Open AccessArticle

Planning Public Space Climate Comfortability: A GIS-Based Algorithm for the Compact Cities of the Far North

Anna Korobeinikova

Nina Danilina

and

Irina Teplova

Urban Planning Department, National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Yaroslavskoe sh. 26, 129337 Moscow, Russia

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Land 2024, 13(11), 1763; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111763

Submission received: 3 October 2024 / Revised: 23 October 2024 / Accepted: 24 October 2024 / Published: 26 October 2024

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Development of the Territory and Use of Natural and Cultural Resources to Improve the Quality of Life of Residents, 2nd Edition)

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Figure 1
Climate challenges of the Far North cities. "> Figure 2
Principle-based research model of the study. "> Figure 3
Map of the territories of the Far North of Russia with the identification of major cities and data on their population. "> Figure 4
Spatial scheme of public space in a compact city. "> Figure 5
Research model scales. "> Figure 6
Research methodology for public space planning, taking into account the climatic comfortability of the Far North cities. "> Figure 7
Algorithm for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort. "> Figure 8
Script interface for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort in the QGIS program. "> Figure 9
Yakutsk city case study. "> Figure 10
Results of the sociological survey conducted during the development of the Yakutsk Master Plan: (a)—respondents’ question—“What’s missing from the look of your city right now?” and (b)—respondents’ question—“What do you like best about the look of your town?” "> Figure 11
Yakutsk city territory with boundaries, development, street network and population dynamics. "> Figure 12
Points of interest of the city of Yakutsk with their attributes. "> Figure 13
Climate data for the city of Yakutsk. (a) The daily average high (red line) and low (blue line) temperature, with the 25th to 75th and 10th to 90th percentile bands. The thin dotted lines are the corresponding average perceived temperatures. (b) The average of the mean hourly wind speeds (dark gray line), with the 25th to 75th and 10th to 90th percentile bands. "> Figure 14
(a) Analysis of the POI density in the city of Yakutsk. (b) Analysis of the pedestrian traffic intensity in the city of Yakutsk. "> Figure 15
Functional zoning of the designated public area. "> Figure 16
Street network public area of the city of Yakutsk. "> Figure 17
Results of an automated algorithm in the GIS to identify discomfortable areas for the average climatic parameters. "> Figure 18
Results of an automated algorithm in the GIS to identify discomfortable areas for the maximum climatic parameters. "> Figure 19
Results of the automated algorithm in the GIS to define the required locations of planned POIs for the average climatic parameters. "> Figure 20
Results of the automated algorithm in the GIS to define the required locations of planned POIs for the maximum climatic parameters. "> Figure 21
Detailed development of new POIs for the public area of Yakutsk city. ">

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Abstract

The issue of forming a comfortable environment in cities with complex climatic conditions has always been an urgent and difficult issue for urban planners. Cities located in the territories of the Far North are characterized by extremely harsh climatic characteristics that affect the planning solutions for the public spaces of the city. Low temperatures and strong winds reduce the time of comfortable stay in the open air, which leads to a decrease in the mobility of the population in the city and stimulates the use of personal cars. The research question is the rational placement of points of interest on the street network to ensure a comfortable travel time between objects. The research methodology of public space planning taking into account the climatic comfortability of Far North cities is proposed in this article. Also, an automated GIS-based algorithm for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort is proposed. Development of safe and comfortable public space on the basis of network accessibility, taking into account the difficult climatic conditions of these cities, will increase the social activity of the population and tourists, as well as promote economic growth and business development in the city.

Keywords:

public urban infrastructure; public space; street network; Far North; cold climate; GIS-based algorithm; comfortability; time costs; accessibility

1. Introduction

1.1. Relevance of the Problem

The climatic conditions of the Far North are among the harshest for human habitation. Nevertheless, many cities are located in the Polar Circle zone. For example, in Russia, the northern territories occupy 70% of the country and, according to the climatic conditions, are divided into discomfortable, extremely discomfortable and absolutely discomfortable. More than 150 cities and many rural settlements are located in such conditions. The harsh climate is expressed not only in a long period of cold temperatures but also in strong winds, as well as summer heat in the short period of summer and a large number of insects. Thus, the conditions are uncomfortable for being outdoors for almost the whole time of the year.

The issues of ensuring a comfortable and safe environment become especially important because of the need to solve the problem of climatic comfort, as it determines the specifics of the social life of people in northern cities. A limited time of stay dictates restrictions on the mobility of the population, especially pedestrian traffic, and the use of personal non-motorized means. This creates a deficit of access to urban infrastructure and services, which affects the quality of life of the population. On the other hand, it encourages the use of vehicles for transportation, which is also difficult due to the climatic conditions of snow and rain and does not meet modern environmental requirements. Thus, the issue of climatic comfort affects all spheres of socio-economic life of the city and represents the main challenge for sustainable development.

As problem areas of the urban environment, which are characteristic of the cities of the Far North in Russia, in addition to the climate, we can highlight the following:

Low density of social facilities and unevenness of their location, mainly in the city center. Thus, the residents of the adjacent neighborhoods become cut off from public life.
Poor quality of urban streets, often covered with snow or flooded with rain, which encourages residents to use personal cars to travel to the center.
Poor quality of urban and tourist infrastructure, which becomes a significant obstacle to the development of tourism in the city.

1.2. Climate’s Impact on Sustainable Development of Northern Cities

The need to create a comfortable environment in the cities of the Far North is confirmed by the Sustainable Development Goals—one of the indicators of SDG #11 “Sustainable Cities and Human Settlements” is “By 2030, ensure universal access to safe, accessible and inclusive green spaces and public places, especially for women and children, the elderly and people with disabilities”. For cities in the north, this indicator should take into account the conditions of climatic comfort.

Climatic comfort is quite subjective and depends largely on people’s perception. Different researchers formalize this concept into different aspects and parameters in different ways. The influence of the temperature and wind speed on the physiological and psychological state of a person is confirmed by many studies by such scientists as E.M. Ratner, R.D. Oszewski, A.A. Semenova and others [1,2,3]. As a rule, the comfortability of being on the street in the works by these researchers was assessed through the risk of frostbite during a certain period of time.

