWU in Germany.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Tensile test specimens after tensile testing.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>AA1050-O engineering stress–strain curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Determination of yield strength for AA1050-O.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>AA1050 true stress–strain curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Determination of hardening parameters for AA1050-O.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Average flow curve of AA1050-O, input data into FEA.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Cross-sectional view of long side of typical product.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Cross-sectional view of short side of product.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>AA1050-O hardness test specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The Vickers Hardness testing machine at the University of Cape Town in South Africa.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>AA1050-O Vickers Hardness values before strain.</p> Full article ">Figure 18 Cont.
<p>AA1050-O Vickers Hardness values before strain.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>AA1050-O Vickers Hardness values after strain.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>AA1050-O Nakajima test specimen dimensions.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>AA1050-O Nakajima test specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Sheet metal forming testing machine at Fraunhofer IWU.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>AA1050-O specimens after Nakajima tests.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>AA1050-O Forming Limit Curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>An illustration of an FEA simulation showing (<b>a</b>) a forming limit diagram and (<b>b</b>) a visual image of the different formability parameters on a deep-drawn part.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 1433 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Oscillation Parameters Amplitude and Frequency on the Microstructure of Laser-Welded Thin Nitinol Foils
by Danka Katrakova-Krüger, Sabine Weichert and Christoph Hartl
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020032 - 23 Jan 2025
Viewed by 417
Abstract
Laser welding has become well established for joining Ni-Ti-based shape memory alloys and extends the manufacturability of highly functional components with complex geometries. Published studies on the effect of laser welding on alterations to microstructure and properties of these alloys, however, mainly deal [...] Read more.
Laser welding has become well established for joining Ni-Ti-based shape memory alloys and extends the manufacturability of highly functional components with complex geometries. Published studies on the effect of laser welding on alterations to microstructure and properties of these alloys, however, mainly deal with conventional component dimensions and linear laser beam movement. In view of the increasing importance of microtechnology, research into joining of thin-walled Ni-Ti components is therefore of interest. At the same time, studies comparing oscillating and linear beam movement on other materials and the authors’ own work on Ni-Ti materials suggest that oscillating beam movement has a more favorable effect on alterations in material properties and microstructure. Therefore, laser welding of foils made of Ni55/Ti45 with 125 µm thickness was systematically analyzed using a fiber laser and circular oscillation. Amplitude A and frequency f were varied from 0 to 200 µm and 0 to 2000 Hz, respectively. Microstructural analysis showed that by increasing the frequency, grain refinement could be achieved up to a certain value of f. An increasing amplitude led to decreasing hardness values of the weld seam, while the influence of f was less pronounced. The analysis of the weld material using chip calorimetry (Flash DSC) revealed that the beam oscillation had fewer effects on the change in transformation points compared to a linear beam movement. Full article
18 pages, 5103 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Deposition Temperature and Gyroid Infill to Improve Flexural Performance of PLA and PLA–Flax Fiber Composite Sandwich Structures
by Luigi Calabrese, Gabriele Marabello, Mohamed Chairi and Guido Di Bella
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020031 - 23 Jan 2025
Viewed by 523
Abstract
This research investigates the optimization of 3D-printed sandwich structures fabricated using fused filament fabrication (FFF) with polylactic acid (PLA) and PLA reinforced with flax fibers. The core of the sandwich structure features a gyroid infill pattern, which is known for its mechanical efficiency. [...] Read more.
This research investigates the optimization of 3D-printed sandwich structures fabricated using fused filament fabrication (FFF) with polylactic acid (PLA) and PLA reinforced with flax fibers. The core of the sandwich structure features a gyroid infill pattern, which is known for its mechanical efficiency. The study delves into the effects of deposition temperature on the adhesion between the core and skin layers, as well as the impact of infill density on the overall mechanical properties. Three-point bending tests are conducted to assess the flexural performance of the structures. The objective is to identify the optimal processing parameters to enhance the performance of PLA-based composite sandwich structures. Potential applications for these structures include lightweight components for automotive interiors, sustainable packaging solutions, and architectural elements requiring a balance of strength and environmental sustainability. Full article
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<p>Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) gyroid structure with (<b>a</b>) 20% infill density and (<b>b</b>) 30% infill density.</p> Full article ">Figure 1 Cont.
