Sensors

13 pages, 1965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Force and Torque Characterization in the Actuation of a Walking-Assistance, Cable-Driven Exosuit

by Daniel Rodríguez Jorge, Javier Bermejo García, Ashwin Jayakumar, Rafael Lorente Moreno, Rafael Agujetas Ortiz and Francisco Romero Sánchez

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4309; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114309 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

Soft exosuits stand out when it comes to the development of walking-assistance devices thanks to both their higher degree of wearability, lower weight, and price compared to the bulkier equivalent rigid exoskeletons. In cable-driven exosuits, the acting force is driven by cables from [...] Read more.

Soft exosuits stand out when it comes to the development of walking-assistance devices thanks to both their higher degree of wearability, lower weight, and price compared to the bulkier equivalent rigid exoskeletons. In cable-driven exosuits, the acting force is driven by cables from the actuation system to the anchor points; thus, the user’s movement is not restricted by a rigid structure. In this paper, a 3D inverse dynamics model is proposed and integrated with a model for a cable-driven actuation to predict the required motor torque and traction force in cables for a walking-assistance exosuit during gait. Joint torques are to be shared between the user and the exosuit for different design configurations, focusing on both hip and ankle assistance. The model is expected to guide the design of the exosuit regarding aspects such as the location of the anchor points, the cable system design, and the actuation units. An inverse dynamics analysis is performed using gait kinematic data from a public dataset to predict the cable forces and position of the exosuit during gait. The obtained joint reactions and cable forces are compared with those in the literature, and prove the model to be accurate and ready to be implemented in an exosuit control scheme. The results obtained in this study are similar to those found in the literature regarding the walking study itself as well as the forces under which cables operate during gait and the cable position cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantifying, Understanding and Improving Human-Exoskeleton Interaction)

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Simplified scheme for the considered lower-limb segments. Full article ">Figure 2
Geometric model for calculating the cable traction forces from the expected joint torques in both the hip and ankle sub-systems. Full article ">Figure 3
Representation of the normalized joint torques obtained via the proposed model for the selected population, according to anthropometric data in [<a href="#B25-sensors-22-04309" class="html-bibr">25</a>] (blue) and those in [<a href="#B24-sensors-22-04309" class="html-bibr">24</a>] for the “comfortable” gait speed (orange). Average values as solid lines. In dotted lines, ±standard deviation. Full article ">Figure 4
(a) Cable force obtained using the proposed model for the data in [<a href="#B24-sensors-22-04309" class="html-bibr">24</a>] to assist 30% of the total torque. Average values as solid lines. In dotted lines, ±standard deviation. (b) Representation of the cable force of the hip subsystem according to [<a href="#B5-sensors-22-04309" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Full article ">Figure 5
(a) Torque at the motor shaft during the walking cycle for the hip subsystem and (b) for the ankle sub-system. Average values as solid lines. In dotted lines, ±standard deviation. Full article ">Figure 6
(a) Cable extension during the walking cycle for the hip and (b) ankle subsystems. Average values as solid lines. In dotted lines, ±standard deviation. Full article ">Figure 7
Cable position at the motor with and without stiffness along with <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>. Full article ">Figure 8
3D model of the exosuit along with the lower segment and torso. Full article ">

16 pages, 3987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiplexed Readout for an Experiment with a Large Number of Channels Using Single-Electron Sensitivity Skipper-CCDs

by Claudio R. Chavez, Fernando Chierchie, Miguel Sofo-Haro, Jose Lipovetzky, Guillermo Fernandez-Moroni and Juan Estrada

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4308; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114308 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2274

Abstract

This paper presents the implementation of a multiplexed analog readout electronics system that can achieve single-electron counting using Skipper-CCDs with non-destructive readout. The proposed system allows the best performance of the sensors to be maintained, with sub-electron noise-level operation, while maintaining low-bandwidth data [...] Read more.

This paper presents the implementation of a multiplexed analog readout electronics system that can achieve single-electron counting using Skipper-CCDs with non-destructive readout. The proposed system allows the best performance of the sensors to be maintained, with sub-electron noise-level operation, while maintaining low-bandwidth data transfer, a minimum number of analog-to-digital converters (ADC) and low disk storage requirement with zero added multiplexing time, even for the simultaneous operation of thousands of channels. These features are possible with a combination of analog charge pile-up, sample and hold circuits and analog multiplexing. The implementation also aims to use the minimum number of components in circuits to keep compatibility with high-channel-density experiments using Skipper-CCDs for low-threshold particle detection applications. Performance details and experimental results using a sensor with 16 output stages are presented along with a review of the circuit design considerations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semiconducting and Superconducting Detectors)

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18 pages, 4739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Combined Sensing System for Intrusion Detection Using Anti-Jamming Random Code Signals

by Hang Xu, Yingxin Li, Cheng Ma, Li Liu, Bingjie Wang and Jingxia Li

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4307; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114307 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

In order to prevent illegal intrusion, theft, and destruction, important places require stable and reliable human intrusion detection technology to maintain security. In this paper, a combined sensing system using anti-jamming random code signals is proposed and demonstrated experimentally to detect the human [...] Read more.

In order to prevent illegal intrusion, theft, and destruction, important places require stable and reliable human intrusion detection technology to maintain security. In this paper, a combined sensing system using anti-jamming random code signals is proposed and demonstrated experimentally to detect the human intruder in the protected area. This sensing system combines the leaky coaxial cable (LCX) sensor and the single-transmitter-double-receivers (STDR) radar sensor. They transmit the orthogonal physical random code signals generated by Boolean chaos as the detection signals. The LCX sensor realizes the early intrusion alarm at the protected area boundary by comparing the correlation traces before and after intrusion. Meanwhile, the STDR radar sensor is used to track the intruder’s moving path inside the protected area by correlation ranging and ellipse positioning, as well as recognizing intruder’s activities by time-frequency analysis, feature extraction, and support vector machine. The experimental results demonstrate that this combined sensing system not only realizes the early alarm and path tracking for the intruder with the 13 cm positioning accuracy, but also recognizes the intruder’s eight activities including squatting, picking up, jumping, waving, walking forward, running forward, walking backward, and running backward with 98.75% average accuracy. Benefiting from the natural randomness and auto-correlation of random code signal, the proposed sensing system is also proved to have a large anti-jamming tolerance of 27.6 dB, which can be used in the complex electromagnetic environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 1983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributed Ellipsoidal Intersection Fusion Estimation for Multi-Sensor Complex Systems

by Peng Zhang, Shuyu Zhou, Peng Liu and Mengwei Li

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4306; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114306 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2031

