Galaxies

27 pages, 1600 KiB

Open AccessReview

High Energy Radiation from Spider Pulsars

by Chung Yue Hui and Kwan Lok Li

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040093 - 13 Dec 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4258

The population of millisecond pulsars (MSPs) has been expanded considerably in the last decade. Not only is their number increasing, but also various classes of them have been revealed. Among different classes of MSPs, the behaviours of black widows and redbacks are particularly [...] Read more.

The population of millisecond pulsars (MSPs) has been expanded considerably in the last decade. Not only is their number increasing, but also various classes of them have been revealed. Among different classes of MSPs, the behaviours of black widows and redbacks are particularly interesting. These systems consist of an MSP and a low-mass companion star in compact binaries with an orbital period of less than a day. In this article, we give an overview of the high energy nature of these two classes of MSPs. Updated catalogues of black widows and redbacks are presented and their X-ray/

γ

-ray properties are reviewed. Besides the overview, using the most updated eight-year Fermi Large Area Telescope point source catalog, we have compared the

γ

-ray properties of these two MSP classes. The results suggest that the X-rays and

γ

-rays observed from these MSPs originate from different mechanisms. Lastly, we will also mention the future prospects of studying these spider pulsars with the novel methodologies as well as upcoming observing facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Observations of Gamma-Ray Pulsars)

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22 pages, 6972 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Red Supergiants, Yellow Hypergiants, and Post-RSG Evolution

by Michael S. Gordon and Roberta M. Humphreys

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040092 - 3 Dec 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4786

Abstract

How massive stars end their lives remains an open question in the field of star evolution. While the majority of stars above ≳9

M_{⊙}

will become red supergiants (RSGs), the terminal state of these massive stars can be heavily influenced by their [...] Read more.

How massive stars end their lives remains an open question in the field of star evolution. While the majority of stars above ≳9

M_{⊙}

will become red supergiants (RSGs), the terminal state of these massive stars can be heavily influenced by their mass-loss histories. Periods of enhanced circumstellar wind activity can drive stars off the RSG branch of the HR Diagram. This phase, known as post-RSG evolution, may well be tied to high mass-loss events or eruptions as seen in the Luminous Blue Variables (LBVs) and other massive stars. This article highlights some of the recent observational and modeling studies that seek to characterize this unique class of stars, the post-RSGs and link them to other massive objects on the HR Diagram such as LBVs, Yellow Hypergiants and dusty RSGs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Luminous Stars in Nearby Galaxies)

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14 pages, 606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Origin of Large-Scale Magnetic Fields in Low-Mass Galaxies

by Prasanta Bera, Anvar Shukurov and Kandaswamy Subramanian

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040091 - 29 Nov 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2616

Abstract

The origin of large-scale magnetic fields, detected in some low-mass (dwarf and irregular) galaxies via polarised synchrotron emission and Faraday rotation, has remained unexplained for a long time. We suggest that mean-field dynamos can be active in galaxies of this class despite their [...] Read more.

The origin of large-scale magnetic fields, detected in some low-mass (dwarf and irregular) galaxies via polarised synchrotron emission and Faraday rotation, has remained unexplained for a long time. We suggest that mean-field dynamos can be active in galaxies of this class despite their slow rotation because their discs are relatively thick. Earlier assessments of the possibility of the mean-field dynamo action in low-mass galaxies relied on estimates applicable to thin discs, such as those in massive spiral galaxies. Using both order-of-magnitude estimates and numerical solutions, we show that the strength of differential rotation required to amplify magnetic field reduces as the aspect ratio of the galactic gas layer increases. As in a thin disc, quadrupolar magnetic fields dominate in thick discs. Thus, the origin of large-scale magnetic fields in low-mass galaxies has been clarified. This class of galaxies provides a new ground for testing our understanding of galactic magnetism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)

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14 pages, 2468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gamma-Ray Sensitivity to Dark Matter Subhalo Modelling at High Latitudes

by Francesca Calore, Moritz Hütten and Martin Stref

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040090 - 26 Nov 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2518

Abstract

Searches for “dark” subhaloes in gamma-ray point-like source catalogues are among promising strategies for indirect dark matter detection. Such a search is nevertheless affected by uncertainties related, on the one hand, to the modelling of the dark matter subhalo distribution in Milky-Way-like galaxies, [...] Read more.