<p>Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) gyroid structure with (<b>a</b>) 20% infill density and (<b>b</b>) 30% infill density.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of PLA and PLA–flax.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) gyroid sandwich 3D printed by using 220 °C deposition temperature: (<b>a</b>) PLA and (<b>b</b>) PLA filled with flax fibers.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Flexural strength (primary axis, blue curve) and flexural modulus (secondary axis, green curve) at varying strains for a reference P-220-20 sandwich.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Optical image of a P-220-20 sandwich after a three-point bending test.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Typical load–displacement curves by varying the infill density and extrusion temperature for (<b>a</b>) PLA sandwiches (batches P) and (<b>b</b>) PLA–FLAX sandwiches (batches PF).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Optical image of a PF-200-30 composite sandwich after a three-point bending test.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison between the (<b>a</b>) flexural strength and (<b>b</b>) strain at maximum stress by varying the infills and extrusion temperatures for the monolithic (P batches) and composite (PF batches) sandwiches.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Residual plots for flexural strength.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Interaction plot for flexural strength.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 7040 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Cladding AISI 304L Stainless Steel on Aluminum
by Yasmine Gabsi, Sahar Zouari, Mariem Abdennadher, Lamine Dieng and Riadh Elleuch
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020030 - 23 Jan 2025
Viewed by 465
Abstract
The cladding process is a cost-effective solution to improve surface properties and obtain additional functionalities. The current paper focuses on the cladding of austenitic 304L stainless steel on aluminum substrate (SS/Al) by diffusion bonding, particularly relevant in the kitchenware field for safety issues. [...] Read more.
The cladding process is a cost-effective solution to improve surface properties and obtain additional functionalities. The current paper focuses on the cladding of austenitic 304L stainless steel on aluminum substrate (SS/Al) by diffusion bonding, particularly relevant in the kitchenware field for safety issues. The study investigates the bonding characteristics and the deep drawing formability of the clad material, aiming to improve the understanding of its performance. The main results show a defect-free interface, as observed through microstructural analyzes. This highlights the ability of this process to create a good bond. The SEM/EDS results confirmed the absence of a diffusion layer. Microhardness and adhesion tests revealed non-uniform hardness values and moderate strength values across the interface. Numerical simulation showed the feasibility of deep drawing the SS/Al clad material without failure, proving its suitability in cookware manufacturing. These findings demonstrate the workability of diffusion bonding and suggest the potential for improving mechanical properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Design, Manufacturing, and Dynamics of Complex Systems)
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<p>Hydraulic machine with a capacity of 5 tons.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Measurement grid.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Tensile test configuration.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Exploded view of the numerical simulation (Abaqus 6.13 Finite Element Software).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Aluminum 1050 and AISI 304L true stress–strain curves [<a href="#B25-jmmp-09-00030" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-jmmp-09-00030" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SEM observations of the SS/Al clad plate interface. (<b>a</b>) Cross section; (<b>b</b>) Longitudinal section.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Clad plate microstructure after etching.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>EDS analysis results.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>EDS spectra analysis: (<b>a</b>) Analyzed zones of the clad plate; (<b>b</b>) Spectra results.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Microhardness variation in the clad plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Strength–displacement curves of the adhesion test.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Forming limit diagram (FLD) of AISI 304L and Al 1050 plates.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Strain distribution of the AISI 304L/Al 1050 clad plate.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 573 KiB  
Article
Towards Zero Defect and Zero Waste Manufacturing by Implementing Non-Destructive Inspection Technologies
by Joan Lario, Javier Mateos, Foivos Psarommatis and Ángel Ortiz
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020029 - 21 Jan 2025
Viewed by 893
Abstract
This study aims to provide an overview of Zero Defect, Zero Waste, and non-destructive inspection technologies (NDITs), which play a crucial role in the early detection of defects and material consumption in industrial processes. Integrating Zero Defect and Zero Waste strategies with non-destructive [...] Read more.