Abstract

This paper investigates the problem of distributed ellipsoidal intersection (DEI) fusion estimation for linear time-varying multi-sensor complex systems with unknown input disturbances and measurement data transmission delays. For the problem with external unknown input disturbance signals, a non-informative prior distribution is used to [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the problem of distributed ellipsoidal intersection (DEI) fusion estimation for linear time-varying multi-sensor complex systems with unknown input disturbances and measurement data transmission delays. For the problem with external unknown input disturbance signals, a non-informative prior distribution is used to model the problem. A set of independent random variables obeying Bernoulli distribution is also used to describe the situation of measurement data transmission delay caused by network channel congestion, and appropriate buffer areas are added at the link nodes to retrieve the delayed transmission data values. For multi-sensor systems with complex situations, a minimum mean square error (MMSE) local estimator is designed in a Bayesian framework based on the maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation criterion. In order to deal with the unknown correlations among the local estimators and to select the fusion estimator with lower computational complexity, the fusion estimator is designed using ellipsoidal intersection (EI) fusion technique, and the consistency of the estimator is demonstrated. In this paper, the difference between DEI fusion and distributed covariance intersection (DCI) fusion and centralized fusion estimation is analyzed by a numerical example, and the superiority of the DEI fusion method is demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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15 pages, 2157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Tone Harmonic Balance Optimization for High-Power Amplifiers through Coarse and Fine Models Based on X-Parameters

by Lida Kouhalvandi, Osman Ceylan, Serdar Ozoguz and Ladislau Matekovits

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4305; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114305 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2354

Abstract

In this study, we focus on automated optimization design methodologies to concurrently trade off between power gain, output power, efficiency, and linearity specifications in radio frequency (RF) high-power amplifiers (HPAs) through deep neural networks (DNNs). The RF HPAs are highly nonlinear circuits where [...] Read more.

In this study, we focus on automated optimization design methodologies to concurrently trade off between power gain, output power, efficiency, and linearity specifications in radio frequency (RF) high-power amplifiers (HPAs) through deep neural networks (DNNs). The RF HPAs are highly nonlinear circuits where characterizing an accurate and desired amplitude and phase responses to improve the overall performance is not a straightforward process. For this case, we propose a coarse and fine modeling approach based on firstly modeling the involved transistor and then selecting the best configuration of HAP along with optimizing the involved input and output termination networks through DNNs. In the fine phase, we firstly construct the equivalent modeling of the GaN HEMT transistor by using X-parameters. Then in the coarse phase, we utilize hidden layers of the modeled transistor and replace the HPA’s DNN to model the behavior of the selected HPA by using S-parameters. If the suitable accuracy of HPA modeling is not achieved, the hyperparameters of the fine model are improved and re-evaluated in the HPA model. We call the optimization process coarse and fine modeling since the evaluation process is performed from S-parameters to X-parameters. This stage of optimization can ensure modeling the nonlinear HPA design that includes a high number of parameters in an effective way. Furthermore, for accelerating the optimization process, we use the classification DNN for selecting the best topology of HPA for modeling the most suitable configuration at the coarse phase. The proposed modeling strategy results in relatively highly accurate HPA designs that generate post-layouts automatically, where multi-tone harmonic balance specifications are optimized once together without any human interruptions. To validate the modeling approach and optimization process, a 10 W HPA is simulated and measured in the operational frequency band of 1.8 GHz to 2.2 GHz, i.e., the L-band. The measurement results demonstrate a drain efficiency higher than 54% and linear gain performance more than 12.5 dB, with better than 50 dBc adjacent channel power ratio (ACPR) after DPD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro and Nanodevices for Sensing Technology)

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23 pages, 7725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Repair Method for Missing Traffic Data Based on FCM, Optimized by the Twice Grid Optimization and Sparrow Search Algorithms

by Pengcheng Li, Baotian Dong, Sixian Li and Rusi Chu

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4304; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114304 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1840

Abstract

Complete traffic sensor data is a significant prerequisite for analyzing the changing rules of traffic flow and formulating traffic control strategies. Nevertheless, the missing traffic data are common in practice. In this study, an improved Fuzzy C-Means algorithm is proposed to repair missing [...] Read more.

Complete traffic sensor data is a significant prerequisite for analyzing the changing rules of traffic flow and formulating traffic control strategies. Nevertheless, the missing traffic data are common in practice. In this study, an improved Fuzzy C-Means algorithm is proposed to repair missing traffic data, and three different repair modes are established according to the correlation of time, space, and attribute value of traffic flow. First, a Twice Grid Optimization (TGO) algorithm is proposed to provide a reliable initial clustering center for the FCM algorithm. Then the Sparrow Search Algorithm (SSA) is used to optimize the fuzzy weighting index m and classification number k of the FCM algorithm. Finally, an experimental test of the traffic sensor data in Shunyi District, Beijing, is employed to verify the effectiveness of the TGO-SSA-FCM. Experimental results showed that the improved algorithm had a better performance than some traditional algorithms, and different data repair modes should be selected under different miss rate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Intelligent Transportation Systems)

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19 pages, 3829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying A(s) and β(s) in Single-Loop Feedback Circuits Using the Intermediate Transfer Function Approach

by Gordon Walter Roberts

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4303; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114303 - 6 Jun 2022

Viewed by 2392

Abstract

It is common practice to model the input–output behavior of a single-loop feedback circuit using the two parameters, A and β. Such an approach was first proposed by Black to explain the advantages and disadvantages of negative feedback. Extensive theories of system [...] Read more.

It is common practice to model the input–output behavior of a single-loop feedback circuit using the two parameters, A and β. Such an approach was first proposed by Black to explain the advantages and disadvantages of negative feedback. Extensive theories of system behavior (e.g., stability, impedance control) have since been developed by mathematicians and/or control engineers centered around these two parameters. Circuit engineers rely on these insights to optimize the dynamic behavior of their circuits. Unfortunately, no method exists for uniquely identifying A or β in terms of the components of the circuit. Rather, indirect methods, such as the injection method of Middlebrook or the break-the-loop approach proposed by Rosenstark, compute the return ratio RR of the feedback loop and inferred the parameters A and β. While one often assumes that the zeros of (1 + RR) are equal to the zeros of (1 + A × β), i.e., the closed-loop poles are equivalent, this is not true in general. It is the objective of this paper to present an exact method to uniquely identify each feedback parameter, A or β, in terms of the circuit components. Further, this paper will identify the circuit conditions for which the product of A × β leads to the correct closed-loop poles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Analog Front-End Circuits for IoT Systems and High Sensitivity Measurements)

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22 pages, 8915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Detection and Multi-Classification Approach for IoT-Malware Using Random Forest Voting of Fine-Tuning Convolutional Neural Networks

by Safa Ben Atitallah, Maha Driss and Iman Almomani

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4302; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114302 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 4248