The issues of forming a comfortable urban infrastructure in cities with a cold climate, including the cities of the Far North, represent a wide range of studies [4]. What is common is that they all aimed at studying the features of the sustainable development of the urban environment in the conditions of the cold climate [5]. As climatic problems for the formation of a comfortable and safe environment, the following are singled out (Figure 1):

4.: Low temperatures during the long winter period, which can range from 3 to 6 months.
5.: Winds with high velocities during the winter period.
6.: A long thawing period.
7.: Summer heat and dust.
8.: Abundance of mosquitoes and midges during the warm season.

Most researchers, when talking about climate impacts, focus their attention on temperature and wind parameters as the most dangerous and long-term ones. They are the ones that require the implementation of special measures of urban policy for the sustainable development of territories [6,7,8].

The existing studies put forward the following objectives of urban development when taking into account climate problems:

9.: Implementation of a compact city policy, which allows for the rational concentration of urban functions and their economical and efficient use.
10.: The necessity of activating the social life of residents.
11.: Development of private business to improve the variety of goods and services and conditions of access to them [9].
12.: Attraction of tourists and external labor force in order to activate the socio-economic life of the city.
13.: Development of pedestrian traffic, non-motorized vehicles and passenger transport for movement within the compact city for everyday purposes; use of personal cars for non-day trips and long-distance travel.

In this study, the solution of the set tasks is proposed through the formation of the density of objects of interest for residents within the development of a compact city. Thus, we stimulate the increase of attractiveness and accessibility through the mixed use of the public center territory [10].

1.3. Methods of Ensuring Climatic Comfort

The concept of “climatic comfort” can be defined as the degree of favorability of environmental conditions for human life. It is also possible to disclose the concept of “climatic comfort” as the range of intensity of environmental factors corresponding to the psycho-physiological optimum state of the organism [11,12].

Speaking about POIs of the Far North cities in the context of increasing the density of various facilities, it is rational to carry out the reconstruction of street segments, the use of multifunctional objects, as well as the active use of the space on the first floors of residential buildings. When increasing the density of facilities in existing buildings, it is possible to use various methods of reconstruction of the first floors, redevelopment, as well as the design of extensions and additions to existing buildings. Such solutions are not only rational in the conditions of the increasing density of facilities in Northern cities but also quite economically profitable.

To date, there are various approaches to the formation of a comfortable urban environment in cities with cold climate. In the works by Irmak, M.A., Yilmaz, S., Mutlu, E., and Yilmaz, H., the use of landscape design objects and green plants as wind-protective elements is considered [13]. This is a fairly common approach; however, it has its own difficulties—planting green plants with dense crowns in the cities of the Far North is a very difficult and often impossible task. In the works by Dutch scientists Taleghani, M., Kleerekoper, L., Tenpierik, M., and Van Den Dobbelsteen, A., the creation of a comfortable environment is considered through the choice of the optimal shape of buildings and the organization of closed yards [14]. This approach is more than rational for the urban environment of the cities of the Far North, but it is of little use in the organization of the comfort and safety of linear objects.

When talking about the formation of a comfortable environment in the cities of the Far North, it is often not so much about comfort as about safety in open urban spaces. First of all, it depends on the combined effect of the air temperature and wind speed on a person. Therefore, urban planning solutions developed for cities with a milder climate cannot be applied in the Far North without losing comfort and safety. The importance of ensuring climatic comfort in street networks was raised in the works of such scientists as H. Ji, Cetin M., Janssen, WD., Blocken, B and others [15,16,17]. At the moment, there are even tested standards for ensuring climatic comfort—WindChill Index, NEN 8100, PET and others. Standard NEN 8100, the national standard of the Netherlands, which determines the assessment of the wind comfort and wind-induced danger in urban areas, is well described in the works by Roelofsen, P. and Jansen, K. [18]. On the use of the PET standard in the assessment of climatic comfort in the northern cities of China can be read the works by Jin H., Liu S., Kang J. et al. [19,20]. And in the works by Yazdanpanah, H., Barghi, H., and Esmaili, A., even the influence of climatic comfort on the development of tourism was studied [21]. Use of the tourism climate index (TCI) for territory assessment (case study: Fars Province, Iran) can be found in the works by researcher Malihe Masoudi [22]. The Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) and its application are covered in the works by Khaire J.D., Madrigal L.O., and Lanzarote B.S., but for hot climates [23]. In the studies by Vinogradova V.V., the UTCI index was successfully applied to assess territories with a cold climate [24]. Dissanayake C. and Weerasinghe U.G.D. conducted a very extensive literature study using the Scopus database on the urban microclimate and outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) index in public places [25]. Their study confirms the relevance of this topic—there is a significant growth of interest in research in the field of public space climate comfortability.

1.4. Aims, Objectives and Background of the Study

The aim of this study was the development of public space in the city under the condition of organizing climatic comfort based on the time of staying on the street. The public space of the city is a linear spatial network of streets providing access to a large number of dispersed social facilities. The distances between these points of interest (POIs) should be such that they allow comfortable walking between them. This will solve the problem of the Far North cities in terms of the low density of social facilities and unsatisfactory service conditions for residents. As a result, it will increase the intensity of the socio-economic life of the population, which will provide a new impetus to their sustainable development.

Based on the data obtained during the study on the distribution of points of potential placement of social facilities, we obtain a justification for further steps to reconstruct the development of existing streets and opportunities for new construction.

The following international practices of modern sustainable planning have been identified as prerequisites of the study for the formation of climatic comfort of the city’s public space:

14.: Priority of a compact urban public center structure for cities.
15.: Prioritize the development of pedestrian mobility within the concept of a compact 15 min city, which limits the size to 3–5 km distances.
16.: Choice of users of public space, not limited to only city residents but also attracting tourists and businesspeople to activate the economic sphere of the city.

Figure 2 presents the principle-based research model of the study, which defines its objectives.

