Sensors

17 pages, 4885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Gate Opening Control Based on Improved Beetle Antennae Search

by Lijun Wang, Yibo Wang, Yehao Kang, Jie Shen, Ruixue Cheng, Jianyong Zhang and Shuheng Shi

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4425; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134425 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 853

Abstract

To address the issues of sluggish response and inadequate precision in traditional gate opening control systems, this study presents a novel approach for direct current (DC) motor control utilizing an enhanced beetle antennae search (BAS) algorithm to fine-tune the parameters of a fuzzy [...] Read more.

To address the issues of sluggish response and inadequate precision in traditional gate opening control systems, this study presents a novel approach for direct current (DC) motor control utilizing an enhanced beetle antennae search (BAS) algorithm to fine-tune the parameters of a fuzzy proportional integral derivative (PID) controller. Initially, the mathematical model of the DC motor drive system is formulated. Subsequently, employing a search algorithm, the three parameters of the PID controller are optimized in accordance with the control requirements. Next, software simulation is employed to analyze the system’s response time and overshoot. Furthermore, a comparative analysis is conducted between fuzzy PID control based on the improved beetle antennae search algorithm, and conventional approaches such as the traditional beetle antennae search algorithm, the traditional particle swarm algorithm, and the enhanced particle swarm algorithm. The findings indicate the superior performance of the proposed method, characterized by reduced oscillations and accelerated convergence compared to the alternative methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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27 pages, 31676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Visual-Aided Obstacle Climbing by Modular Snake Robot

by Carla Cavalcante Koike, Dianne Magalhães Viana, Jones Yudi, Filipe Aziz Batista, Arthur Costa, Vinícius Carvalho and Thiago Rocha

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4424; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134424 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 960

Abstract

Snake robots, also known as apodal robots, are among the most common and versatile modular robots. Primarily due to their ability to move in different patterns, they can evolve in scenarios with several constraints, some of them hardly accessible to other robot configurations. [...] Read more.

Snake robots, also known as apodal robots, are among the most common and versatile modular robots. Primarily due to their ability to move in different patterns, they can evolve in scenarios with several constraints, some of them hardly accessible to other robot configurations. This paper deals with a specific environment constraint where the robot needs to climb a prismatic obstacle, similar to a step. The objective is to carry out simulations of this function, before implementing it in the physical model. To this end, we propose two different algorithms, parameterized by the obstacle dimensions determined by image processing, and both are evaluated in simulated experiments. The results show that both algorithms are viable for testing in real robots, although more complex scenarios still need to be further studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Advances on Sensors and Perception for Climbing and Walking Robots)

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23 pages, 3852 KiB

Open AccessReview

Automatic Monitoring Methods for Greenhouse and Hazardous Gases Emitted from Ruminant Production Systems: A Review

by Weihong Ma, Xintong Ji, Luyu Ding, Simon X. Yang, Kaijun Guo and Qifeng Li

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4423; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134423 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1324

Abstract

The research on automatic monitoring methods for greenhouse gases and hazardous gas emissions is currently a focal point in the fields of environmental science and climatology. Until 2023, the amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the livestock sector accounts for about 11–17% of [...] Read more.

The research on automatic monitoring methods for greenhouse gases and hazardous gas emissions is currently a focal point in the fields of environmental science and climatology. Until 2023, the amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the livestock sector accounts for about 11–17% of total global emissions, with enteric fermentation in ruminants being the main source of the gases. With the escalating problem of global climate change, accurate and effective monitoring of gas emissions has become a top priority. Presently, the determination of gas emission indices relies on specialized instrumentation such as breathing chambers, greenfeed systems, methane laser detectors, etc., each characterized by distinct principles, applicability, and accuracy levels. This paper first explains the mechanisms and effects of gas production by ruminant production systems, focusing on the monitoring methods, principles, advantages, and disadvantages of monitoring gas concentrations, and a summary of existing methods reveals their shortcomings, such as limited applicability, low accuracy, and high cost. In response to the current challenges in the field of equipment for monitoring greenhouse and hazardous gas emissions from ruminant production systems, this paper outlines future perspectives with the aim of developing more efficient, user-friendly, and cost-effective monitoring instruments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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19 pages, 6221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Temporal–Spatial Contextual Adaptation for Three-Dimensional Human Pose Estimation

by Hexin Wang, Wei Quan, Runjing Zhao, Miaomiao Zhang and Na Jiang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4422; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134422 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1064

Abstract

Three-dimensional human pose estimation focuses on generating 3D pose sequences from 2D videos. It has enormous potential in the fields of human–robot interaction, remote sensing, virtual reality, and computer vision. Existing excellent methods primarily focus on exploring spatial or temporal encoding to achieve [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional human pose estimation focuses on generating 3D pose sequences from 2D videos. It has enormous potential in the fields of human–robot interaction, remote sensing, virtual reality, and computer vision. Existing excellent methods primarily focus on exploring spatial or temporal encoding to achieve 3D pose inference. However, various architectures exploit the independent effects of spatial and temporal cues on 3D pose estimation, while neglecting the spatial–temporal synergistic influence. To address this issue, this paper proposes a novel 3D pose estimation method with a dual-adaptive spatial–temporal former (DASTFormer) and additional supervised training. The DASTFormer contains attention-adaptive (AtA) and pure-adaptive (PuA) modes, which will enhance pose inference from 2D to 3D by adaptively learning spatial–temporal effects, considering both their cooperative and independent influences. In addition, an additional supervised training with batch variance loss is proposed in this work. Different from common training strategy, a two-round parameter update is conducted on the same batch data. Not only can it better explore the potential relationship between spatial–temporal encoding and 3D poses, but it can also alleviate the batch size limitations imposed by graphics cards on transformer-based frameworks. Extensive experimental results show that the proposed method significantly outperforms most state-of-the-art approaches on Human3.6 and HumanEVA datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computer Vision and Virtual Reality: Technologies and Applications)