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is prone to malware assaults due to its simple installation and autonomous operating qualities. IoT devices have become the most tempting targets of malware due to well-known vulnerabilities such as weak, guessable, or hard-coded passwords, a lack of [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is prone to malware assaults due to its simple installation and autonomous operating qualities. IoT devices have become the most tempting targets of malware due to well-known vulnerabilities such as weak, guessable, or hard-coded passwords, a lack of secure update procedures, and unsecured network connections. Traditional static IoT malware detection and analysis methods have been shown to be unsatisfactory solutions to understanding IoT malware behavior for mitigation and prevention. Deep learning models have made huge strides in the realm of cybersecurity in recent years, thanks to their tremendous data mining, learning, and expression capabilities, thus easing the burden on malware analysts. In this context, a novel detection and multi-classification vision-based approach for IoT-malware is proposed. This approach makes use of the benefits of deep transfer learning methodology and incorporates the fine-tuning method and various ensembling strategies to increase detection and classification performance without having to develop the training models from scratch. It adopts the fusion of 3 CNNs, ResNet18, MobileNetV2, and DenseNet161, by using the random forest voting strategy. Experiments are carried out using a publicly available dataset, MaleVis, to assess and validate the suggested approach. MaleVis contains 14,226 RGB converted images representing 25 malware classes and one benign class. The obtained findings show that our suggested approach outperforms the existing state-of-the-art solutions in terms of detection and classification performance; it achieves a precision of 98.74%, recall of 98.67%, a specificity of 98.79%, F1-score of 98.70%, MCC of 98.65%, an accuracy of 98.68%, and an average processing time per malware classification of 672 ms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Artificial Intelligence for Cyber Security)

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15 pages, 772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Semicircular Channel Backscattering Interferometry through Ray Tracing Simulations

by Niall M. C. Mulkerns, William H. Hoffmann, Ian D. Lindsay and Henkjan Gersen

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4301; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114301 - 6 Jun 2022

Viewed by 2442

Abstract

Recent backscattering interferometry studies utilise a single channel microfluidic system, typically approximately semicircular in cross-section. Here, we present a complete ray tracing model for on-chip backscattering interferometry with a semicircular cross-section, including the dependence upon polarisation and angle of incidence. The full model [...] Read more.

Recent backscattering interferometry studies utilise a single channel microfluidic system, typically approximately semicircular in cross-section. Here, we present a complete ray tracing model for on-chip backscattering interferometry with a semicircular cross-section, including the dependence upon polarisation and angle of incidence. The full model is validated and utilised to calculate the expected fringe patterns and sensitivities observed under both normal and oblique angles of incidence. Comparison with experimental data from approximately semicircular channels using the parameters stated shows that they cannot be explained using a semicircular geometry. The disagreement does not impact on the validity of the experimental data, but highlights that the optical mechanisms behind the various modalities of backscattering interferometry would benefit from clarification. From the analysis presented here, we conclude that for reasons of ease of analysis, data quality, and sensitivity for a given radius, capillary-based backscattering interferometry affords numerous benefits over on-chip backscattering interferometry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)

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18 pages, 4076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage Hybrid Model for Efficiency Prediction of Centrifugal Pump

by Yi Liu, Zhaoshun Xia, Hongying Deng and Shuihua Zheng

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4300; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114300 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2537

Abstract

Accurately predict the efficiency of centrifugal pumps at different rotational speeds is important but still intractable in practice. To enhance the prediction performance, this work proposes a hybrid modeling method by combining both the process data and knowledge of centrifugal pumps. First, according [...] Read more.

Accurately predict the efficiency of centrifugal pumps at different rotational speeds is important but still intractable in practice. To enhance the prediction performance, this work proposes a hybrid modeling method by combining both the process data and knowledge of centrifugal pumps. First, according to the process knowledge of centrifugal pumps, the efficiency curve is divided into two stages. Then, the affinity law of pumps and a Gaussian process regression (GPR) model are explored and utilized to predict the efficiency at their suitable flow stages, respectively. Furthermore, a probability index is established through the prediction variance of a GPR model and Bayesian inference to select a suitable training set to improve the prediction accuracy. Experimental results show the superiority of the hybrid modeling method, compared with only using mechanism or data-driven models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Sensors)

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12 pages, 9397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Usefulness of an Additional Filter Created Using 3D Printing for Whole-Body X-ray Imaging with a Long-Length Detector

by Hyunsoo Seo, Wooyoung Kim, Bongju Han, Huimin Jang, Myeong Seong Yoon and Youngjin Lee

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4299; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114299 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2877

Abstract

We recently developed a long-length detector that combines three detectors and successfully acquires whole-body X-ray images. Although the developed detector system can efficiently acquire whole-body images in a short time, it may show problems with diagnostic performance in some areas owing to the [...] Read more.

We recently developed a long-length detector that combines three detectors and successfully acquires whole-body X-ray images. Although the developed detector system can efficiently acquire whole-body images in a short time, it may show problems with diagnostic performance in some areas owing to the use of high-energy X-rays during whole-spine and long-length examinations. In particular, during examinations of relatively thin bones, such as ankles, with a long-length detector, the image quality deteriorates because of an increase in X-ray transmission. An additional filter is primarily used to address this limitation, but this approach imposes a higher load on the X-ray tube to compensate for reductions in the radiation dose and the problem of high manufacturing costs. Thus, in this study, a newly designed additional filter was fabricated using 3D printing technology to improve the applicability of the long-length detector. Whole-spine anterior–posterior (AP), lateral, and long-leg AP X-ray examinations were performed using 3D-printed additional filters composed of 14 mm thick aluminum (Al) or 14 mm thick Al + 1 mm thick copper (Cu) composite material. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), and radiation dose for the acquired X-ray images were evaluated to demonstrate the usefulness of the filters. Under all X-ray inspection conditions, the most effective data were obtained when the composite additional filter based on a 14 mm thick Al + 1 mm thick Cu material was used. We confirmed that an SNR improvement of up to 46%, CNR improvement of 37%, and radiation dose reduction of 90% could be achieved in the X-ray images obtained using the composite additional filter in comparison to the images obtained with no filter. The results proved that the additional filter made with a 3D printer was effective in improving image quality and reducing the radiation dose for X-ray images obtained using a long-length detector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials and Technologies for Radiation Detectors)

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13 pages, 788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Convolutional Neural Network Acceleration and Compression Based on Simonk-Means

by Mingjie Wei, Yunping Zhao, Xiaowen Chen, Chen Li and Jianzhuang Lu

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4298; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114298 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1950

Abstract

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are popular models that are widely used in image classification, target recognition, and other fields. Model compression is a common step in transplanting neural networks into embedded devices, and it is often used in the retraining stage. However, it [...] Read more.