First of all, it is the allocation of the boundaries of the public space of the city for its development. Its boundaries may not coincide with the boundaries of the existing city center but expand depending on the location of existing facilities, not only in the public and business part of the city but also in adjacent residential areas. In this way, the interests of the residents are taken into account and their connection to the public functions of the city through pedestrian mobility takes place. The second task is to analyze the density of the location of social functions for different user groups. To identify problem areas, the principle of climatic comfort is used, which determines the conditions of comfortable access to the point of interest. If a problem is identified, a decision is made about the need to place additional points of interest on the identified street sections. The third task determines a reasonable choice of spatial planning solutions for the development of the urban environment: reconstruction of the pedestrian spaces of streets, redevelopment of adjacent developments or new construction. The proposed approach has scientific and practical novelty in terms of solving the problem of climatic comfortability through the formation of linear public spaces with a given density of social facilities.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Materials

The study materials are the urban public spaces of cities located in the Far North. The presented problem is located at the intersection of two main directions. The first is the need to develop the public life of the population and guests of the cities of the Far North. This dictates the condition of the formation of urban space, stimulating the stay of people outside.

The second is the existing climatic limitations that do not allow people to stay outside for a long time. Low temperatures for about 9 months a year and strong winds make the long stay of people outside uncomfortable and even dangerous to life.

The solution to the problem of providing a comfortable urban public environment in difficult climatic conditions lies in the formation of a dense network of public facilities that can offer conditions of escape from the temperature and wind for some time as transit points on the main routes of pedestrian flows.

The social factor of forming a comfortable and safe environment by developing a network of urban public points of interest is adopted as the main objective in this study. In addition, it is assumed that the solution of the social problem will make it possible to achieve a number of goals of sustainable urban development in terms of economic and environmental aspects.

The cities of the Far North that meet the following criteria are identified as the study materials:

Urban policies aim to activate people’s social life and support the concept of compact spatial development.
The size of the city or its main inhabited part determines the possibility of organizing pedestrian traffic as a priority mobility mode.
The city is a point of attraction for tourist and business flows and is characterized by an increased demand for pedestrian traffic.

Figure 3 presents a map of the Far North of Russia, highlighting the cities that are potential study sites.

The solution to the research problem is based on the goal of ensuring the sustainable development of the city. The scale of the city determines the outline of the network of city streets and the allocation of the main focus of attraction of users of the urban environment.

The research materials are the network of city streets, which form the network of public space of the city (Figure 4).

It is a set of linear segments of public pro-space, where most of the social points of interest are or will be located. This space represents the public core of a compact city. The delineation of its boundaries is one of the tasks of spatial analysis of the distribution of points of interest in the intensively used part of the city. The geometric parameters of this zone should correspond to the prioritized use of pedestrian traffic.

In case of a low density of social facilities in the public space of the city, we propose the reconstruction of street segments and adjacent buildings for the development of public functions. Particular attention is paid to street segments without the placement of facilities, which form the failures of social services. The hypothesis of this study is the assertion that the development of the public use of the front of the city streets and the development and reconstruction of the streets themselves will allow formation of the public space of a compact city based on the conditions of climatic comfort.

An important issue is the definition of the users of public space. It is necessary for the choice of social facilities for the formation of the network. In this paper, we consider 2 main groups of users:

Residents of the city who make labor trips or domestic trips.
Outside visitors to the city who are on business trips, exploratory walks, or aiming to visit various points of interest.

We chose walking or using non-motorized individual vehicles as the main mode of travel. Thus, the cost of the hiking distance is about 3–5 km.

Based on the user groups, we defined a set of points of interest, their systematization and assessment of the conditions of access to these points from the city streets. We distinguish three main groups, as presented in Table 1.

The social facilities’ ties include the functions of everyday service and wide consumption. The main consumer is the population of the city. Objects of interest are represented mainly by traditional objects—cafes, stores, cinemas, sports facilities, etc. The presence of facilities from this group meets the requirements of the comfortable environment and infrastructural provision for the population.

Recreational facilities include various recreational facilities. They include various types of natural space. This group also includes objects of mass leisure in closed spaces: multifunctional leisure complexes, botanical gardens, zoos and others. The target groups are both residents and guests of the city. The purposes of hikes can also be different: weekends, holidays, seasonal hikes and other recreational purposes.

Cultural and historical points of attraction include cognitive and educational facilities. These include traditional movie theaters, theaters, museums, and tourist attractions. For the cities of the Far North, this list is extended to include cultural and historical objects of small Indigenous Peoples, traditional forms of dwelling, and special religious and cultic objects.

2.2. Spatial Model of Research

The holistic spatial model of a city represents the sum of models of the street and road network segments. The street segment shown in Figure 5 is considered at 2 scales:

As a street segment between two points of interest (Figure 5a).
At this scale, the model parameters are as follows:
- Distance between points of interest—d, m;
- Time of climate comfort access to POI—t, min;
- Length of street parts with outside climate non-comfort conditions time path—l, m.

The purpose of modeling at this scale is to identify areas for the location of planned points of interest.

2.: Urban street segment plan (Figure 5b) defining the land use of the area and the possibility of locating planned points of interest within the existing urban context.

At this scale of the model, the existing space was evaluated to make decisions on the reconstruction of the city street and the adjacent frontage for the construction of a point of interest.

The conditions for additional points of interest are as follows:

Intensity of public life, which is assessed by the concentration of points of interest in the city territory. It is determined by their location on the territory of the city. The allocation of public space as the core of a compact city (public area) is determined by the density of their location on the territory. The type of development adjacent to the segment under consideration is important, as it determines not only the intensity of the flow but also consumer behavior. In turn, it influences the further choice of functions that will be demanded in the planned point of interest. Table 2 presents the main spatial conditions for the formation of pedestrian flows, their behavior and demanded functions.

2.

Pedestrian traffic intensity. It is assumed that there is always a pedestrian flow between two points of interest. It is the sum of transit pedestrians and pedestrians who left the adjacent development to the street development. An important indicator is the value of the traffic intensity P, persons/hour and its distribution over time:

Peak values for calculating the required pedestrian width Breq, m.
The nature of the distribution by the hour of the day and by the day of the week for the further selection of investment functions to be placed at the planned point of interest.