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Figure 1
Some failed visualize examples of 3D pose estimation using a single image from the wild dataset 3DPW [<a href="#B19-sensors-24-04422" class="html-bibr">19</a>] as input. The first line refers to the raw inputs.The second line shows the 3D pose estimated by videoposed3D [<a href="#B16-sensors-24-04422" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. (a) When the body is obstructed, the estimated pose of the right arm deviates. (b) When the body is in a complex posture, there is unexpected overlap in the 3D pose of upper body. (c) When the background is cluttered, there is an incorrect association between the left and right legs. Full article ">Figure 2
Outline of the proposed method. LTS and DASTFormer are responsible for feature encoding. BVLoss is only applied for the second supervised training and guides the 3D Pose_After results surpass the 3D Pose_Before. Best viewed in color. Full article ">Figure 3
DASTFormer. DASTFormer consists of N spatial–temporal blocks (in grey) with two adaptive modes. The green subgraph on the left represents the attention-adaptive mode (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>), while the blue part on the right shows the pure-adaptive mode (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>P</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>). Full article ">Figure 4
Visualizations of PuA in Block 3. The first row presents the real weights, while the second row depicts the normalized weights. Each column represents the attention weights <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mi>S</mi> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>, and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>, respectively. The x-axis and y-axis represent frame number and keypoint id. Full article ">Figure 5
Qualitative comparison with PoseFormer [<a href="#B20-sensors-24-04422" class="html-bibr">20</a>] and GT. Our method is qualitatively compared with PoseFormer [<a href="#B20-sensors-24-04422" class="html-bibr">20</a>] on some actions in Human3.6M. The blue circles highlight positions where our method achieves superior results. Full article ">Figure 6
Visualization under challenging in real-world videos. The green arrows indicate accurate pose estimation, while the red arrows signify deviations in the estimated pose. The labels (a) and (b) represent two different videos. Full article ">

20 pages, 5255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tackling Few-Shot Challenges in Automatic Modulation Recognition: A Multi-Level Comparative Relation Network Combining Class Reconstruction Strategy

by Zhao Ma, Shengliang Fang, Youchen Fan, Shunhu Hou and Zhaojing Xu

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4421; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134421 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 759

Abstract

Automatic Modulation Recognition (AMR) is a key technology in the field of cognitive communication, playing a core role in many applications, especially in wireless security issues. Currently, deep learning (DL)-based AMR technology has achieved many research results, greatly promoting the development of AMR [...] Read more.

Automatic Modulation Recognition (AMR) is a key technology in the field of cognitive communication, playing a core role in many applications, especially in wireless security issues. Currently, deep learning (DL)-based AMR technology has achieved many research results, greatly promoting the development of AMR technology. However, the few-shot dilemma faced by DL-based AMR methods greatly limits their application in practical scenarios. Therefore, this paper endeavored to address the challenge of AMR with limited data and proposed a novel meta-learning method, the Multi-Level Comparison Relation Network with Class Reconstruction (MCRN-CR). Firstly, the method designs a structure of a multi-level comparison relation network, which involves embedding functions to output their feature maps hierarchically, comprehensively calculating the relation scores between query samples and support samples to determine the modulation category. Secondly, the embedding function integrates a reconstruction module, leveraging an autoencoder for support sample reconstruction, wherein the encoder serves dual purposes as the embedding mechanism. The training regimen incorporates a meta-learning paradigm, harmoniously combining classification and reconstruction losses to refine the model’s performance. The experimental results on the RadioML2018 dataset show that our designed method can greatly alleviate the small sample problem in AMR and is superior to existing methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Machine Learning in Communication Systems and Networks, 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 2167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilizing Deep Feature Fusion for Automatic Leukemia Classification: An Internet of Medical Things-Enabled Deep Learning Framework

by Md Manowarul Islam, Habibur Rahman Rifat, Md. Shamim Bin Shahid, Arnisha Akhter and Md Ashraf Uddin

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4420; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134420 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1124

Abstract

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, commonly referred to as ALL, is a type of cancer that can affect both the blood and the bone marrow. The process of diagnosis is a difficult one since it often calls for specialist testing, such as blood tests, bone [...] Read more.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, commonly referred to as ALL, is a type of cancer that can affect both the blood and the bone marrow. The process of diagnosis is a difficult one since it often calls for specialist testing, such as blood tests, bone marrow aspiration, and biopsy, all of which are highly time-consuming and expensive. It is essential to obtain an early diagnosis of ALL in order to start therapy in a timely and suitable manner. In recent medical diagnostics, substantial progress has been achieved through the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Our proposal introduces a new AI-based Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) framework designed to automatically identify leukemia from peripheral blood smear (PBS) images. In this study, we present a novel deep learning-based fusion model to detect ALL types of leukemia. The system seamlessly delivers the diagnostic reports to the centralized database, inclusive of patient-specific devices. After collecting blood samples from the hospital, the PBS images are transmitted to the cloud server through a WiFi-enabled microscopic device. In the cloud server, a new fusion model that is capable of classifying ALL from PBS images is configured. The fusion model is trained using a dataset including 6512 original and segmented images from 89 individuals. Two input channels are used for the purpose of feature extraction in the fusion model. These channels include both the original and the segmented images. VGG16 is responsible for extracting features from the original images, whereas DenseNet-121 is responsible for extracting features from the segmented images. The two output features are merged together, and dense layers are used for the categorization of leukemia. The fusion model that has been suggested obtains an accuracy of 99.89%, a precision of 99.80%, and a recall of 99.72%, which places it in an excellent position for the categorization of leukemia. The proposed model outperformed several state-of-the-art Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models in terms of performance. Consequently, this proposed model has the potential to save lives and effort. For a more comprehensive simulation of the entire methodology, a web application (Beta Version) has been developed in this study. This application is designed to determine the presence or absence of leukemia in individuals. The findings of this study hold significant potential for application in biomedical research, particularly in enhancing the accuracy of computer-aided leukemia detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Securing E-health Data across IoMT and Wearable Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 4444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Graph Optimization Method for GNSS/IMU Integrated Navigation System Based on Virtual Constraints

by Haiyang Qiu, Yun Zhao, Hui Wang and Lei Wang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4419; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134419 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1046

Abstract

In GNSS/IMU integrated navigation systems, factors like satellite occlusion and non-line-of-sight can degrade satellite positioning accuracy, thereby impacting overall navigation system results. To tackle this challenge and leverage historical pseudorange information effectively, this paper proposes a graph optimization-based GNSS/IMU model with virtual constraints. [...] Read more.

In GNSS/IMU integrated navigation systems, factors like satellite occlusion and non-line-of-sight can degrade satellite positioning accuracy, thereby impacting overall navigation system results. To tackle this challenge and leverage historical pseudorange information effectively, this paper proposes a graph optimization-based GNSS/IMU model with virtual constraints. These virtual constraints in the graph model are derived from the satellite’s position from the previous time step, the rate of change of pseudoranges, and ephemeris data. This virtual constraint serves as an alternative solution for individual satellites in cases of signal anomalies, thereby ensuring the integrity and continuity of the graph optimization model. Additionally, this paper conducts an analysis of the graph optimization model based on these virtual constraints, comparing it with traditional graph models of GNSS/IMU and SLAM. The marginalization of the graph model involving virtual constraints is analyzed next. The experiment was conducted on a set of real-world data, and the results of the proposed method were compared with tightly coupled Kalman filtering and the original graph optimization method. In instantaneous performance testing, the method maintains an RMSE error within 5% compared with real pseudorange measurement, while in a continuous performance testing scenario with no available GNSS signal, the method shows approximately a 30% improvement in horizontal RMSE accuracy over the traditional graph optimization method during a 10-second period. This demonstrates the method’s potential for practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue INS/GNSS Integrated Navigation Systems)

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23 pages, 9534 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Disturbance Suppression Method for Servo Systems Based on State Equalizer

by Jinzhao Li, Yonggang Li, Xiantao Li, Dapeng Mao and Bao Zhang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4418; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134418 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 568

Abstract

Disturbances in the aviation environment can compromise the stability of the aviation optoelectronic stabilization platform. Traditional methods, such as the proportional integral adaptive robust (PI + ARC) control algorithm, face a challenge: once high-frequency disturbances are introduced, their effectiveness is constrained by the [...] Read more.