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are popular models that are widely used in image classification, target recognition, and other fields. Model compression is a common step in transplanting neural networks into embedded devices, and it is often used in the retraining stage. However, it requires a high expenditure of time by retraining weight data to atone for the loss of precision. Unlike in prior designs, we propose a novel model compression approach based on Simonk-means, which is specifically designed to support a hardware acceleration scheme. First, we propose an extension algorithm named Simonk-means based on simple k-means. We use Simonk-means to cluster trained weights in convolutional layers and fully connected layers. Second, we reduce the consumption of hardware resources in data movement and storage by using a data storage and index approach. Finally, we provide the hardware implementation of the compressed CNN accelerator. Our evaluations on several classifications show that our design can achieve 5.27× compression and reduce 74.3% of the multiply–accumulate (MAC) operations in AlexNet on the FASHION-MNIST dataset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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21 pages, 7687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

BrainGAN: Brain MRI Image Generation and Classification Framework Using GAN Architectures and CNN Models

by Halima Hamid N. Alrashedy, Atheer Fahad Almansour, Dina M. Ibrahim and Mohammad Ali A. Hammoudeh

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4297; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114297 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 7193

Abstract

Deep learning models have been used in several domains, however, adjusting is still required to be applied in sensitive areas such as medical imaging. As the use of technology in the medical domain is needed because of the time limit, the level of [...] Read more.

Deep learning models have been used in several domains, however, adjusting is still required to be applied in sensitive areas such as medical imaging. As the use of technology in the medical domain is needed because of the time limit, the level of accuracy assures trustworthiness. Because of privacy concerns, machine learning applications in the medical field are unable to use medical data. For example, the lack of brain MRI images makes it difficult to classify brain tumors using image-based classification. The solution to this challenge was achieved through the application of Generative Adversarial Network (GAN)-based augmentation techniques. Deep Convolutional GAN (DCGAN) and Vanilla GAN are two examples of GAN architectures used for image generation. In this paper, a framework, denoted as BrainGAN, for generating and classifying brain MRI images using GAN architectures and deep learning models was proposed. Consequently, this study proposed an automatic way to check that generated images are satisfactory. It uses three models: CNN, MobileNetV2, and ResNet152V2. Training the deep transfer models with images made by Vanilla GAN and DCGAN, and then evaluating their performance on a test set composed of real brain MRI images. From the results of the experiment, it was found that the ResNet152V2 model outperformed the other two models. The ResNet152V2 achieved 99.09% accuracy, 99.12% precision, 99.08% recall, 99.51% area under the curve (AUC), and 0.196 loss based on the brain MRI images generated by DCGAN architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensing and Imaging)

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13 pages, 1599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micro-Expression Recognition Based on Optical Flow and PCANet+

by Shiqi Wang, Suen Guan, Hui Lin, Jianming Huang, Fei Long and Junfeng Yao

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4296; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114296 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3210

Abstract

Micro-expressions are rapid and subtle facial movements. Different from ordinary facial expressions in our daily life, micro-expressions are very difficult to detect and recognize. In recent years, due to a wide range of potential applications in many domains, micro-expression recognition has aroused extensive [...] Read more.

Micro-expressions are rapid and subtle facial movements. Different from ordinary facial expressions in our daily life, micro-expressions are very difficult to detect and recognize. In recent years, due to a wide range of potential applications in many domains, micro-expression recognition has aroused extensive attention from computer vision. Because available micro-expression datasets are very small, deep neural network models with a huge number of parameters are prone to over-fitting. In this article, we propose an OF-PCANet+ method for micro-expression recognition, in which we design a spatiotemporal feature learning strategy based on shallow PCANet+ model, and we incorporate optical flow sequence stacking with the PCANet+ network to learn discriminative spatiotemporal features. We conduct comprehensive experiments on publicly available SMIC and CASME2 datasets. The results show that our lightweight model obviously outperforms popular hand-crafted methods and also achieves comparable performances with deep learning based methods, such as 3D-FCNN and ELRCN. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computer Vision Techniques Applied to Human Behaviour Analysis in the Real-World)

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16 pages, 2449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Modal Vehicle Trajectory Prediction by Collaborative Learning of Lane Orientation, Vehicle Interaction, and Intention

by Wei Tian, Songtao Wang, Zehan Wang, Mingzhi Wu, Sihong Zhou and Xin Bi

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4295; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114295 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3371

Abstract

Accurate trajectory prediction is an essential task in automated driving, which is achieved by sensing and analyzing the behavior of surrounding vehicles. Although plenty of research works have been invested in this field, it is still a challenging subject due to the environment’s [...] Read more.

Accurate trajectory prediction is an essential task in automated driving, which is achieved by sensing and analyzing the behavior of surrounding vehicles. Although plenty of research works have been invested in this field, it is still a challenging subject due to the environment’s complexity and the driving intention uncertainty. In this paper, we propose a joint learning architecture to incorporate the lane orientation, vehicle interaction, and driving intention in vehicle trajectory forecasting. This work employs a coordinate transform to encode the vehicle trajectory with lane orientation information, which is further incorporated into various interaction models to explore the mutual trajectory relations. Extracted features are applied in a dual-level stochastic choice learning to distinguish the trajectory modality at both the intention and motion levels. By collaborative learning of lane orientation, interaction, and intention, our approach can be applied to both highway and urban scenes. Experiments on the NGSIM, HighD, and Argoverse datasets demonstrate that the proposed method achieves a significant improvement in prediction accuracy compared with the baseline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vehicular Sensing)

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The multi-modal vehicle trajectory prediction framework based on interaction modeling and lane orientation information. Related lane centerline is depicted in red. Predicted trajectories are represented in yellow, while historical trajectories are in green. Full article ">Figure 2
Three interaction model embedding methods in the LSTM encoder–decoder network. (a) Embedding interaction model only at the current frame. (b) Embedding interaction model at each frame. (c) Embedding interactive model with spatial–temporal coupling. Full article ">Figure 2 Cont.
Three interaction model embedding methods in the LSTM encoder–decoder network. (a) Embedding interaction model only at the current frame. (b) Embedding interaction model at each frame. (c) Embedding interactive model with spatial–temporal coupling. Full article ">Figure 3
Coordinate transform of historical vehicle trajectory. Full article ">Figure 4
Visualization of the trajectories directly predicted in the world coordinate and by the proposed framework (which can be better viewed in color). Full article ">Figure 5
Visualization of multi-modal prediction results in different urban road scenarios (which can be better viewed in color). (a) Prediction at intersection. (b) Prediction at T-junction. (c) Prediction at merging. Full article ">

15 pages, 5097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Dynamic Measurement Method of Flow Rate in Tea Processing

by Zhangfeng Zhao, Gaohong Liu, Yueliang Wang, Jiyu Peng, Xin Qiao and Jiang Zhong

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4294; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114294 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1932

Abstract

Tea flow rate is a key indicator in tea production and processing. Due to the small real−time flow of tea leaves on the production line, the noise caused by the transmission system is greater than or close to the real signal of tea [...] Read more.