3.

The geometric parameters of the path reflect the condition of a pedestrian path. The cross-sectional profile of the street should provide for the presence of a pedestrian path for the organization of traffic. It is necessary to exclude the situation, typical for historical cities, where the pedestrian part is absent or insufficient to organize comfortable and safe conditions for pedestrian traffic. Placement of additional points of interest may lead to an increase in the transit flow and the availability of space is a prerequisite. In case of the detection of the insufficient width of a pedestrian way or its bad condition, it is necessary to make a decision and reconstruction of a street for construction of sidewalks, their reconstruction or exclusion of the given segment from the investigated structure. Thus, the condition is as follows:

Bpw ≥ Breq.,

(1)

where

Bpw—width of the pedestrian part of the sidewalk of the street segment, m.

Breq—width of the pedestrian part of the sidewalk required for the planned pedestrian flow, m.

For the purposes of this study, we assumed the Breq to be at least 3 m, according to the norms in force in the country. This value should be refined in the next stage of the street design based on the planned intensity of pedestrian traffic.

4.: Condition of temporary accessibility of points of interest based on the condition of a comfortable time for staying outside. The climatic conditions of the territory determine the comfortable time of staying on the street.

The condition of temporary accessibility is expressed by Formula (2):

Ttrip ≥ Tcl.req,

(2)

where

Ttrip—time cost, min between neighboring points of interest.

Tcl.req—comfortable time spent outdoors under given climatic parameters of temperature and wind.

In this study, it is proposed to use the method of constructing time isochrones. It is proposed to determine the allowable time of movement between POIs according to the existing index for assessing the impact of climatic parameters on human physical condition—WindChill Index. If a distance is formed between the isochrons plotted according to the allowable time from the points, it becomes obvious that a new intermediate point of interest should be located. Placement of intermediate objects will allow formation of a comfortable, safe and compact public area.

2.3. Research Methodology

The research methodology includes a set of steps to collect and process the information necessary to determine the planned locations of the POIs. The result is the formation of a network of such POIs linked to the network of city streets.

Geo-information analysis was chosen as a method for solving the task, which allows visualizing the spatial situation at each stage of the methodology (Figure 6).

In the first stage, the data are collected to identify the public area as the core of a compact city. To work in the GIS, it is necessary to have a geospatial data city plan in the vector format SHP or GPKG. At this stage, 2 sets of input information are required.

The first set consists of spatial information:

on the spatial zoning of the city and types of development;
on the city streets—name, geometric characteristics, traffic intensity;
on the location of points of interest.

It is proposed to use open-source geodata or data from field observations loaded into the GIS in the form of data layers for the study.

The second set includes the analysis of climatic data, calculation of the Windchill Index and determination of the time of comfortable stay outside. This time becomes the main parameter for assessing the comfort of the public area in terms of climatic comfort. Table 3 summarizes the main blocks of input information for the study.

Each of the blocks represents restrictions on the allocation of a public area in which there is a need for the development of public infrastructure.

The “City” block is intended to define the boundaries of the public area development zone of the city. Special attention is paid to the presence of the historical central zone of the city, which will always be the core of this space.

The “Land use” block defines the parameters of the intensity of street use, its users and the characteristic transport behavior.

The priority areas for inclusion in the review zone are the public and mixed use zones and the community and historic center zones.
Residential zones require special attention depending on their location relative to the public center, density and number of stories. Their inclusion in the territory for the development of public space is based on the results of the analysis of the cohesiveness of the territory.
Natural and recreational areas act as points of interest and are included in the territory under consideration.
Industrial zones are excluded from consideration and can be included as points of interest in exceptional cases.

The “Points of Interest” block includes a set of facilities that are selected in the survey for the development of public areas. At the first stage, they act as input data for the selection of the street segments to be analyzed.

The block “Street segments” includes setting the initial parameters of the streets that (a) are included in the selected zone of public space development and (b) connect points of interest. For each segment, the geometric characteristics and values of existing traffic intensity are set for the selection of streets that will form a framework for the placement of planned points of interest based on the condition of climatic comfort.

The “Climate” block represents the results of the analysis of climatic data for the city and the identification of specific conditions of external microclimate characteristic for the city.

In the second stage, geo-information analysis is carried out on two blocks of information. The first includes spatial analysis of the city in order to identify the boundary line of the allocation of the city public space area. It is carried out on the basis of the construction of maps of the density of the placement of points of interest, as well as the distances between them. For the formation of a compact city, we take the distance between points of interest to be not more than 5 km. We assume that this is the maximum distance that a person can travel on foot or with the use of non-motorized means. At greater distances, a person will choose passenger transport or a personal car to make a trip.

The analysis is performed in order to identify street sections with uncomfortable access conditions. These areas are prioritized for the location of planned points of interest, which leads to proposals for the reconstruction of streets and development or the search for new development. These areas are identified by constructing isochrones of the comfortable accessibility of existing points of interest.

The third stage is to develop public space design proposals. In step 6, a spatial analysis is carried out on a street spatial planning model scale to define the required locations of planned POIs. The planned POI or several POIs should be located in the area of climatic discomfort. It should be the center of the zone bounded by the comfort access isochrone. The aim is to distribute the planned points of interest in the problematic street section in such a way as to form a coherent linear climatic comfort zone. Planned points of interest are organized either in existing public buildings, on the first floors of residential buildings or in new buildings. Determining a suitable option requires analyzing the development and deciding on a possible option.

In step 7, the final selection of the option for locating the point of interest in an existing or new building and the choice of functions for the location is made, depending on the urban context and the surrounding development. This is followed by the selection of solutions for the renovation of the building, the adjacent street section and new construction. The aim of the design is to create a closed public space filled with social functions as part of the open public space of the city.

2.4. Climate Comfort Access Time Definition

The climatic analysis of POIs’ connectivity includes the analysis of the climatic conditions typical for the city. It is proposed to take the allowable travel time according to the WindChill Index table. The WindChill Index allows estimating the combined effect of the temperature and wind speed on a person by assessing the risk of frostbite of exposed body parts. This scale is well suited for assessing the safety of being in open public spaces in the cities of the Far North.