Searches for “dark” subhaloes in gamma-ray point-like source catalogues are among promising strategies for indirect dark matter detection. Such a search is nevertheless affected by uncertainties related, on the one hand, to the modelling of the dark matter subhalo distribution in Milky-Way-like galaxies, and, on the other hand, to the sensitivity of gamma-ray instruments to the dark matter subhalo signals. In the present work, we assess the detectability of dark matter subhaloes in Fermi-LAT catalogues, taking into accounts uncertainties associated with the modelling of the galactic subhalo population. We use four different halo models bracketing a large set of uncertainties. For each model, adopting an accurate detection threshold of the LAT to dark matter subhalo signals and comparing model predictions with the number of unassociated point-sources in Fermi-LAT catalogues, we derive upper limits on the annihilation cross section as a function of dark matter mass. Our results show that, even in the best-case scenario (i.e., DMonly subhalo model), which does not include tidal disruption from baryons, the limits on the dark matter parameter space are less stringent than current gamma-ray limits from dwarf spheroidal galaxies. Comparing the results obtained with the different subhalo models, we find that baryonic effects on the subhalo population are significant and lead to dark matter constraints that are less stringent by a factor of ∼2 to ∼5. This uncertainty comes from the unknown resilience of dark matter subhaloes to tidal disruption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Halo Substructure in Gamma-Ray Dark Matter Searches)

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28 pages, 5305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An In-Depth Investigation of Faraday Depth Spectrum Using Synthetic Observations of Turbulent MHD Simulations

by Aritra Basu, Andrew Fletcher, Sui Ann Mao, Blakesley Burkhart, Rainer Beck and Dominic Schnitzeler

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040089 - 23 Nov 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3611

Abstract

In this paper, we present a detailed analysis of the Faraday depth (FD) spectrum and its clean components obtained through the application of the commonly used technique of Faraday rotation measure synthesis to analyze spectro-polarimetric data. To directly compare the Faraday depth spectrum [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present a detailed analysis of the Faraday depth (FD) spectrum and its clean components obtained through the application of the commonly used technique of Faraday rotation measure synthesis to analyze spectro-polarimetric data. To directly compare the Faraday depth spectrum with physical properties of a magneto-ionic medium, we generated synthetic broad-bandwidth spectro-polarimetric observations from magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of a transonic, isothermal, compressible turbulent medium. We find that correlated magnetic field structures give rise to a combination of spiky, localized peaks at certain FD values, and broad structures in the FD spectrum. Although most of these spiky FD structures appear narrow, giving an impression of a Faraday thin medium, we show that they arise from strong synchrotron emissivity at that FD. Strong emissivity at a FD can arise because of both strong spatially local polarized synchrotron emissivity at a FD or accumulation of weaker emissions along the distance through a medium that have Faraday depths within half the width of the rotation measure spread function. Such a complex Faraday depth spectrum is a natural consequence of MHD turbulence when the lines of sight pass through a few turbulent cells. This therefore complicates the convention of attributing narrow FD peaks to the presence of a Faraday-rotating medium along the line of sight. Our work shows that it is difficult to extract the FD along a line of sight from the Faraday depth spectrum using standard methods for a turbulent medium in which synchrotron emission and Faraday rotation occur simultaneously. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives on Galactic Magnetism)

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23 pages, 4750 KiB

Open AccessReview

Massive Stars in the Tarantula Nebula: A Rosetta Stone for Extragalactic Supergiant HII Regions

by Paul A. Crowther

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040088 - 8 Nov 2019

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 4839

Abstract

A review of the properties of the Tarantula Nebula (30 Doradus) in the Large Magellanic Cloud is presented, primarily from the perspective of its massive star content. The proximity of the Tarantula and its accessibility to X-ray through radio observations permit it to [...] Read more.