Tea flow rate is a key indicator in tea production and processing. Due to the small real−time flow of tea leaves on the production line, the noise caused by the transmission system is greater than or close to the real signal of tea leaves. This issue may affect the dynamic measurement accuracy of tea flow. Therefore, a variational mode decomposition combined with a wavelet threshold (VMD−WT) denoising method is proposed to improve the accuracy of tea flow measurement. The denoising method of the tea flow signal based on VMD−WT is established, and the results are compared with WT, VMD, empirical mode decomposition (EMD), and empirical mode decomposition combined with wavelet threshold (EMD−WT). In addition, the dynamic measurement of different tea flow in tea processing is carried out. The result shows that the main noise of tea flow measurement comes from mechanical vibration. The VMD−WT method can effectively remove the noise in the tea dynamic weighing signal, and the denoising performance is better than WT, VMD, EMD, and EMD−WT methods. The average cumulative measurement accuracy of the tea flow signal based on the VMD−WT algorithm is 0.88%, which is 55% higher than that before denoising. This study provides an effective method for dynamic and accurate measurement of tea flow and offers technical support for digital control of the tea processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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39 pages, 11290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Path-Following Controller for Marine Vehicles Using a Two-Scale Inner-Outer Loop Approach

by Pramod Maurya, Helio Mitio Morishita, Antonio Pascoal and A. Pedro Aguiar

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4293; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114293 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3639

Abstract

This article addresses the problem of path following of marine vehicles along straight lines in the presence of currents by resorting to an inner-outer control loop strategy, with due account for the presence of currents. The inner-outer loop control structures exhibit a fast-slow [...] Read more.

This article addresses the problem of path following of marine vehicles along straight lines in the presence of currents by resorting to an inner-outer control loop strategy, with due account for the presence of currents. The inner-outer loop control structures exhibit a fast-slow temporal scale separation that yields simple “rules of thumb” for controller tuning. Stated intuitively, the inner-loop dynamics should be much faster than those of the outer loop. Conceptually, the procedure described has three key advantages: (i) it decouples the design of the inner and outer control loops, (ii) the structure of the outer-loop controller does not require exact knowledge of the vehicle dynamics, and (iii) it provides practitioners a very convenient method to effectively implement path-following controllers on a wide range of vehicles. The path-following controller discussed in this article is designed at the kinematic outer loop that commands the inner loop with the desired heading angles while the vehicle moves at an approximately constant speed. The key underlying idea is to provide a seamless implementation of path-following control algorithms on heterogeneous vehicles, which are often equipped with heading autopilots. To this end, we assume that the heading control system is characterized in terms of an IOS-like relationship without detailed knowledge of vehicle dynamics parameters. This paper quantitatively evaluates the combined inner-outer loop to obtain a relationship for assessing the combined system’s stability. The methods used are based on nonlinear control theory, wherein the cascade and feedback systems of interest are characterized in terms of their IOS properties. We use the IOS small-gain theorem to obtain quantitative relationships for controller tuning that are applicable to a broad range of marine vehicles. Tests with AUVs and one ASV in real-life conditions have shown the efficacy of the path-following control structure developed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motion Optimization and Control of Single and Multiple Autonomous Aerial, Land, and Marine Robots)

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23 pages, 4135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing Multimodal Interactive Dashboard of Disaster Management Systems

by Abeer AlAbdulaali, Amna Asif, Shaheen Khatoon and Majed Alshamari

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4292; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114292 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4570

Abstract

Disasters and crises are inevitable in this world. In the aftermath of a disaster, a society’s overall growth, resources, and economy are greatly affected as they cause damages from minor to huge proportions. Around the world, countries are interested in improving their emergency [...] Read more.

Disasters and crises are inevitable in this world. In the aftermath of a disaster, a society’s overall growth, resources, and economy are greatly affected as they cause damages from minor to huge proportions. Around the world, countries are interested in improving their emergency decision-making. The institutions are paying attention to collecting different types of data related to crisis information from various resources, including social media, to improve their emergency response. Previous efforts have focused on collecting, extracting, and classifying crisis data from text, audio, video, or files; however, the development of user-friendly multimodal disaster data dashboards to support human-to-system interactions during an emergency response has received little attention. Our paper seeks to fill this gap by proposing usable designs of interactive dashboards to present multimodal disaster information. For this purpose, we first investigated social media data and metadata for the required elicitation and analysis purposes. These requirements are then used to develop interactive multimodal dashboards to present complex disaster information in a usable manner. To validate our multimodal dashboard designs, we have conducted a heuristic evaluation. Experts have evaluated the interactive disaster dashboards using a customized set of heuristics. The overall assessment showed positive feedback from the evaluators. The proposed interactive multimodal dashboards complement the existing techniques of collecting textual, image, audio, and video emergency information and their classifications for usable presentation. The contribution will help the emergency response personnel in terms of useful information and observations for prompt responses to avoid significant damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Interaction, Sensing and Monitoring Devices and Its Applications)

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23 pages, 3834 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RF eigenfingerprints, an Efficient RF Fingerprinting Method in IoT Context

by Louis Morge-Rollet, Frédéric Le Roy, Denis Le Jeune, Charles Canaff and Roland Gautier

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4291; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114291 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2658

Abstract

In IoT networks, authentication of nodes is primordial and RF fingerprinting is one of the candidates as a non-cryptographic method. RF fingerprinting is a physical-layer security method consisting of authenticated wireless devices using their components’ impairments. In this paper, we propose the RF [...] Read more.

In IoT networks, authentication of nodes is primordial and RF fingerprinting is one of the candidates as a non-cryptographic method. RF fingerprinting is a physical-layer security method consisting of authenticated wireless devices using their components’ impairments. In this paper, we propose the RF eigenfingerprints method, inspired by face recognition works called eigenfaces. Our method automatically learns important features using singular value decomposition (SVD), selects important ones using Ljung–Box test, and performs authentication based on a statistical model. We also propose simulation, real-world experiment, and FPGA implementation to highlight the performance of the method. Particularly, we propose a novel RF fingerprinting impairments model for simulation. The end of the paper is dedicated to a discussion about good properties of RF fingerprinting in IoT context, giving our method as an example. Indeed, RF eigenfingerprint has interesting properties such as good scalability, low complexity, and high explainability, making it a good candidate for implementation in IoT context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical-Layer Security for Wireless Communications)

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10 pages, 1525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Retina-like Computational Ghost Imaging for an Axially Moving Target

by Yingqiang Zhang, Jie Cao, Huan Cui, Dong Zhou, Bin Han and Qun Hao

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4290; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114290 - 5 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2348

Abstract

Unlike traditional optical imaging schemes, computational ghost imaging (CGI) provides a way to reconstruct images with the spatial distribution information of illumination patterns and the light intensity collected by a single-pixel detector or bucket detector. Compared with stationary scenes, the relative motion between [...] Read more.