Disturbances in the aviation environment can compromise the stability of the aviation optoelectronic stabilization platform. Traditional methods, such as the proportional integral adaptive robust (PI + ARC) control algorithm, face a challenge: once high-frequency disturbances are introduced, their effectiveness is constrained by the control system’s bandwidth, preventing further stability enhancement. A state equalizer speed closed-loop control algorithm is proposed, which combines proportional integral adaptive robustness with state equalizer (PI + ARC + State equalizer) control algorithm. This new control structure can suppress high-frequency disturbances caused by mechanical resonance, improve the bandwidth of the control system, and further achieve fast convergence and stability of the PI + ARC algorithm. Experimental results indicate that, in comparison to the control algorithm of PI + ARC, the inclusion of a state equalizer speed closed-loop compensation in the model significantly increases the closed-loop bandwidth by 47.6%, significantly enhances the control system’s resistance to disturbances, and exhibits robustness in the face of variations in the model parameters and feedback sensors of the control object. In summary, integrating a state equalizer speed closed-loop with PI + ARC significantly enhances the suppression of high-frequency disturbances and the performance of control systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)

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22 pages, 2874 KiB

Open AccessReview

Leveraging Wearable Sensors in Virtual Reality Driving Simulators: A Review of Techniques and Applications

by Răzvan Gabriel Boboc, Eugen Valentin Butilă and Silviu Butnariu

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4417; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134417 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1168

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) driving simulators are very promising tools for driver assessment since they provide a controlled and adaptable setting for behavior analysis. At the same time, wearable sensor technology provides a well-suited and valuable approach to evaluating the behavior of drivers and [...] Read more.

Virtual reality (VR) driving simulators are very promising tools for driver assessment since they provide a controlled and adaptable setting for behavior analysis. At the same time, wearable sensor technology provides a well-suited and valuable approach to evaluating the behavior of drivers and their physiological or psychological state. This review paper investigates the potential of wearable sensors in VR driving simulators. Methods: A literature search was performed on four databases (Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and IEEE Xplore) using appropriate search terms to retrieve scientific articles from a period of eleven years, from 2013 to 2023. Results: After removing duplicates and irrelevant papers, 44 studies were selected for analysis. Some important aspects were extracted and presented: the number of publications per year, countries of publication, the source of publications, study aims, characteristics of the participants, and types of wearable sensors. Moreover, an analysis and discussion of different aspects are provided. To improve car simulators that use virtual reality technologies and boost the effectiveness of particular driver training programs, data from the studies included in this systematic review and those scheduled for the upcoming years may be of interest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual Reality and Sensing Techniques for Human)

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25 pages, 13959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory Analysis of 6-DOF Industrial Robot Manipulators by Using Artificial Neural Networks

by Mehmet Bahadır Çetinkaya, Kürşat Yildirim and Şahin Yildirim

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4416; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134416 - 8 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1066

Abstract

Robot manipulators are robotic systems that are frequently used in automation systems and able to provide increased speed, precision, and efficiency in the industrial applications. Due to their nonlinear and complex nature, it is crucial to optimize the robot manipulator systems in terms [...] Read more.

Robot manipulators are robotic systems that are frequently used in automation systems and able to provide increased speed, precision, and efficiency in the industrial applications. Due to their nonlinear and complex nature, it is crucial to optimize the robot manipulator systems in terms of trajectory control. In this study, positioning analyses based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) were performed for robot manipulator systems used in the textile industry, and the optimal ANN model for the high-accuracy positioning was improved. The inverse kinematic analyses of a 6-degree-of-freedom (DOF) industrial denim robot manipulator were carried out via four different learning algorithms, delta-bar-delta (DBD), online back propagation (OBP), quick back propagation (QBP), and random back propagation (RBP), for the proposed neural network predictor. From the results obtained, it was observed that the QBP-based 3-10-6 type ANN structure produced the optimal results in terms of estimation and modeling of trajectory control. In addition, the 3-5-6 type ANN structure was also improved, and its root mean square error (RMSE) and statistical R² performances were compared with that of the 3-10-6 ANN structure. Consequently, it can be concluded that the proposed neural predictors can successfully be employed in real-time industrial applications for robot manipulator trajectory analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Robotics)

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22 pages, 4217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Graph Feature Refinement and Fusion in Transformer for Structural Damage Detection

by Tianjie Hu, Kejian Ma and Jianchun Xiao

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4415; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134415 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Structural damage detection is of significance for maintaining the structural health. Currently, data-driven deep learning approaches have emerged as a highly promising research field. However, little progress has been made in studying the relationship between the global and local information of structural response [...] Read more.

Structural damage detection is of significance for maintaining the structural health. Currently, data-driven deep learning approaches have emerged as a highly promising research field. However, little progress has been made in studying the relationship between the global and local information of structural response data. In this paper, we have presented an innovative Convolutional Enhancement and Graph Features Fusion in Transformer (CGsformer) network for structural damage detection. The proposed CGsformer network introduces an innovative approach for hierarchical learning from global to local information to extract acceleration response signal features for structural damage representation. The key advantage of this network is the integration of a graph convolutional network in the learning process, which enables the construction of a graph structure for global features. By incorporating node learning, the graph convolutional network filters out noise in the global features, thereby facilitating the extraction to more effective local features. In the verification based on the experimental data of four-story steel frame model experiment data and IASC-ASCE benchmark structure simulated data, the CGsformer network achieved damage identification accuracies of 92.44% and 96.71%, respectively. It surpassed the existing traditional damage detection methods based on deep learning. Notably, the model demonstrates good robustness under noisy conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Condition Perception and Performance Evaluation of Engineering Structures)

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16 pages, 765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Progressive Inter-Path Interference Cancellation Algorithm for Channel Estimation Using Orthogonal Time–Frequency Space

by Mauro Marchese, Henk Wymeersch, Paolo Spallaccini and Pietro Savazzi

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4414; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134414 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 755

Abstract

Fractional delay-Doppler (DD) channel estimation in orthogonal time–frequency space (OTFS) systems poses a significant challenge considering the severe effects of inter-path interference (IPI). To this end, several algorithms have been extensively explored in the literature for accurate low-complexity channel estimation in both integer [...] Read more.