A review of the properties of the Tarantula Nebula (30 Doradus) in the Large Magellanic Cloud is presented, primarily from the perspective of its massive star content. The proximity of the Tarantula and its accessibility to X-ray through radio observations permit it to serve as a Rosetta Stone amongst extragalactic supergiant HII regions since one can consider both its integrated characteristics and the individual properties of individual massive stars. Recent surveys of its high mass stellar content, notably the VLT FLAMES Tarantula Survey (VFTS), are reviewed, together with VLT/MUSE observations of the central ionizing region NGC 2070 and HST/STIS spectroscopy of the young dense cluster R136, provide a near complete Hertzsprung-Russell diagram of the region, and cumulative ionizing output. Several high mass binaries are highlighted, some of which have been identified from a recent X-ray survey. Brief comparisons with the stellar content of giant HII regions in the Milky Way (NGC 3372) and Small Magellanic Cloud (NGC 346) are also made, together with Green Pea galaxies and star forming knots in high-z galaxies. Finally, the prospect of studying massive stars in metal poor galaxies is evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Luminous Stars in Nearby Galaxies)

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30 pages, 5281 KiB

Open AccessReview

Relativistic Jets in Gamma-Ray-Emitting Narrow-Line Seyfert 1 Galaxies

by Filippo D’Ammando

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040087 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4129

Abstract

Before the launch of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite only two classes of active galactic nuclei (AGN) were known to generate relativistic jets and thus to emit up to the

γ

-ray energy range: blazars and radio galaxies, both hosted in giant [...] Read more.

Before the launch of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite only two classes of active galactic nuclei (AGN) were known to generate relativistic jets and thus to emit up to the

γ

-ray energy range: blazars and radio galaxies, both hosted in giant elliptical galaxies. The discovery by the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on-board the Fermi satellite of variable

γ

-ray emission from a few radio-loud narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies (NLSy1) revealed the presence of an emerging third class of AGN with powerful relativistic jets. Considering that NLSy1 are usually hosted in late-type galaxies with relatively small black hole masses, this finding opened new challenging questions about the nature of these objects, the disc/jet connection, the emission mechanisms at high energies, and the formation of relativistic jets. In this review, I will discuss the broad-band properties of the

γ

-ray-emitting NLSy1 included in the Fourth Fermi LAT source catalog, highlighting major findings and open questions regarding jet physics, black hole mass estimation, host galaxy and accretion process of these sources in the Fermi era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Acceleration Processes in Astrophysical Jets)

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13 pages, 1229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Features of Structure and Absorption in the Jet-Launching Region of M87

by Wei Zhao, Xiaoyu Hong, Tao An, Xiaofeng Li, Xiaopeng Cheng and Fang Wu

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040086 - 31 Oct 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2823

Abstract

M87 is one of the best available source for studying the AGN jet-launching region. To enrich our knowledge of this region, with quasi-simultaneous observations using VLBA at 22, 43 and 86 GHz, we capture the images of the radio jet in M87 on [...] Read more.

M87 is one of the best available source for studying the AGN jet-launching region. To enrich our knowledge of this region, with quasi-simultaneous observations using VLBA at 22, 43 and 86 GHz, we capture the images of the radio jet in M87 on a scale within several thousand

R_{s}

. Based on the images, we analyze the transverse jet structure and obtain the most accurate spectral-index maps of the jet in M87 so far, then for the first time, we compare the results of the two analyses and find a spatial association between the jet collimations and the local enhancement of the density of external medium in the jet-launching region. We also find the external medium is not uniform, and greatly contributes to the free-free absorption in this region. In addition, we find for the jet in M87, its temporal morphology in the launching region may be largely affected by the local, short-lived kink instability growing in itself. Full article

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19 pages, 5355 KiB

Open AccessReview

Blazar Optical Polarimetry: Current Progress in Observations and Theories

by Haocheng Zhang

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040085 - 27 Oct 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4139

Abstract

Polarimetry has been a standard tool to probe the active galactic nucleus (AGN) jet magnetic field. In recent years, several optical polarization monitoring programs have been carried out, bringing in many exciting new results and insights into jet dynamics and emission. This article [...] Read more.

Polarimetry has been a standard tool to probe the active galactic nucleus (AGN) jet magnetic field. In recent years, several optical polarization monitoring programs have been carried out, bringing in many exciting new results and insights into jet dynamics and emission. This article discusses current progress in blazar optical polarimetry. The main focus is the variability of polarization signatures, which has spurred a lot of theoretical studies. These novel developments have provided unique constraints on the blazar flares and emphasized the role of the magnetic field in jet evolution. Optical polarimetry will continue to act as an essential component in the multi-messenger study of AGN jets, in particular with the upcoming high-energy polarimetry. Comparing to first-principle numerical simulations, future multi-wavelength polarimetry can shed light on jet dynamics, particle acceleration, and radiation processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Jet Physics of Accreting Super Massive Black Holes)

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25 pages, 6326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Planets in Binaries: Formation and Dynamical Evolution

by Francesco Marzari and Philippe Thebault

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040084 - 16 Oct 2019

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4343

Abstract

Binary systems are very common among field stars, yet the vast majority of known exoplanets have been detected around single stars. While this relatively small number of planets in binaries is probably partly due to strong observational biases, there is, however, statistical evidence [...] Read more.