Unlike traditional optical imaging schemes, computational ghost imaging (CGI) provides a way to reconstruct images with the spatial distribution information of illumination patterns and the light intensity collected by a single-pixel detector or bucket detector. Compared with stationary scenes, the relative motion between the target and the imaging system in a dynamic scene causes the degradation of reconstructed images. Therefore, we propose a time-variant retina-like computational ghost imaging method for axially moving targets. The illuminated patterns are specially designed with retina-like structures, and the radii of foveal region can be modified according to the axial movement of target. By using the time-variant retina-like patterns and compressive sensing algorithms, high-quality imaging results are obtained. Experimental verification has shown its effectiveness in improving the reconstruction quality of axially moving targets. The proposed method retains the inherent merits of CGI and provides a useful reference for high-quality GI reconstruction of a moving target. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Computational Imaging and Sensing)

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13 pages, 4429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Doppler Modeling and Simulation of Train-to-Train Communication in Metro Tunnel Environment

by Pengyu Zhao, Xiaoyong Wang, Kai Zhang, Yanliang Jin and Guoxin Zheng

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4289; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114289 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2135

Abstract

The communication system of urban rail transit is gradually changing from train-to-ground (T2G) to train-to-train (T2T) communication. The subway can travel at speeds of up to 200 km/h in the tunnel environment, and communication between trains can be conducted via millimeter waves with [...] Read more.

The communication system of urban rail transit is gradually changing from train-to-ground (T2G) to train-to-train (T2T) communication. The subway can travel at speeds of up to 200 km/h in the tunnel environment, and communication between trains can be conducted via millimeter waves with minimum latency. A precise channel model is required to test the reliability of T2T communication over a non-line-of-sight (NLoS) Doppler channel in a tunnel scenario. In this paper, the description of the ray angle for a T2T communication terminal is established, and the mapping relationship of the multipath signals from the transmitter to the receiver is established. The channel parameters including the angle, amplitude, and mapping matrix from the transmitter to the receiver are obtained by the ray-tracing method. In addition, the channel model for the T2T communication system with multipath propagations is constructed. The Doppler spread simulation results in this paper are consistent with the RT simulation results. A channel physics modelling approach using an IQ vector phase shifter to achieve Doppler spread in the RF domain is proposed when paired with the Doppler spread model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Communications)

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26 pages, 42761 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chromism-Integrated Sensors and Devices for Visual Indicators

by Hyunho Seok, Sihoon Son, Jinill Cho, Sanghwan Choi, Kihong Park, Changmin Kim, Nari Jeon, Taesung Kim and Hyeong-U Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4288; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114288 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3934

Abstract

The bifunctionality of chromism-integrated sensors and devices has been highlighted because of their reversibility, fast response, and visual indication. For example, one of the representative chromism electrochromic materials exhibits optical modulation under ion insertion/extraction by applying a potential. This operation mechanism can be [...] Read more.

The bifunctionality of chromism-integrated sensors and devices has been highlighted because of their reversibility, fast response, and visual indication. For example, one of the representative chromism electrochromic materials exhibits optical modulation under ion insertion/extraction by applying a potential. This operation mechanism can be integrated with various sensors (pressure, strain, biomolecules, gas, etc.) and devices (energy conversion/storage systems) as visual indicators for user-friendly operation. In this review, recent advances in the field of chromism-integrated systems for visual indicators are categorized for various chromism-integrated sensors and devices. This review can provide insights for researchers working on chromism, sensors, or devices. The integrated chromic devices are evaluated in terms of coloration-bleach operation, cycling stability, and coloration efficiency. In addition, the existing challenges and prospects for chromism-integrated sensors and devices are summarized for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the Art in Gas Sensors based on Nanomaterials)

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13 pages, 4226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cantilever Beam-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerator as a Drill Pipe Transverse Vibration Energy Harvester Powering Intelligent Exploitation System

by Zhenhui Lian, Qunyi Wang, Chuanqing Zhu, Cong Zhao, Qiang Zhao, Yan Wang, Zhiyuan Hu, Ruijiang Xu, Yukai Lin, Tianyu Chen, Xiangyu Liu, Xiaoyan Xu, Ling Liu, Xiu Xiao and Minyi Xu

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4287; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114287 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2423

Abstract

Measurement While Drilling (MWD) is the most commonly used real-time information acquisition technique in offshore intelligent drilling, its power supply has always been a concern. Triboelectric nanogenerators have been shown to harvest low-frequency vibrational energy in the environment and convert it into electricity [...] Read more.

Measurement While Drilling (MWD) is the most commonly used real-time information acquisition technique in offshore intelligent drilling, its power supply has always been a concern. Triboelectric nanogenerators have been shown to harvest low-frequency vibrational energy in the environment and convert it into electricity to power small sensors and electrical devices. This work proposed a cantilever-beam-based triboelectric nanogenerator (CB-TENG) for transverse vibration energy harvesting of a drill pipe. The CB-TENG consists of two vibrators composed of spring steel with PTFE attached and Al electrodes. The structurally optimized CB-TENG can output a peak power of 2.56 mW under the vibration condition of f = 3.0 Hz and A = 50 mm, and the electrical output can be further enhanced with the increased vibration parameters. An array-type vibration energy harvester integrated with eight CB-TENGs is designed to fully adapt to the interior of the drill pipe and improve output performance. The device can realize omnidirectional vibration energy harvesting in the two-dimensional plane with good robustness. Under the typical vibration condition, the short-circuit current and the peak power can reach 49.85 μA and 30.95 mW, respectively. Finally, a series of demonstration experiments have been carried out, indicating the application prospects of the device. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensing Technologies for Marine Intelligent Systems)