The index requires the minimum temperature and wind speed for the area and the average temperature and wind speed for the most uncomfortable period of the year.

w i n d c h i l l = 13.12 + 0.6215 T - 11.37 (V^{0.16}) + 0.3965 T (V^{0.16}),

(3)

where

T—air temperature (

℃

)

V—wind speed (km/h)

Based on these calculations, we can obtain the parameter of the maximum permissible time of being outdoors when traveling between POIs. It is important to note that to assess comfort and safety, it is necessary to take the temperature and wind speed of the most uncomfortable period for the selected territory. For the territories of the Far North, it is necessary to specify it according to actual meteorological data or during detailed analysis of archival meteorological data for this territory. For cold regions, the most uncomfortable months are usually the winter months, but in some regions these months can be March and April. It is also important to take into account that both the average and maximum parameters for the most uncomfortable period for the selected area should be taken.

Thanks to the WindChill Index table, it is possible to determine the maximum time during which pedestrians can safely move between POIs without risk of frostbite or discomfort, i.e., in safety.

The WindChill Index table allows you to compare the temperature and wind speed to determine the “felt” air temperature of a person and the rate of frostbite of exposed body parts. Accordingly, the table can be used to determine the maximum time a person can stay outdoors before frostbite occurs. In this study, we use the maximum time of permissible outdoor exposure to construct time isochrones from the POIs.

The purpose is to define comfort access zones. The zone boundaries are defined by constructing isochrone outlines centered on a POI. It is proposed to define the discomfort zones for the average and maximum discomfort climatic parameters of the territory with the help of an automated script in the GIS. In this way, a zone of comfortable climatic accessibility according to the research model is allocated.

2.5. Algorithm and Script for Assessing the Climatic Comfort and Safety of Public Space in the Cities of the Far North

To implement stage 3 of the methodology, an algorithm for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase the connectivity of POIs for the development of the public space in the cities of the Far North under the condition of the organization of climatic comfort has been developed (Figure 7)

In the developed algorithm, all the steps for determining the intermediate POIs in the form of points with a given distance in discomfort areas are described in detail.

To automate the step of defining the requisite locations of planned POIs of this algorithm in the GIS, the function of creating automated scripts in the QGIS program was selected (Figure 8).

The developed script for the geo-information system QGIS automates the process for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort. The script is a fully fledged plugin, which can be used and finalized in the process of further research. The script works on the basis of tables of the attributes of spatial objects and the algorithm of actions in the GIS environment. The GIS plugin is a tool for the input, storage, processing, and spatial analysis of objects of cultural and social framework and the determination of intermediate points of POI placement to improve the connectivity of the POIs of the Far North cities. The developed plugin can also be used in the geo-informational analysis of street network and also as a calculation algorithm for determining discomfort areas and new points of infrastructure objects’ placement to improve connectivity, taking into account the entered parameters of the territory with additional parameters. The developed script can be effectively used in intelligent decision support systems in the formation of comfortable public areas with complex climatic conditions and the development of design solutions for their development.

3. Results

A case study of the proposed methodology is conducted on the example of one of the cities located in the Arctic zone of Russia. The choice of the city of Yakutsk, located in the Republic of Sakha, Yakutia, Russia, is justified by the following preconditions (Figure 9):

The city is located in distinctly severe climatic conditions. In addition to extremely cold and long winters, and uncomfortable conditions in spring and fall, Yakutsk is characterized by severe short summers with heat, dust and insects.
The city has an urban policy of forming a compact structure, comfortable and safe urban environment and activation of people’s life through infrastructure development.
The city is a regional center of business and culture, as well as being positioned as a center of tourist attraction of the country based on the rich and unique history, traditions and cultures of the peoples of the north. Yakutsk is home to many natural and cultural attractions.

At the moment, Yakutsk is one of the largest cities located on permafrost. The first stage of this study is the collection of initial data about the city.

The Master Plan of the city of Yakutsk, developed by the Institute of the General Plan of Moscow and approved in 2023, sufficiently discloses social and cultural aspects of the life of Yakutsk residents (Figure 10).

Sociological research conducted as part of the Master Plan development (118 respondents were interviewed, including representatives of the administration, the scientific community and ordinary residents of the city) confirms that the main request of residents, regardless of age, was to create public spaces and green recreation for the comfort of staying in the environment. The key request was to improve the appearance of buildings and public spaces, as well as to create accessibility infrastructure. New public spaces and green recreation for the comfort of staying in the urban environment also received the majority of respondents’ votes. And being outdoors does not scare the residents of Yakutsk; they want to be in open spaces designed with the application of solutions to improve the climatic outdoor comfort (windproof elements, increased density, etc.). The Master Plan also identifies a request from residents for the creation of all-season open public spaces. The inhabitants of the city are not afraid of their harsh climate but perceive it as part of their cultural code and therefore seek not to hide from the manifestations of the harsh climate but to adapt to it. The city residents want to develop cryo-culture and cryo-recreation as part of their cultural identity. Moreover, the Master Plan proposes to develop the direction of cryo-logistics: new pedestrian and transportation links, taking into account the climatic conditions of the Far North cities.

As a solution for the development of the city, experts suggest the creation of interconnected public urban spaces aimed at increasing their synergistic effect on the social, economic and tourist spheres of the city.

3.1. Stage 1—Spatial Data

Using the developed methodology for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort, we collect spatial data on the territory of the city of Yakutsk.

3.1.1. Spatial Data Collection

Yakutsk is the capital of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) and the largest city in the permafrost zone, with a population of 367,667 (2024 data) and a density of 3013.66 people/km². The area of the city is 122.2 km². At the moment, Yakutsk demonstrates the stable growth of the population younger than working age and of working age. In 2019, the share of the population under working age amounted to 23.1%, which is quite a large indicator for a city in the circumpolar region (Figure 11). Yakutsk is an important economic center of the region, with developed industries related to the extraction of natural resources, such as diamonds and coal. The city is also known for its unique cultural heritage and diverse natural conditions, making it an important center for both locals and researchers.