Binary systems are very common among field stars, yet the vast majority of known exoplanets have been detected around single stars. While this relatively small number of planets in binaries is probably partly due to strong observational biases, there is, however, statistical evidence that planets are indeed less frequent in binaries with separations smaller than 100 au, strongly suggesting that the presence of a close-in companion star has an adverse effect on planet formation. It is indeed possible for the gravitational pull of the second star to affect all the different stages of planet formation, from proto-planetary disk formation to dust accumulation into planetesimals, to the accretion of these planetesimals into large planetary embryos and, eventually, the final growth of these embryos into planets. For the crucial planetesimal-accretion phase, the complex coupling between dynamical perturbations from the binary and friction due to gas in the proto-planetary disk suggests that planetesimal accretion might be hampered due to increased, accretion-hostile impact velocities. Likewise, the interplay between the binary’s secular perturbations and mean motion resonances lead to unstable regions, where not only planet formation is inhibited, but where a massive body would be ejected from the system on a hyperbolic orbit. The amplitude of these two main effects is different for S- and P-type planets, so that a comparison between the two populations might outline the influence of the companion star on the planet formation process. Unfortunately, at present the two populations (circumstellar or circumbinary) are not known equally well and different biases and uncertainties prevent a quantitative comparison. We also highlight the long-term dynamical evolution of both S and P-type systems and focus on how these different evolutions influence the final architecture of planetary systems in binaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Habitability of Planets in Stellar Binary Systems)

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36 pages, 1317 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Census of B[e] Supergiants

by Michaela Kraus

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040083 - 29 Sep 2019

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 4816

Abstract

Stellar evolution theory is most uncertain for massive stars. For reliable predictions of the evolution of massive stars and their final fate, solid constraints on the physical parameters, and their changes along the evolution and in different environments, are required. Massive stars evolve [...] Read more.

Stellar evolution theory is most uncertain for massive stars. For reliable predictions of the evolution of massive stars and their final fate, solid constraints on the physical parameters, and their changes along the evolution and in different environments, are required. Massive stars evolve through a variety of short transition phases, in which they can experience large mass-loss either in the form of dense winds or via sudden eruptions. The B[e] supergiants comprise one such group of massive transition objects. They are characterized by dense, dusty disks of yet unknown origin. In the Milky Way, identification and classification of B[e] supergiants is usually hampered by their uncertain distances, hence luminosities, and by the confusion of low-luminosity candidates with massive pre-main sequence objects. The extragalactic objects are often mistaken as quiescent or candidate luminous blue variables, with whom B[e] supergiants share a number of spectroscopic characteristics. In this review, proper criteria are provided, based on which B[e] supergiants can be unambiguously classified and separated from other high luminosity post-main sequence stars and pre-main sequence stars. Using these criteria, the B[e] supergiant samples in diverse galaxies are critically inspected, to achieve a reliable census of the current population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Luminous Stars in Nearby Galaxies)

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34 pages, 1850 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biosignatures Search in Habitable Planets

by Riccardo Claudi and Eleonora Alei

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040082 - 29 Sep 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7005

Abstract

The search for life has had a new enthusiastic restart in the last two decades thanks to the large number of new worlds discovered. The about 4100 exoplanets found so far, show a large diversity of planets, from hot giants to rocky planets [...] Read more.