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Figure 1
The concept diagram of this work. Full article ">Figure 2
Application scenario and structure of CB-TENG device (a) Application of CB-TENG in vibration energy collection of drill pipe for offshore oil extraction; (b) the structure of array-type CB-TENG; (c) the composition of CB-TENG; (d) the partial enlargement of the tip of CB-TENG; (e) SEM image of PTFE surface (Not sanded); (f) SEM image of sanded PTFE surface. Full article ">Figure 3
(a) Working principle of CB-TENG; (b) diagram of CB-TENG voltage output under different backplane structures and different number of vibrators; (c) diagram of CB-TENG voltage output at f = 3.0 Hz, A = 50 mm with different thickness of spring steel; (dI) force analysis diagram of unit length vibrator section; (dII) schematic diagram of single vibrator overall force. Full article ">Figure 4
The performance of CB-TENG under different vibration parameters. (a) 3D contour of short-circuit current variation with the vibration amplitude and frequency; (b) 3D contour of open-circuit voltage variation with the vibration amplitude and frequency; (c) 3D contour of transferred charge variation with the vibration amplitude and frequency; (d) the short-circuit current variation with the vibration amplitude; (e) the short-circuit current variation with the vibration frequency; (f) the transferred charge variation with the vibration amplitude; the percentage of (g) open-circuit voltage and (h) transferred charge varying with azimuth; (i) dependence of the voltage and output power density on the external load resistance for the CB-TENG working at f = 3 Hz, A = 50 mm. Full article ">Figure 5
The output performance of the array-type CB-TENG for vibration energy harvesting: (a) Array-type CB-TENG layout diagram; (b) the working circuit of array-type CB-TENG for vibration energy harvesting to power sensor or testing; (c) transferred charge for each TENG unit in the CB- array-type TENG; (d) charging performances to a capacitor of 10 μF for different CB-TENG arrays; (e) open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current with different amounts of integrated units; (f) the output power and the external load resistance with different amounts of integrated units working at f = 3 Hz, A = 50 mm. Full article ">Figure 6
Demonstration applications: (a) Voltage of different capacitors (C = 10, 22, 33, 47, 100, and 220 µF) charged by array-type CB-TENG at f = 3 Hz, A = 50 mm; (b) voltage of the same capacitor (C = 33 µF) charged by array-type CB-TENG at different vibration frequency and the same vibration amplitude of 50 mm; (c) sensitivity of CB-TENG to relative humidity; (d) durability of the CB-TENG; (e) the array-type CB-TENG lighting 204 LEDs; (f) powering a temperature sensor with array-type CB-TENG. Full article ">

15 pages, 24308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proposal of an Alpine Skiing Kinematic Analysis with the Aid of Miniaturized Monitoring Sensors, a Pilot Study

by Caterina Russo, Elena Puppo, Stefania Roati and Aurelio Somà

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4286; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114286 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3127

Abstract

The recent growth and spread of smart sensor technologies make these connected devices suitable for diagnostic and monitoring in different fields. In particular, these sensors are useful in diagnostics for control of diseases or during rehabilitation. They are also extensively used in the [...] Read more.

The recent growth and spread of smart sensor technologies make these connected devices suitable for diagnostic and monitoring in different fields. In particular, these sensors are useful in diagnostics for control of diseases or during rehabilitation. They are also extensively used in the monitoring field, both by non-expert and expert users, to monitor health status and progress during a sports activity. For athletes, these devices could be used to control and enhance their performance. This development has led to the realization of miniaturized sensors that are wearable during different sporting activities without interfering with the movements of the athlete. The use of these sensors, during training or racing, opens new frontiers for the understanding of motions and causes of injuries. This pilot study introduced a motion analysis system to monitor Alpine ski activities during training sessions. Through five inertial measurement units (IMUs), placed on five points of the athletes, it is possible to compute the angle of each joint and evaluate the ski run. Comparing the IMU data, firstly, with a video and then proposing them to an expert coach, it is possible to observe from the data the same mistakes visible in the camera. The aim of this work is to find a tool to support ski coaches during training sessions. Since the evaluation of athletes is now mainly developed with the support of video, we evaluate the use of IMUs to support the evaluation of the coach with more precise data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Technology for Sports Monitoring)

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21 pages, 11767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crosstalk Correction for Color Filter Array Image Sensors Based on L_p-Regularized Multi-Channel Deconvolution

by Jonghyun Kim, Kyeonghoon Jeong and Moon Gi Kang

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4285; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114285 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5020

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a crosstalk correction method for color filter array (CFA) image sensors based on

L_{p}

-regularized multi-channel deconvolution. Most imaging systems with CFA exhibit a crosstalk phenomenon caused by the physical limitations of the image sensor. In general, [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a crosstalk correction method for color filter array (CFA) image sensors based on

L_{p}

-regularized multi-channel deconvolution. Most imaging systems with CFA exhibit a crosstalk phenomenon caused by the physical limitations of the image sensor. In general, this phenomenon produces both color degradation and spatial degradation, which are respectively called desaturation and blurring. To improve the color fidelity and the spatial resolution in crosstalk correction, the feasible solution of the ill-posed problem is regularized by image priors. First, the crosstalk problem with complex spatial and spectral degradation is formulated as a multi-channel degradation model. An objective function with a hyper-Laplacian prior is then designed for crosstalk correction. This approach enables the simultaneous improvement of the color fidelity and the sharpness restoration of the details without noise amplification. Furthermore, an efficient solver minimizes the objective function for crosstalk correction consisting of

L_{p}

regularization terms. The proposed method was verified on synthetic datasets according to various crosstalk and noise levels. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method outperforms the conventional methods in terms of the color peak signal-to-noise ratio and structural similarity index measure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Computational Imaging and Sensing)

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15 pages, 8736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pseudo-Static Gain Cell of Embedded DRAM for Processing-in-Memory in Intelligent IoT Sensor Nodes

by Subin Kim and Jun-Eun Park

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4284; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114284 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3352

Abstract

This paper presents a pseudo-static gain cell (PS-GC) with extended retention time for an embedded dynamic random-access memory (eDRAM) macro for analog processing-in-memory (PIM). The proposed eDRAM cell consists of a two-transistor (2T) gain cell with a pseudo-static leakage compensation that maintains stored [...] Read more.

This paper presents a pseudo-static gain cell (PS-GC) with extended retention time for an embedded dynamic random-access memory (eDRAM) macro for analog processing-in-memory (PIM). The proposed eDRAM cell consists of a two-transistor (2T) gain cell with a pseudo-static leakage compensation that maintains stored data without charge loss issue. Hence, the PS-GC can offer unlimited retention time in the same manner as static RAM (SRAM). Due to the extended retention time, bulky capacitors in conventional eDRAM are no longer needed, thereby, improving the area efficiency of eDRAM-based analog PIMs. The active leakage compensation of the PS-GC can effectively hold stored data even in a deep-submicron process that show significant leakage current. Therefore, the PS-GC can accelerate write-access time and read-access time without concern of increased leakage current. The proposed gain cell and its 64 × 64 eDRAM macro were implemented in a 28 nm CMOS process. The bitcell of the proposed gain cell has 0.79- and 0.58-times the area of those of 6T SRAM and 8T STAM, respectively. The post-layout simulation results demonstrate that the eDRAM maintains the pseudo-static operation with unlimited retention time successfully under wide range variations of process, voltage and temperature. At the operating frequency of 667 MHz, the eDRAM macro achieved an operating voltage range from 0.9 to 1.2 V and operating temperature range from −25 to 85 °C regardless of the process variation. The post-layout simulated write-access time and read-access time were below 0.3 ns at an operating temperature of 85 °C. The PS-GC consumes a static power of 2.2 nW/bit at an operating temperature of 25 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent IoT Circuits and Systems)

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20 pages, 4369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pixel-Reasoning-Based Robotics Fine Grasping for Novel Objects with Deep EDINet Structure

by Chaoquan Shi, Chunxiao Miao, Xungao Zhong, Xunyu Zhong, Huosheng Hu and Qiang Liu

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4283; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114283 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2439

Abstract

Robotics grasp detection has mostly used the extraction of candidate grasping rectangles; those discrete sampling methods are time-consuming and may ignore the potential best grasp synthesis. This paper proposes a new pixel-level grasping detection method on RGB-D images. Firstly, a fine grasping representation [...] Read more.