Source data on POIs were collected and categorized according to a specific classification—social facilities, recreational facilities, cultural and historical facilities. Spatial data were collected from OpenStreetMap open sources in the GIS. Thirty POI objects were identified within the city boundaries, with a predominance of cultural and historical facilities (Figure 12). Most of the POIs are located in the central part of the city. The least number of POIs are found in the natural category and they are located mainly on the periphery of the city. To assess the connectivity between POI objects, the initial data on the street network of Yakutsk city were downloaded from open sources.

It is obvious that some POIs are located too far away for pedestrian accessibility. For further research, it is necessary to identify the public area with the highest concentration of POIs. In order to assess the comfort, it is necessary to obtain climatic data on the area under consideration.

3.1.2. Climate Data Collection

Climatic data are necessary for the further determination of the limit time of staying outdoors when moving between POIs. For the calculation, we take the average and maximum values for the air temperature and wind speed (Figure 13). The average temperature in the most uncomfortable period of January drops to −40 °C, and the maximum temperature reaches −50 °C. The average wind speed in Yakutsk is 3.3 km/h, and the maximum wind speed is up to 6.1 km/h. Climatic data are obtained from regulatory documents, public sources and archival data of meteorological stations.

Using the obtained climatic data, we define the WindChill Index to determine the maximum travel time between POIs. For the average values of the wind speed and temperature for the city of Yakutsk (−40 °C and 3.3 km/h), the maximum allowable time of staying outdoors before frostbite is 10 min. For the maximum values of the wind speed and temperature (−50 °C and 6.1 km/h) for the city of Yakutsk, the maximum allowable time of staying outside before frostbite is from 2 to 5 min. In accordance with the WindChill Index, it is determined that it is necessary to build isochrones of time availability in the range of 2, 5 and 10 min.

3.2. Stage 2—Geodata Analysis

In the second stage of the methodology, the geo-informational analysis of the obtained initial data was carried out with the help of the QGIS program.

POI Location Density Assessment

For further research, it is necessary to determine the boundary line of the allocation of the city public space area. In accordance with the developed methodology, a spatial density analysis was performed in the GIS (Figure 14a). The density analysis was carried out by counting the number of POIs in a 500 by 500 m grid in QGIS. To confirm the boundaries, pedestrian traffic was analyzed using open data (Figure 14b).

Further study of the selected territory implies analysis of the functional zones and collection of data on the street network characteristics. In different functional zones, we can talk about different tools to increase the connectivity of POIs—it can be the construction of new facilities, reconstruction or revitalization of old ones or creation of protected public natural facilities. Also, the types of new facilities in these functional zones will be different. The following functional zones and possible types of new facilities are defined in the selected public area (Table 4).

The functional zones in the considered public area are mostly represented by mixed and public–business zones. These territories are ideal for placing intermediate objects on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort. In the prevailing mixed use, public and business zones, it is possible to place new social facilities, as well as to reconstruct existing buildings with the allocation of a new cultural or social function in them (Figure 15).

The street network of the city of Yakutsk was analyzed to identify the pedestrian network, as well as the presence of pedestrian zones and sidewalks on the streets of the city. Figure 16 shows the linear objects that meet the requirements for the organization of pedestrian traffic on them.

The considered public area has fairly good coverage of linear objects with pedestrian facilities. Further network analysis of POIs’ connectivity with regard to climatic comfort was carried out for the selected linear objects.

In accordance with the next step of the developed methodology, it is necessary to construct time isochrones in accordance with the defined limiting time of being on the street for traveling between POIs. As input data, we take the linear objects of the street network and the allowable travel time defined earlier by climate data and the WindChill Index. For the average values of the temperature and wind speed, we take isochrones with a travel time of 10 min for the maximum parameters 2–5 min.

The obtained layer in the form of polygons is used for calculations of the discomfort zones in the developed script for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort in QGIS.

The result of the script is a scheme with selected discomfort areas, i.e., areas where the time isochrones are not in contact with each other (which means that they exceed the time allowed by the WindChill Index for traveling in open space). For the average values of the climatic parameters, only one discomfort zone is identified closer to the periphery of the selected public area (Figure 17).

For the maximum values, discomfort areas are observed not only on the periphery of the public area but also in the center (Figure 18). It is worth noting that in the city center, in the area of the central square, we can identify a whole zone, within the boundaries of which discomfort areas on the pedestrian network have accumulated. Quite a large part of the uncomfortable areas are located close to the embankment and large open water space, which is not only strongly blown away but also accelerates the wind flow due to wind dispersion over open areas without buildings, plantings and windproof structures.

Thus, the most attractive place for recreation by residents and walks by tourists is the most dangerous and uncomfortable. Since this discomfort area is located in the very center of the city, surrounded by other objects of the cultural and public framework, it is obvious that this zone is ideal for the placement of intermediate objects of the cultural and public framework, service objects, and objects of tourist infrastructure.

3.3. Stage 3—Public Space Design

In the third stage, we define intermediate objects in the identified discomfort areas to improve the connectivity and, as a consequence, the comfort and safety of the territory.

3.3.1. Definition of Required Locations of Planned POIs

The developed script for QGIS is also used to determine intermediate points. First, we determine intermediate points for the isochrones for the average climatic parameters. As input data, we choose the previously obtained (lines) and temporary isochrones (polygons). As the required distance, we input the distance determined through the temporal isochrones for the climatic parameters. The distance of 2000 m is chosen for the average climatic parameters. As a result of the script, we obtain a proposal to place intermediate objects on discomfort areas to increase the connectivity and, as a consequence, the comfort and safety of the public space (Figure 19).

In the diagram, we see proposals to place only one intermediate point closer to the periphery of the city. In order to make a decision on the placement of an intermediate object in order to connect the remote POI with other objects, it is worthwhile to conduct additional research on the value and functional saturation of this object. It may be more rational to ensure the accessibility of this POI by public transportation.

The next step is to obtain suggestions for the location of intermediate points for the maximum discomfort climatic parameters. A distance of 1000 m is taken for the maximum climatic parameters (Figure 20).