Fractional delay-Doppler (DD) channel estimation in orthogonal time–frequency space (OTFS) systems poses a significant challenge considering the severe effects of inter-path interference (IPI). To this end, several algorithms have been extensively explored in the literature for accurate low-complexity channel estimation in both integer and fractional DD scenarios. In this work, we develop a variant of the state-of-the-art delay-Doppler inter-path interference cancellation (DDIPIC) algorithm that progressively cancels the IPI as estimates are obtained. The key advantage of the proposed approach is that it requires only a final refinement procedure reducing the complexity of the algorithm. Specifically, the time difference in latency between the proposed approach and the DDIPIC algorithm is almost proportional to the square of the number of estimated paths. Numerical results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the other channel estimation schemes achieving lower normalized mean square error (NMSE) and bit error rate (BER). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Communications)

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16 pages, 5811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Vibration Measurement and Modal Shape Visualization Based on Dynamic Deviations of Structural Edge Profiles

by Andong Zhu, Xinlong Gong, Jie Zhou, Xiaolong Zhang and Dashan Zhang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4413; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134413 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 801

Abstract

As a non-contact method, vision-based measurement for vibration extraction and modal parameter identification has attracted much attention. In most cases, artificial textures are crucial elements for visual tracking, and this feature limits the application of vision-based vibration measurement on textureless targets. As a [...] Read more.

As a non-contact method, vision-based measurement for vibration extraction and modal parameter identification has attracted much attention. In most cases, artificial textures are crucial elements for visual tracking, and this feature limits the application of vision-based vibration measurement on textureless targets. As a computation technique for visualizing subtle variations in videos, the video magnification technique can analyze modal responses and visualize modal shapes, but the efficiency is low, and the processing results contain clipping artifacts. This paper proposes a novel method for the application of a modal test. In contrast to the deviation magnification that exaggerates subtle geometric deviations from only a single image, the proposed method extracts vibration signals with sub-pixel accuracy on edge positions by changing the perspective of deviations from space to timeline. Then, modal shapes are visualized by decoupling all spatial vibrations following the vibration theory of continuous linear systems. Without relying on artificial textures and motion magnification, the proposed method achieves high operating efficiency and avoids clipping artifacts. Finally, the effectiveness and practical value of the proposed method are validated by two laboratory experiments on a cantilever beam and an arch dam model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring Based on Sensing Technology)

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19 pages, 6828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feature Extraction Methods for Underwater Acoustic Target Recognition of Divers

by Yuchen Sun, Weiyi Chen, Changgeng Shuai, Zhiqiang Zhang, Pingbo Wang, Guo Cheng and Wenjing Yu

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4412; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134412 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1143

Abstract

The extraction of typical features of underwater target signals and excellent recognition algorithms are the keys to achieving underwater acoustic target recognition of divers. This paper proposes a feature extraction method for diver signals: frequency−domain multi−sub−band energy (FMSE), aiming to achieve accurate recognition [...] Read more.

The extraction of typical features of underwater target signals and excellent recognition algorithms are the keys to achieving underwater acoustic target recognition of divers. This paper proposes a feature extraction method for diver signals: frequency−domain multi−sub−band energy (FMSE), aiming to achieve accurate recognition of diver underwater acoustic targets by passive sonar. The impact of the presence or absence of targets, different numbers of targets, different signal−to−noise ratios, and different detection distances on this method was studied based on experimental data under different conditions, such as water pools and lakes. It was found that the FMSE method has the best robustness and performance compared with two other signal feature extraction methods: mel frequency cepstral coefficient filtering and gammatone frequency cepstral coefficient filtering. Combined with the commonly used recognition algorithm of support vector machines, the FMSE method can achieve a comprehensive recognition accuracy of over 94% for frogman underwater acoustic targets. This indicates that the FMSE method is suitable for underwater acoustic recognition of diver targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Acoustic Sensing Technology)

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38 pages, 2585 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Survey on Deep Learning-Based LoRa Radio Frequency Fingerprinting Identification

by Aqeel Ahmed, Bruno Quoitin, Alexander Gros and Veronique Moeyaert

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4411; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134411 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1802

Abstract

LoRa enables long-range communication for Internet of Things (IoT) devices, especially those with limited resources and low power requirements. Consequently, LoRa has emerged as a popular choice for numerous IoT applications. However, the security of LoRa devices is one of the major concerns [...] Read more.

LoRa enables long-range communication for Internet of Things (IoT) devices, especially those with limited resources and low power requirements. Consequently, LoRa has emerged as a popular choice for numerous IoT applications. However, the security of LoRa devices is one of the major concerns that requires attention. Existing device identification mechanisms use cryptography which has two major issues: (1) cryptography is hard on the device resources and (2) physical attacks might prevent them from being effective. Deep learning-based radio frequency fingerprinting identification (RFFI) is emerging as a key candidate for device identification using hardware-intrinsic features. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of the state of the art in the area of deep learning-based radio frequency fingerprinting identification for LoRa devices. We discuss various categories of radio frequency fingerprinting techniques along with hardware imperfections that can be exploited to identify an emitter. Furthermore, we describe different deep learning algorithms implemented for the task of LoRa device classification and summarize the main approaches and results. We discuss several representations of the LoRa signal used as input to deep learning models. Additionally, we provide a thorough review of all the LoRa RF signal datasets used in the literature and summarize details about the hardware used, the type of signals collected, the features provided, availability, and size. Finally, we conclude this paper by discussing the existing challenges in deep learning-based LoRa device identification and also envisage future research directions and opportunities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Protection and Privacy in Industry 4.0 Era)

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16 pages, 8893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for Real-Time Recognition of Safflower Filaments in Unstructured Environments Using the YOLO-SaFi Model

by Bangbang Chen, Feng Ding, Baojian Ma, Liqiang Wang and Shanping Ning

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4410; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134410 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1189

Abstract

The identification of safflower filament targets and the precise localization of picking points are fundamental prerequisites for achieving automated filament retrieval. In light of challenges such as severe occlusion of targets, low recognition accuracy, and the considerable size of models in unstructured environments, [...] Read more.