Robotics grasp detection has mostly used the extraction of candidate grasping rectangles; those discrete sampling methods are time-consuming and may ignore the potential best grasp synthesis. This paper proposes a new pixel-level grasping detection method on RGB-D images. Firstly, a fine grasping representation is introduced to generate the gripper configurations of parallel-jaw, which can effectively resolve the gripper approaching conflicts and improve the applicability to unknown objects in cluttered scenarios. Besides, the adaptive grasping width is used to adaptively represent the grasping attribute, which is fine for objects. Then, the encoder–decoder–inception convolution neural network (EDINet) is proposed to predict the fine grasping configuration. In our findings, EDINet uses encoder, decoder, and inception modules to improve the speed and robustness of pixel-level grasping detection. The proposed EDINet structure was evaluated on the Cornell and Jacquard dataset; our method achieves 98.9% and 96.1% test accuracy, respectively. Finally, we carried out the grasping experiment on the unknown objects, and the results show that the average success rate of our network model is 97.2% in a single object scene and 93.7% in a cluttered scene, which out-performs the state-of-the-art algorithms. In addition, EDINet completes a grasp detection pipeline within only 25 ms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Robotics)

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25 pages, 9896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Sense of Attention from an Assistance Mobile Robot by Improving Eye-Gaze Contact from Its Iconic Face Displayed on a Flat Screen

by Elena Rubies, Jordi Palacín and Eduard Clotet

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4282; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114282 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3370

Abstract

One direct way to express the sense of attention in a human interaction is through the gaze. This paper presents the enhancement of the sense of attention from the face of a human-sized mobile robot during an interaction. This mobile robot was designed [...] Read more.

One direct way to express the sense of attention in a human interaction is through the gaze. This paper presents the enhancement of the sense of attention from the face of a human-sized mobile robot during an interaction. This mobile robot was designed as an assistance mobile robot and uses a flat screen at the top of the robot to display an iconic (simplified) face with big round eyes and a single line as a mouth. The implementation of eye-gaze contact from this iconic face is a problem because of the difficulty of simulating real 3D spherical eyes in a 2D image considering the perspective of the person interacting with the mobile robot. The perception of eye-gaze contact has been improved by manually calibrating the gaze of the robot relative to the location of the face of the person interacting with the robot. The sense of attention has been further enhanced by implementing cyclic face explorations with saccades in the gaze and by performing blinking and small movements of the mouth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Practical Application of Sensors and Signal Processing Techniques in Mobile Robots)

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17 pages, 7236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Long Short-Term Memory Network for Plasma Diagnosis from Langmuir Probe Data

by Jin Wang, Wenzhu Ji, Qingfu Du, Zanyang Xing, Xinyao Xie and Qinghe Zhang

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4281; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114281 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2583

Abstract

Electrostatic probe diagnosis is the main method of plasma diagnosis. However, the traditional diagnosis theory is affected by many factors, and it is difficult to obtain accurate diagnosis results. In this study, a long short-term memory (LSTM) approach is used for plasma probe [...] Read more.

Electrostatic probe diagnosis is the main method of plasma diagnosis. However, the traditional diagnosis theory is affected by many factors, and it is difficult to obtain accurate diagnosis results. In this study, a long short-term memory (LSTM) approach is used for plasma probe diagnosis to derive electron density (N_e) and temperature (T_e) more accurately and quickly. The LSTM network uses the data collected by Langmuir probes as input to eliminate the influence of the discharge device on the diagnosis that can be applied to a variety of discharge environments and even space ionospheric diagnosis. In the high-vacuum gas discharge environment, the Langmuir probe is used to obtain current–voltage (I–V) characteristic curves under different N_e and T_e. A part of the data input network is selected for training, the other part of the data is used as the test set to test the network, and the parameters are adjusted to make the network obtain better prediction results. Two indexes, namely, mean squared error (MSE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), are evaluated to calculate the prediction accuracy. The results show that using LSTM to diagnose plasma can reduce the impact of probe surface contamination on the traditional diagnosis methods and can accurately diagnose the underdense plasma. In addition, compared with T_e, the N_e diagnosis result output by LSTM is more accurate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Artificial Intelligence in Sensors)

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24 pages, 891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Tolerant DHT-Based Routing in MANET

by Saleem Zahid, Kifayat Ullah, Abdul Waheed, Sadia Basar, Mahdi Zareei and Rajesh Roshan Biswal

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4280; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114280 - 3 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2337

Abstract

In Distributed Hash Table (DHT)-based Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), a logical structured network (i.e., follows a tree, ring, chord, 3D, etc., structure) is built over the ad hoc physical topology in a distributed manner. The logical structures guide routing processes and eliminate [...] Read more.

In Distributed Hash Table (DHT)-based Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), a logical structured network (i.e., follows a tree, ring, chord, 3D, etc., structure) is built over the ad hoc physical topology in a distributed manner. The logical structures guide routing processes and eliminate flooding at the control and the data plans, thus making the system scalable. However, limited radio range, mobility, and lack of infrastructure introduce frequent and unpredictable changes to network topology, i.e., connectivity/dis-connectivity, node/link failure, network partition, and frequent merging. Moreover, every single change in the physical topology has an associated impact on the logical structured network and results in unevenly distributed and disrupted logical structures. This completely halts communication in the logical network, even physically connected nodes would not remain reachable due to disrupted logical structure, and unavailability of index information maintained at anchor nodes (ANs) in DHT networks. Therefore, distributed solutions are needed to tolerate faults in the logical network and provide end-to-end connectivity in such an adversarial environment. This paper defines the scope of the problem in the context of DHT networks and contributes a Fault-Tolerant DHT-based routing protocol (FTDN). FTDN, using a cross-layer design approach, investigates network dynamics in the physical network and adaptively makes arrangements to tolerate faults in the logically structured DHT network. In particular, FTDN ensures network availability (i.e., maintains connected and evenly distributed logical structures and ensures access to index information) in the face of failures and significantly improves performance. Analysis and simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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