For the maximum parameters, there are many more locations for placing intermediate points. Particular attention should be paid to areas with the highest density of POIs and, at the same time, with insufficient connectivity of these objects.

3.3.2. Detailed POI Design

In order to develop the public space, taking into account comfort in the studied territory, it is necessary to compare the existing functional zoning scheme and sites with the points of intermediate objects’ placement. A mixed and public–business development zone is selected as a project proposal in the city of Yakutsk (Figure 21).

At the moment, there is an old garage complex under demolition in the area under consideration. Therefore, in this case, we choose the construction of new buildings. As new objects, it is proposed to place two low-rise public buildings with social facilities and everyday life facilities. In the buildings, it is proposed to make the active first floor, and the remaining floors are used as commercial premises. As the facilities are located in the very center of the city, in the zone of the highest density of POIs, such facilities will be demanded by both city residents and tourists and, as a consequence, will be economically efficient. The buildings are proposed to be corner buildings in order to create an internal public open space protected from the wind.

4. Discussion

Modern research, such as Erokhina V., on the connectivity of territories in the Arctic and Northern territories is mainly conducted at a higher level of urban planning—as a rule, we are talking about the connectivity of cities, agglomerations, and accessibility of remote northern settlements [26]. This is due to the fact that due to the vast areas and complex climatic and geomorphological conditions, at the moment there is no stable connectivity of some settlements with administrative and regional centers, not to mention the connectivity within the boundaries of cities. In general, this is a fairly widespread point of view on the problems of the Northern and Arctic territories—the complexity of their urban development, logistics, food supply, the need to modernize transport infrastructure—all this makes researchers pay attention primarily to these primary problems.

However, the modern view of urban planning in terms of the comfort and sustainability of the urban environment has given us a large number of studies on the topic of comfort, including the climatic comfort of Northern and Arctic cities—studies by Hemmersam P., Semenova A.A., Yang B., etc. [27]. The reorientation of views toward creating a comfortable and safe environment for humans will inevitably require a new look at the consideration of the climatic conditions in cities with cold climates. It is also important to note the growing trend toward the development of local tourism, especially in areas with unique natural, historical and cultural sites, which include the Far North and Arctic territories. Therefore, the creation of public areas with a high density of facilities will not only create comfortable conditions for the residents of these cities but will also allow them to attract more tourists from various cities of Russia and abroad. The interest in tourist development of the Northern territories is confirmed by the studies by such scientists as Ren C., Orlova V.S. and others [28,29].

Despite the fact that permafrost construction has many challenges (lack of standardized, codified construction guidelines; lack of permafrost monitoring in settlements; obstacles to integrating climate scenarios into future planning; limited data exchange; and lack of permafrost specialists), the need to develop climate-friendly public spaces in the cities of the Far North remains one of the most important demands of the population. This is confirmed by the studies by Landers K. and Streletskiy D. [30].

Studies by Shui T., Serteser N., Ricci, A., and Blocken, B. demonstrate the importance of taking into account wind and temperature parameters when assessing climatic com- fort [31,32,33,34]. However, these studies do not consider the territories of the Far North, and they also offer for the most part the assessment of wind comfort using computer modeling methods, which is a more complex study taking into account the geometry and configuration of buildings. Despite the growing popularity of the GIS for solving various urban planning problems, there are not many studies of climatic comfort through spatial analysis in the GIS at the moment [35]. The use of GIS technologies opens up great opportunities for the effective solution of a huge number of urban planning problems, for the processing of a large amount of spatial data, as well as for their further integration with artificial intelligence, machine learning and Internet of Things technologies [36,37]. The prospect of using the GIS in urban planning is confirmed by the studies by scientists such as Lei, X., Chen, W., Pham, B., Stevens, D., Dragicevic, S., Rothley, K. and others [38,39,40].

The research conducted within the framework of this article has shown that there is indeed a problem with POIs’ connectivity and public area comfort in northern cities. Based on the example of Yakutsk city, discomfort areas were identified not only on the periphery of the public area but even in the city center (at the maximum climatic parameters).

This study has demonstrated that further research could include additional studies of the public transport network to analyze the density and connectivity of POIs within the boundaries of more than 5 km. This is especially true for natural sites located on the periphery of the city, which can only be reached by motorized transport. This will require additional analysis of the city’s transport infrastructure and public transportation routes. Also, as further research, it is possible to study other parameters affecting the connectivity of the POIs of the Far North cities (landscape of the city, daylight duration, saturation of cultural and consumer service facilities, transport infrastructure, availability of navigational objects).

5. Conclusions

As a conclusion, it can be stated that in the cities of the Far North, there are problems with the connectivity of POIs and, as a consequence, with the realization of the compact city concept. Studies of the complex impact of temperature and wind on buildings and people confirm the importance of taking these parameters into account when developing the territories of the Far North [41].

The developed methodology for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort allows us to determine the discomfort areas of the street and road network of the city, as well as to develop a proposal to improve the connectivity, comfort and safety of public areas. Increasing the density of the social facilities of the Far North cities will help to develop the system of public spaces and ensure the safe connection between them, which is extremely important in the difficult climatic conditions of northern cities. The design experiment using the developed script on the example of the city of Yakutsk confirmed the applicability of the methodology and automated algorithm.

The developed algorithm is able to quickly carry out determination of intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort. The developed automated script for the GIS can be used in the geo-informational analysis of street and road network objects, and also as a calculation algorithm for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity when taking into account the entered parameters of the territory.

At the moment, there are a large number of tools that help to solve the tasks of urban data analytics. Besides GIS technologies, such tools are agent-based modeling technologies or machine learning and artificial intelligence methods. However, for this task, which is fully focused on network spatial analysis (without the need for forecasting or modeling other scenarios), the GIS is the most suitable tool. For further, more detailed studies, it is possible to integrate other technologies into the GIS environment.

The developed algorithm can be integrated into territorial information systems to support urban planning and management decisions. For example, the algorithm can be integrated in a simplified form into the existing state information system for urban planning in Yakutsk. Such integrations can significantly optimize the process of city management, as well as help in practical urban planning and architectural activities.