The search for life has had a new enthusiastic restart in the last two decades thanks to the large number of new worlds discovered. The about 4100 exoplanets found so far, show a large diversity of planets, from hot giants to rocky planets orbiting small and cold stars. Most of them are very different from those of the Solar System and one of the striking case is that of the super-Earths, rocky planets with masses ranging between 1 and 10 M

_{\oplus}

with dimensions up to twice those of Earth. In the right environment, these planets could be the cradle of alien life that could modify the chemical composition of their atmospheres. So, the search for life signatures requires as the first step the knowledge of planet atmospheres, the main objective of future exoplanetary space explorations. Indeed, the quest for the determination of the chemical composition of those planetary atmospheres rises also more general interest than that given by the mere directory of the atmospheric compounds. It opens out to the more general speculation on what such detection might tell us about the presence of life on those planets. As, for now, we have only one example of life in the universe, we are bound to study terrestrial organisms to assess possibilities of life on other planets and guide our search for possible extinct or extant life on other planetary bodies. In this review, we try to answer the three questions that also in this special search, mark the beginning of every research: what? where? how? Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Habitability of Planets in Stellar Binary Systems)

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54 pages, 9674 KiB

Open AccessReview

Dark Matter Haloes and Subhaloes

by Jesús Zavala and Carlos S. Frenk

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040081 - 25 Sep 2019

Cited by 102 | Viewed by 10540

Abstract

The development of methods and algorithms to solve the N-body problem for classical, collisionless, non-relativistic particles has made it possible to follow the growth and evolution of cosmic dark matter structures over most of the universe’s history. In the best-studied case—the cold [...] Read more.

The development of methods and algorithms to solve the N-body problem for classical, collisionless, non-relativistic particles has made it possible to follow the growth and evolution of cosmic dark matter structures over most of the universe’s history. In the best-studied case—the cold dark matter or CDM model—the dark matter is assumed to consist of elementary particles that had negligible thermal velocities at early times. Progress over the past three decades has led to a nearly complete description of the assembly, structure, and spatial distribution of dark matter haloes, and their substructure in this model, over almost the entire mass range of astronomical objects. On scales of galaxies and above, predictions from this standard CDM model have been shown to provide a remarkably good match to a wide variety of astronomical data over a large range of epochs, from the temperature structure of the cosmic background radiation to the large-scale distribution of galaxies. The frontier in this field has shifted to the relatively unexplored subgalactic scales, the domain of the central regions of massive haloes, and that of low-mass haloes and subhaloes, where potentially fundamental questions remain. Answering them may require: (i) the effect of known but uncertain baryonic processes (involving gas and stars), and/or (ii) alternative models with new dark matter physics. Here we present a review of the field, focusing on our current understanding of dark matter structure from N-body simulations and on the challenges ahead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Halo Substructure in Gamma-Ray Dark Matter Searches)

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16 pages, 658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Subhalos in the Interacting Dark Matter Scenario

by Ángeles Moliné, Jascha A. Schewtschenko, Miguel A. Sánchez-Conde, Alejandra Aguirre-Santaella, Sofía A. Cora and Mario G. Abadi

Galaxies 2019, 7(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7040080 - 21 Sep 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2717

Abstract

One possible and natural derivation from the collisionless cold dark matter (CDM) standard cosmological framework is the assumption of the existence of interactions between dark matter (DM) and photons or neutrinos. Such a possible interacting dark matter (IDM) model would imply a suppression [...] Read more.

One possible and natural derivation from the collisionless cold dark matter (CDM) standard cosmological framework is the assumption of the existence of interactions between dark matter (DM) and photons or neutrinos. Such a possible interacting dark matter (IDM) model would imply a suppression of small-scale structures due to a large collisional damping effect, even though the weakly-interacting massive particle (WIMP) can still be the DM candidate. Because of this, IDM models can help alleviate alleged tensions between standard CDM predictions and observations at small mass scales. In this work, we investigate the properties of the DM halo substructure or subhalos formed in a high-resolution cosmological N-body simulation specifically run within these alternative models. We also run its CDM counterpart, which allowed us to compare subhalo properties in both cosmologies. We show that, in the lower mass range covered by our simulation runs, both subhalo concentrations and abundances are systematically lower in IDM compared to the CDM scenario. Yet, as in CDM, we find that median IDM subhalo concentration values increase towards the innermost regions of their hosts for the same mass subhalos. Similarly to CDM, we find IDM subhalos to be more concentrated than field halos of the same mass. Our work has a direct application to studies aimed at the indirect detection of DM where subhalos are expected to boost the DM signal of their host halos significantly. From our results, we conclude that the role of the halo substructure in DM searches will be less important in interacting scenarios than in CDM, but is nevertheless far from being negligible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Halo Substructure in Gamma-Ray Dark Matter Searches)

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