The identification of safflower filament targets and the precise localization of picking points are fundamental prerequisites for achieving automated filament retrieval. In light of challenges such as severe occlusion of targets, low recognition accuracy, and the considerable size of models in unstructured environments, this paper introduces a novel lightweight YOLO-SaFi model. The architectural design of this model features a Backbone layer incorporating the StarNet network; a Neck layer introducing a novel ELC convolution module to refine the C2f module; and a Head layer implementing a new lightweight shared convolution detection head, Detect_EL. Furthermore, the loss function is enhanced by upgrading CIoU to PIoUv2. These enhancements significantly augment the model’s capability to perceive spatial information and facilitate multi-feature fusion, consequently enhancing detection performance and rendering the model more lightweight. Performance evaluations conducted via comparative experiments with the baseline model reveal that YOLO-SaFi achieved a reduction of parameters, computational load, and weight files by 50.0%, 40.7%, and 48.2%, respectively, compared to the YOLOv8 baseline model. Moreover, YOLO-SaFi demonstrated improvements in recall, mean average precision, and detection speed by 1.9%, 0.3%, and 88.4 frames per second, respectively. Finally, the deployment of the YOLO-SaFi model on the Jetson Orin Nano device corroborates the superior performance of the enhanced model, thereby establishing a robust visual detection framework for the advancement of intelligent safflower filament retrieval robots in unstructured environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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17 pages, 8850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Learning-Based Simultaneous Temperature- and Curvature-Sensitive Scatterplot Recognition

by Jianli Liu, Yuxin Ke, Dong Yang, Qiao Deng, Chuang Hei, Hu Han, Daicheng Peng, Fangqing Wen, Ankang Feng and Xueran Zhao

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4409; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134409 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1280

Abstract

Since light propagation in a multimode fiber (MMF) exhibits visually random and complex scattering patterns due to external interference, this study numerically models temperature and curvature through the finite element method in order to understand the complex interactions between the inputs and outputs [...] Read more.

Since light propagation in a multimode fiber (MMF) exhibits visually random and complex scattering patterns due to external interference, this study numerically models temperature and curvature through the finite element method in order to understand the complex interactions between the inputs and outputs of an optical fiber under conditions of temperature and curvature interference. The systematic analysis of the fiber’s refractive index and bending loss characteristics determined its critical bending radius to be 15 mm. The temperature speckle atlas is plotted to reflect varying bending radii. An optimal end-to-end residual neural network model capable of automatically extracting highly similar scattering features is proposed and validated for the purpose of identifying temperature and curvature scattering maps of MMFs. The viability of the proposed scheme is tested through numerical simulations and experiments, the results of which demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the optimized network model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)

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21 pages, 10239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fusion Positioning System Based on Camera and LiDAR for Unmanned Rollers in Tunnel Construction

by Hao Huang, Yongbiao Hu and Xuebin Wang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4408; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134408 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1104

Abstract

As an important vehicle in road construction, the unmanned roller is rapidly advancing in its autonomous compaction capabilities. To overcome the challenges of GNSS positioning failure during tunnel construction and diminished visual positioning accuracy under different illumination levels, we propose a feature-layer fusion [...] Read more.

As an important vehicle in road construction, the unmanned roller is rapidly advancing in its autonomous compaction capabilities. To overcome the challenges of GNSS positioning failure during tunnel construction and diminished visual positioning accuracy under different illumination levels, we propose a feature-layer fusion positioning system based on a camera and LiDAR. This system integrates loop closure detection and LiDAR odometry into the visual odometry framework. Furthermore, recognizing the prevalence of similar scenes in tunnels, we innovatively combine loop closure detection with the compaction process of rollers in fixed areas, proposing a selection method for loop closure candidate frames based on the compaction process. Through on-site experiments, it is shown that this method not only enhances the accuracy of loop closure detection in similar environments but also reduces the runtime. Compared with visual systems, in static positioning tests, the longitudinal and lateral accuracy of the fusion system are improved by 12 mm and 11 mm, respectively. In straight-line compaction tests under different illumination levels, the average lateral error increases by 34.1% and 32.8%, respectively. In lane-changing compaction tests, this system enhances the positioning accuracy by 33% in dim environments, demonstrating the superior positioning accuracy of the fusion positioning system amid illumination changes in tunnels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements and Applications of Cooperative Positioning, Planning and Control for Autonomous Vehicles)

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18 pages, 8769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Obstacle Detection Method Based on Longitudinal Active Vision

by Shuyue Shi, Juan Ni, Xiangcun Kong, Huajian Zhu, Jiaze Zhan, Qintao Sun and Yi Xu

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4407; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134407 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 807

Abstract

The types of obstacles encountered in the road environment are complex and diverse, and accurate and reliable detection of obstacles is the key to improving traffic safety. Traditional obstacle detection methods are limited by the type of samples and therefore cannot detect others [...] Read more.

The types of obstacles encountered in the road environment are complex and diverse, and accurate and reliable detection of obstacles is the key to improving traffic safety. Traditional obstacle detection methods are limited by the type of samples and therefore cannot detect others comprehensively. Therefore, this paper proposes an obstacle detection method based on longitudinal active vision. The obstacles are recognized according to the height difference characteristics between the obstacle imaging points and the ground points in the image, and the obstacle detection in the target area is realized without accurately distinguishing the obstacle categories, which reduces the spatial and temporal complexity of the road environment perception. The method of this paper is compared and analyzed with the obstacle detection methods based on VIDAR (vision-IMU based detection and range method), VIDAR + MSER, and YOLOv8s. The experimental results show that the method in this paper has high detection accuracy and verifies the feasibility of obstacle detection in road environments where unknown obstacles exist. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Vehicular Sensing)

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18 pages, 2242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clustered Routing Using Chaotic Genetic Algorithm with Grey Wolf Optimization to Enhance Energy Efficiency in Sensor Networks

by Halimjon Khujamatov, Mohaideen Pitchai, Alibek Shamsiev, Abdinabi Mukhamadiyev and Jinsoo Cho

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4406; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134406 - 7 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 951

Abstract

As an alternative to flat architectures, clustering architectures are designed to minimize the total energy consumption of sensor networks. Nonetheless, sensor nodes experience increased energy consumption during data transmission, leading to a rapid depletion of energy levels as data are routed towards the [...] Read more.