Certainly, reconstruction or construction of new POIs can be quite costly. However, the emergence of new social facilities in the city can become a driver of the development of small businesses (cafes, stores, etc.), which in turn will have a positive impact on the economic growth of the city and further development of the territory.

The developed methodology and algorithm are universal and can be applied to any cities with a cold climate. For further studies of the climatic comfort of the public areas of the Far North cities, it will be possible to supplement the algorithm with other parameters affecting the comfort and safety of public spaces. It is also important to note that this algorithm is quite flexible and can be transformed and used to assess the connectivity of other objects and for other climatic conditions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.K., N.D. and I.T.; methodology, N.D.; software, A.K.; validation, N.D. and I.T.; formal analysis, A.K.; investigation, A.K.; resources, A.K. and I.T.; data curation, I.T.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.; writing—review and editing, N.D.; visualization, A.K.; supervision, N.D.; project administration, N.D. and I.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research was funded by the National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (grant for fundamental and applied scientific research, project No. 9-392/130).

Data Availability Statement

All ethical principles are observed.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Climate challenges of the Far North cities.

Figure 2. Principle-based research model of the study.

Figure 3. Map of the territories of the Far North of Russia with the identification of major cities and data on their population.

Figure 4. Spatial scheme of public space in a compact city.

Figure 5. Research model scales.

Figure 6. Research methodology for public space planning, taking into account the climatic comfortability of the Far North cities.

Figure 7. Algorithm for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort.

Figure 8. Script interface for determining intermediate points on linear objects to increase POIs’ connectivity for the development of the public space of the Far North cities under the condition of organizing climatic comfort in the QGIS program.

Figure 9. Yakutsk city case study.

Figure 10. Results of the sociological survey conducted during the development of the Yakutsk Master Plan: (a)—respondents’ question—“What’s missing from the look of your city right now?” and (b)—respondents’ question—“What do you like best about the look of your town?”

Figure 11. Yakutsk city territory with boundaries, development, street network and population dynamics.

Figure 12. Points of interest of the city of Yakutsk with their attributes.

Figure 13. Climate data for the city of Yakutsk. (a) The daily average high (red line) and low (blue line) temperature, with the 25th to 75th and 10th to 90th percentile bands. The thin dotted lines are the corresponding average perceived temperatures. (b) The average of the mean hourly wind speeds (dark gray line), with the 25th to 75th and 10th to 90th percentile bands.

Figure 14. (a) Analysis of the POI density in the city of Yakutsk. (b) Analysis of the pedestrian traffic intensity in the city of Yakutsk.

Figure 15. Functional zoning of the designated public area.

Figure 16. Street network public area of the city of Yakutsk.

Figure 17. Results of an automated algorithm in the GIS to identify discomfortable areas for the average climatic parameters.

Figure 18. Results of an automated algorithm in the GIS to identify discomfortable areas for the maximum climatic parameters.

Figure 19. Results of the automated algorithm in the GIS to define the required locations of planned POIs for the average climatic parameters.

Figure 20. Results of the automated algorithm in the GIS to define the required locations of planned POIs for the maximum climatic parameters.

Figure 21. Detailed development of new POIs for the public area of Yakutsk city.

Table 1. Points of interest groups.

Facility	POI Type	User Group	Trip Type
Social facilities	Café Shop Beauty salon Sport center Educational centers Social service	City residents	Everyday trips with social needs Frequent trips
Recreational facilities	Parks Natural areas View points Squares Beaches Recreational centers	City residents City guests	Family trips Weekend trips Touristic trips Seasonal trips
Cultural and historical facilities	Cultural centers Cinema Theatres Churches Landmark buildings and sites Library	City residents City guests	Family trips Weekend trips Touristic trips Seasonal trips

Table 2. Public life intensity characteristics.

Adjacent Built-Up Type	Users	Trip Types	Demanded Facilities
Residential area	Residents	Everyday trips with social needs Frequent trips Family trips	Social facilities/ everyday life facilities
Downtown/city center/historical center/recreational area	Labor Businesspeople Tourists	Labor trips Weekend trips Touristic trips	Cultural/recreational/leisure/sports facilities

Table 3. Data collection on public space climate comfortability.

Data Block	Objects	Type	Attributes
City	Boundaries	Lines	City boundaries Boundaries of the historical center
Land use	Zones	Polygons	Residential Public Mixed use Historic Center Recreational Special
		Parameter	Population size
POI	objects	Points	Social facilities Cultural and historical facilities Recreational and natural facilities
Street network	Street segments	Parameter	Title Street corridor width, m Availability of passenger transportation Width of pedestrian part, m Segment length, m Intensity of pedestrian traffic on the pedestrian segment, people/peak hour
Climate	-	Parameter	Temperature, °C Wind, km/h Windchill index Outside climate comfort time path, min

Table 4. Functional zones allocated in the public area of Yakutsk, with sizes and proposed facilities.

№	Types of Zones	New Facilities	Hectares
1	Development zone of multi-story residential buildings	Social	386.2
2	Public and business zones	Cultural, social	114.8
3	Mixed and public-business development zone	Cultural, social	621.9
4	Development zone of mid-rise residential buildings	Social	135.5
5	Historic building zone	Cultural, social	17.8
6	Specialized public building zone	-	37.5
7	Low-rise residential buildings zone	Social	2.6
8	Recreational areas	Recreational, cultural	133.2

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Korobeinikova, A.; Danilina, N.; Teplova, I. Planning Public Space Climate Comfortability: A GIS-Based Algorithm for the Compact Cities of the Far North. Land 2024, 13, 1763. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111763

AMA Style

Korobeinikova A, Danilina N, Teplova I. Planning Public Space Climate Comfortability: A GIS-Based Algorithm for the Compact Cities of the Far North. Land. 2024; 13(11):1763. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111763

Chicago/Turabian Style

Korobeinikova, Anna, Nina Danilina, and Irina Teplova. 2024. "Planning Public Space Climate Comfortability: A GIS-Based Algorithm for the Compact Cities of the Far North" Land 13, no. 11: 1763. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111763

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