This study aims to provide an overview of Zero Defect, Zero Waste, and non-destructive inspection technologies (NDITs), which play a crucial role in the early detection of defects and material consumption in industrial processes. Integrating Zero Defect and Zero Waste strategies with non-destructive inspection technologies supports Industry 4.0 by using advanced sensors, robotics, and AI to create smart manufacturing systems that optimise resources and improve quality. The analysis covers the main functionalities, applications and technical specifications of several NDITs to automate the inspection of industrial processes. It also discusses both the benefits and limitations of these techniques through benchmarking. Deploying inspection as a service solution based on NDITs with data-driven decision-making Artificial Intelligence for in-process or in-line inspection policies increases production control by reducing material waste and energy use, and by optimising the final factory cost. After a comprehensive assessment, this paper aims to examine and review recent developments in the Zero Defects and Zero Waste field due to emerging non-destructive inspection systems, and their combination with other technologies, such as augmented reality. Advances in sensors, robotics, and decision-making processes through Artificial Intelligence can increase Human–Robot Collaboration in the inspection process by enhancing quality assurance during production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industry 4.0: Manufacturing and Materials Processing)
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<p>NDIT benefits in the manufacturing ecosystem.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 3064 KiB  
Article
Ring Beam Modulation-Assisted Laser Welding on Dissimilar Materials for Automotive Battery
by Se-Hoon Choi, Jong-Hyun Kim and Hae-Woon Choi
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9020028 - 21 Jan 2025
Viewed by 529
Abstract
This paper investigates Ring Beam Modulation-assisted Laser (RBML) welding as a novel approach for joining dissimilar materials, specifically aluminum and copper, which are essential in high-performance applications such as electric vehicle batteries and aerospace components. The study aims to address challenges such as [...] Read more.
This paper investigates Ring Beam Modulation-assisted Laser (RBML) welding as a novel approach for joining dissimilar materials, specifically aluminum and copper, which are essential in high-performance applications such as electric vehicle batteries and aerospace components. The study aims to address challenges such as thermal mismatches, brittle intermetallic compounds, and structural defects that hinder traditional welding methods. The research combines experimental and computational analyses to evaluate the impact of heat input distributions and laser modulation parameters on weld quality and strength. Three welding cases are compared: fixed center beam with variable ring beam outputs, variable center beam with fixed ring outputs, and a wobble-mode beam to enhance interfacial bonding. Computational modeling supports the optimization process by simulating heat flows and material responses, exploring various shape factors, and guiding parameter selection. Key findings include a nonlinear relationship between heat input and welding strength across the cases. Case 1 demonstrates improved weld strength with higher ring beam input, while Case 2 achieves excellent reliability with relatively lower inputs. Case 3 introduces wobble welding, yielding superior resolution and consistent weld quality. These results confirm that precise ring beam modulation enhances weld reliability, minimizes thermal distortions, and optimizes energy consumption. The manuscript advances the state of knowledge in laser welding technology by demonstrating a scalable, energy-efficient method for joining dissimilar materials. This contribution supports the fabrication of lightweight, high-reliability assemblies, paving the way for innovative applications in the automotive, medical, aerospace, and shipbuilding industries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dissimilar Metal Joining and Welding)
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<p>Principle of the idea (<b>a</b>) dual-beam laser welding for dissimilar materials (<b>b</b>) Energy propagation of the Ring Beam Modulation-assisted Laser Welding (<b>c</b>) Weld reliability improvement through ring laser.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Experimental setup (<b>a</b>) Robot arm-based laser welding (<b>b</b>) Jig for placing target specimen (<b>c</b>) Scanning head aligned to the target (<b>d</b>) Laser variation.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Cross-sections of ring beam modulation-assisted laser welding (<b>b</b>) Tensile load and bead width vs. heat input for Case 1 (<b>c</b>) Tensile load and bead width vs. heat input for Case 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Cross-sections of wobble welding (<b>b</b>) Unit tensile load (kgf/mm) and bead width vs. wobble amplitude for case 3 (<b>c</b>) Welding surfaces with various wobbling amplitudes.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Simulated thermal distribution (<b>b</b>) Summary of tensile load vs. heat input for each case.</p> Full article ">
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