As an alternative to flat architectures, clustering architectures are designed to minimize the total energy consumption of sensor networks. Nonetheless, sensor nodes experience increased energy consumption during data transmission, leading to a rapid depletion of energy levels as data are routed towards the base station. Although numerous strategies have been developed to address these challenges and enhance the energy efficiency of networks, the formulation of a clustering-based routing algorithm that achieves both high energy efficiency and increased packet transmission rate for large-scale sensor networks remains an NP-hard problem. Accordingly, the proposed work formulated an energy-efficient clustering mechanism using a chaotic genetic algorithm, and subsequently developed an energy-saving routing system using a bio-inspired grey wolf optimizer algorithm. The proposed chaotic genetic algorithm–grey wolf optimization (CGA-GWO) method is designed to minimize overall energy consumption by selecting energy-aware cluster heads and creating an optimal routing path to reach the base station. The simulation results demonstrate the enhanced functionality of the proposed system when associated with three more relevant systems, considering metrics such as the number of live nodes, average remaining energy level, packet delivery ratio, and overhead associated with cluster formation and routing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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32 pages, 2023 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Smart Buildings: A Comprehensive Systematic Literature Review on Data-Driven Building Management Systems

by Adrian Taboada-Orozco, Kokou Yetongnon and Christophe Nicolle

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4405; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134405 - 7 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2575

Abstract

Buildings are complex structures composed of heterogeneous elements; these require building management systems (BMSs) to dynamically adapt them to occupants’ needs and leverage building resources. The fast growth of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has transformed the BMS field into a multidisciplinary one. [...] Read more.

Buildings are complex structures composed of heterogeneous elements; these require building management systems (BMSs) to dynamically adapt them to occupants’ needs and leverage building resources. The fast growth of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has transformed the BMS field into a multidisciplinary one. Consequently, this has caused several research papers on data-driven solutions to require examination and classification. This paper provides a broad overview of BMS by conducting a systematic literature review (SLR) summarizing current trends in this field. Unlike similar reviews, this SLR provides a rigorous methodology to review current research from a computer science perspective. Therefore, our goal is four-fold: (i) Identify the main topics in the field of building; (ii) Identify the recent data-driven methods; (iii) Understand the BMS’s underlying computing architecture (iv) Understand the features of BMS that contribute to the smartization of buildings. The result synthesizes our findings and provides research directions for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Sensors in Smart Buildings)

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15 pages, 4404 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Sensor-Assisted Analysis of Autonomic and Cerebrovascular Dysregulation following Concussion in an Individual with a History of Ten Concussions: A Case Study

by Courtney M. Kennedy, Joel S. Burma and Jonathan D. Smirl

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4404; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134404 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1315

Abstract

Introduction: Concussion is known to cause transient autonomic and cerebrovascular dysregulation that generally recovers; however, few studies have focused on individuals with an extensive concussion history. Method: The case was a 26-year-old male with a history of 10 concussions, diagnosed for bipolar type [...] Read more.

Introduction: Concussion is known to cause transient autonomic and cerebrovascular dysregulation that generally recovers; however, few studies have focused on individuals with an extensive concussion history. Method: The case was a 26-year-old male with a history of 10 concussions, diagnosed for bipolar type II disorder, mild attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and a history of migraines/headaches. The case was medicated with Valproic Acid and Escitalopram. Sensor-based baseline data were collected within six months of his injury and on days 1–5, 10, and 14 post-injury. Symptom reporting, heart rate variability (HRV), neurovascular coupling (NVC), and dynamic cerebral autoregulation (dCA) assessments were completed using numerous biomedical devices (i.e., transcranial Doppler ultrasound, 3-lead electrocardiography, finger photoplethysmography). Results: Total symptom and symptom severity scores were higher for the first-week post-injury, with physical and emotional symptoms being the most impacted. The NVC response showed lowered activation in the first three days post-injury, while autonomic (HRV) and autoregulation (dCA) were impaired across all testing visits occurring in the first 14 days following his concussion. Conclusions: Despite symptom resolution, the case demonstrated ongoing autonomic and autoregulatory dysfunction. Larger samples examining individuals with an extensive history of concussion are warranted to understand the chronic physiological changes that occur following cumulative concussions through biosensing devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors for Cardiology)

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Figure 1
Neurovascular coupling results during a complex visual scene search (“Where’s Waldo?”). Centimetres per second (cm/s); percent (%); area under the curve (AUC). Units for all measures are displayed in the facet titles, in the posterior (left panel) and middle (right panel) cerebral arteries (PCA and MCA, respectively). Negligible change in CBFv observed throughout testing within the PCA at baseline, quantified during 5-seconds eyes closed, (panel (A)) and peak task engagement (panel (C)); and within the MVA at baseline (panel (B)) and peak (panel (D)). Note the substantial reductions across days 1–3 in AUC30 within the PCA, the primary region associated with the initial processing of the raw visual information associated with the scene-search task (panel (G)), but not the MCA (panel (H)), associated with motor and somatosensory function. The blunted relative increase from baseline to peak observed during systole in the posterior aspect did not return to pre-injury levels until day 14 (panel (E)), however no changes were observed within the MCA (panel (F)). Full article ">Figure 2
Time-domain heart rate variability (HRV) metrics collected during quiet sitting and standing periods. Standard deviation of average normal–normal intervals (SDNN); root mean square of successive intervals (RMSSD); proportion of consecutive RR intervals that differ by more than 50 ms (pNN50); beats per minute (bpm); milliseconds (ms); percent (%). Units for all measures are displayed in the facet titles. Note the substantial elevations in heart rate during both seated and standing periods that extended for the entire 14-day duration of testing (panel (A)), as well as the reductions in SDNN (panel (B)), RMSSD (panel (C)), and pNN50 (panel (D)) under both seated and standing conditions that were also present immediately following the injury, along with the consistent return towards baseline levels for these autonomic regulation metrics across the 14-day testing period. Full article ">Figure 3
Frequency-domain heart rate variability (HRV) metrics collected during quiet sitting and standing periods. Low frequency (LF); high frequency (HF); normalized units (n.u.); percent (%). Units for all measures are displayed in the facet titles. Note the elevations in the relative LF (panel (A)) and LF/HF ratio (panel (C)) and the reductions in HF (panel (B)) across the 14-day testing period in this case. Full article ">Figure 4
Dynamic cerebral autoregulation assessments via squat–stand maneuvers at 0.05 Hz in the middle (left panel) and posterior (right panel) cerebral arteries (MCA and PCA, respectively). Normalized gain (nGain); centimetres (cm); seconds (s); millimetres of mercury (mmHg); percent (%). Units for all measures are displayed in the facet titles. Negligible change observed in MCA coherence (panel (A)) and gain (panel (E)); and in PCA coherence (panel (B)) and phase (panel (D)). Note the slight reductions in diastolic middle cerebral artery (MCA) phase (panel (C)); elevations in nGain (panel (G)); and elevations in diastolic posterior cerebral artery (PCA) gain (panel (F)) and nGain (panel (H)). Full article ">Figure 5
Dynamic cerebral autoregulation assessments via squat-stand maneuvers at 0.10 Hz in the middle (left panel) and posterior (right panel) cerebral arteries (MCA and PCA, respectively). Normalized gain (nGain); centimetres (cm); seconds (s); millimetres of mercury (mmHg); percent (%). Units for all measures are displayed in the facet titles. Negligible change observed in MCA coherence (panel (A)) and gain (panel (E)); and in PCA coherence (panel (B)) and phase (panel (D)). Note the slight reductions in diastolic and mean MCA phase (panel (C)) and elevations in nGain (panel (G)) and the elevations in diastolic PCA gain (panel (F)) and nGain (panel (H)). Full article ">

19 pages, 11934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Characteristics of Long-Wave Irregularities in High-Speed Railway Vertical Curves and Method for Mitigation

by Laiwei Jiang, Yangtenglong Li, Yuyuan Zhao and Minyi Cen

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4403; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134403 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 806

Abstract

Track geometry measurements (TGMs) are a critical methodology for assessing the quality of track regularities and, thus, are essential for ensuring the safety and comfort of high-speed railway (HSR) operations. TGMs also serve as foundational datasets for engineering departments to devise daily maintenance [...] Read more.

Track geometry measurements (TGMs) are a critical methodology for assessing the quality of track regularities and, thus, are essential for ensuring the safety and comfort of high-speed railway (HSR) operations. TGMs also serve as foundational datasets for engineering departments to devise daily maintenance and repair strategies. During routine maintenance, S-shaped long-wave irregularities (SLIs) were found to be present in the vertical direction from track geometry cars (TGCs) at the beginning and end of a vertical curve (VC). In this paper, we conduct a comprehensive analysis and comparison of the characteristics of these SLIs and design a long-wave filter for simulating inertial measurement systems (IMSs). This simulation experiment conclusively demonstrates that SLIs are not attributed to track geometric deformation from the design reference. Instead, imperfections in the longitudinal profile’s design are what cause abrupt changes in the vehicle’s acceleration, resulting in the measurement output of SLIs. Expanding upon this foundation, an additional investigation concerning the quantitative relationship between SLIs and longitudinal profiles is pursued. Finally, a method that involves the addition of a third-degree parabolic transition curve (TDPTC) or a full-wave sinusoidal transition curve (FSTC) is proposed for a smooth transition between the slope and the circular curve, designed to eliminate the abrupt changes in vertical acceleration and to mitigate SLIs. The correctness and effectiveness of this method are validated through filtering simulation experiments. These experiments indicate that the proposed method not only eliminates abrupt changes in vertical acceleration, but also significantly mitigates SLIs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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17 pages, 1779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Semi-Supervised Adaptive Matrix Machine Approach for Fault Diagnosis in Railway Switch Machine

by Wenqing Li, Zhongwei Xu, Meng Mei, Meng Lan, Chuanzhen Liu and Xiao Gao

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4402; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134402 - 7 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 786

Abstract

The switch machine, an essential element of railway infrastructure, is crucial in maintaining the safety of railway operations. Traditional methods for fault diagnosis are constrained by their dependence on extensive labeled datasets. Semi-supervised learning (SSL), although a promising solution to the scarcity of [...] Read more.

The switch machine, an essential element of railway infrastructure, is crucial in maintaining the safety of railway operations. Traditional methods for fault diagnosis are constrained by their dependence on extensive labeled datasets. Semi-supervised learning (SSL), although a promising solution to the scarcity of samples, faces challenges such as the imbalance of pseudo-labels and inadequate data representation. In response, this paper presents the Semi-Supervised Adaptive Matrix Machine (SAMM) model, designed for the fault diagnosis of switch machine. SAMM amalgamates semi-supervised learning with adaptive technologies, leveraging adaptive low-rank regularizer to discern the fundamental links between the rows and columns of matrix data and applying adaptive penalty items to correct imbalances across sample categories. This model methodically enlarges its labeled dataset using probabilistic outputs and semi-supervised, automatically adjusting parameters to accommodate diverse data distributions and structural nuances. The SAMM model’s optimization process employs the alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) to identify solutions efficiently. Experimental evidence from a dataset containing current signals from switch machines indicates that SAMM outperforms existing baseline models, demonstrating its exceptional status diagnostic capabilities in situations where labeled samples are scarce. Consequently, SAMM offers an innovative and effective approach to semi-supervised classification tasks involving matrix data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Sensor-Enhanced Fault Diagnosis for Industrial Application)

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18 pages, 21372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Underwater Single-Photon 3D Reconstruction Algorithm Based on K-Nearest Neighbor

by Hui Wang, Su Qiu, Taoran Lu, Yanjin Kuang and Weiqi Jin

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4401; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134401 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 875

Abstract

The high sensitivity and picosecond time resolution of single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) can improve the operational range and imaging accuracy of underwater detection systems. When an underwater SPAD imaging system is used to detect targets, backward-scattering caused by particles in water often results [...] Read more.

The high sensitivity and picosecond time resolution of single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) can improve the operational range and imaging accuracy of underwater detection systems. When an underwater SPAD imaging system is used to detect targets, backward-scattering caused by particles in water often results in the poor quality of the reconstructed underwater image. Although methods such as simple pixel accumulation have been proven to be effective for time–photon histogram reconstruction, they perform unsatisfactorily in a highly scattering environment. Therefore, new reconstruction methods are necessary for underwater SPAD detection to obtain high-resolution images. In this paper, we propose an algorithm that reconstructs high-resolution depth profiles of underwater targets from a time–photon histogram by employing the K-nearest neighbor (KNN) to classify multiple targets and the background. The results contribute to the performance of pixel accumulation and depth estimation algorithms such as pixel cross-correlation and ManiPoP. We use public experimental data sets and underwater simulation data to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. The results of our algorithm show that the root mean square errors (RMSEs) of land targets and simulated underwater targets are reduced by 57.12% and 23.45%, respectively, achieving high-resolution single-photon depth profile reconstruction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensing and Imaging)

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18 pages, 1918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustic Comfort Prediction: Integrating Sound Event Detection and Noise Levels from a Wireless Acoustic Sensor Network

by Daniel Bonet-Solà, Ester Vidaña-Vila and Rosa Ma Alsina-Pagès

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4400; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134400 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1441

Abstract

There is an increasing interest in accurately evaluating urban soundscapes to reflect citizens’ subjective perceptions of acoustic comfort. Various indices have been proposed in the literature to achieve this purpose. However, many of these methods necessitate specialized equipment or extensive data collection. This [...] Read more.

There is an increasing interest in accurately evaluating urban soundscapes to reflect citizens’ subjective perceptions of acoustic comfort. Various indices have been proposed in the literature to achieve this purpose. However, many of these methods necessitate specialized equipment or extensive data collection. This study introduces an enhanced predictor for dwelling acoustic comfort, utilizing cost-effective data consisting of a 30-s audio clip and location information. The proposed predictor incorporates two rating systems: a binary evaluation and an acoustic comfort index called ACI. The training and evaluation data are obtained from the “Sons al Balcó” citizen science project. To characterize the sound events, gammatone cepstral coefficients are used for automatic sound event detection with a convolutional neural network. To enhance the predictor’s performance, this study proposes incorporating objective noise levels from public IoT-based wireless acoustic sensor networks, particularly in densely populated areas like Barcelona. The results indicate that adding noise levels from a public network successfully enhances the accuracy of the acoustic comfort prediction for both rating systems, reaching up to 85% accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Industrial Internet of Things: From Theory to Real-World Applications)

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Locations of the Barcelona sound sensor network and the videos collected during the 2021 Sons al Balcó campaign. Full article ">Figure 2
Distribution of the Barcelona sound sensors deployed in 2021 by the predominant noise sources in their locations. Full article ">Figure 3
Subjective Assessment of the Soundscapes in Barcelona (Likert scale). Full article ">Figure 4
Enhanced Dwelling’s Soundscape Quality Estimator (Binary). Full article ">Figure 5
Enhanced Dwelling’s Acoustic Comfort Index Estimator. Full article ">Figure 6
Performance of the nearest sensor-based prediction depending on the maximum distance between sensor and studied location accepted. Full article ">Figure 7
Error distance for the ACI assessment for the ASED, nearest-based and combined approaches. Full article ">Figure 8
Quarterly evolution of the <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> measured in the subset of BCN sound meters network used during this present study that were continuously collecting data from 2017 to 2022. Full article ">

14 pages, 2720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Wearable Resistance Placement on Running Efficiency Assessed by Wearable Sensors: A Pilot Study

by Arunee Promsri, Siriyakorn Deedphimai, Petradda Promthep and Chonthicha Champamuang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4399; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134399 - 7 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1039

Abstract

Wearable resistance training is widely applied to enhance running performance, but how different placements of wearable resistance across various body parts influence running efficiency remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the impacts of wearable resistance placement on running efficiency by comparing five [...] Read more.

Wearable resistance training is widely applied to enhance running performance, but how different placements of wearable resistance across various body parts influence running efficiency remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the impacts of wearable resistance placement on running efficiency by comparing five running conditions: no load, and an additional 10% load of individual body mass on the trunk, forearms, lower legs, and a combination of these areas. Running efficiency was assessed through biomechanical (spatiotemporal, kinematic, and kinetic) variables using acceleration-based wearable sensors placed on the shoes of 15 recreational male runners (20.3 ± 1.23 years) during treadmill running in a randomized order. The main findings indicate distinct effects of different load distributions on specific spatiotemporal variables (contact time, flight time, and flight ratio, p ≤ 0.001) and kinematic variables (footstrike type, p < 0.001). Specifically, adding loads to the lower legs produces effects similar to running with no load: shorter contact time, longer flight time, and a higher flight ratio compared to other load conditions. Moreover, lower leg loads result in a forefoot strike, unlike the midfoot strike seen in other conditions. These findings suggest that lower leg loads enhance running efficiency more than loads on other parts of the body. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications and Development of Intelligent Sensors for Sports, Health, and Medicine)

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12 pages, 780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting the Arousal and Valence Values of Emotional States Using Learned, Predesigned, and Deep Visual Features

by Itaf Omar Joudeh, Ana-Maria Cretu and Stéphane Bouchard

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4398; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134398 - 7 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1177

Abstract

The cognitive state of a person can be categorized using the circumplex model of emotional states, a continuous model of two dimensions: arousal and valence. The purpose of this research is to select a machine learning model(s) to be integrated into a virtual [...] Read more.

The cognitive state of a person can be categorized using the circumplex model of emotional states, a continuous model of two dimensions: arousal and valence. The purpose of this research is to select a machine learning model(s) to be integrated into a virtual reality (VR) system that runs cognitive remediation exercises for people with mental health disorders. As such, the prediction of emotional states is essential to customize treatments for those individuals. We exploit the Remote Collaborative and Affective Interactions (RECOLA) database to predict arousal and valence values using machine learning techniques. RECOLA includes audio, video, and physiological recordings of interactions between human participants. To allow learners to focus on the most relevant data, features are extracted from raw data. Such features can be predesigned, learned, or extracted implicitly using deep learners. Our previous work on video recordings focused on predesigned and learned visual features. In this paper, we extend our work onto deep visual features. Our deep visual features are extracted using the MobileNet-v2 convolutional neural network (CNN) that we previously trained on RECOLA’s video frames of full/half faces. As the final purpose of our work is to integrate our solution into a practical VR application using head-mounted displays, we experimented with half faces as a proof of concept. The extracted deep features were then used to predict arousal and valence values via optimizable ensemble regression. We also fused the extracted visual features with the predesigned visual features and predicted arousal and valence values using the combined feature set. In an attempt to enhance our prediction performance, we further fused the predictions of the optimizable ensemble model with the predictions of the MobileNet-v2 model. After decision fusion, we achieved a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.1140, a Pearson’s correlation coefficient (PCC) of 0.8000, and a concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) of 0.7868 on arousal predictions. We achieved an RMSE of 0.0790, a PCC of 0.7904, and a CCC of 0.7645 on valence predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 10th International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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16 pages, 7866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustic Signal-Based Defect Identification for Directed Energy Deposition-Arc Using Wavelet Time–Frequency Diagrams

by Hui Zhang, Qianru Wu, Wenlai Tang and Jiquan Yang

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4397; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134397 - 7 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1059

Abstract

Several advantages of directed energy deposition-arc (DED-arc) have garnered considerable research attention including high deposition rates and low costs. However, defects such as discontinuity and pores may occur during the manufacturing process. Defect identification is the key to monitoring and quality assessments of [...] Read more.

Several advantages of directed energy deposition-arc (DED-arc) have garnered considerable research attention including high deposition rates and low costs. However, defects such as discontinuity and pores may occur during the manufacturing process. Defect identification is the key to monitoring and quality assessments of the additive manufacturing process. This study proposes a novel acoustic signal-based defect identification method for DED-arc via wavelet time–frequency diagrams. With the continuous wavelet transform, one-dimensional (1D) acoustic signals acquired in situ during manufacturing are converted into two-dimensional (2D) time–frequency diagrams to train, validate, and test the convolutional neural network (CNN) models. In this study, several CNN models were examined and compared, including AlexNet, ResNet-18, VGG-16, and MobileNetV3. The accuracy of the models was 96.35%, 97.92%, 97.01%, and 98.31%, respectively. The findings demonstrate that the energy distribution of normal and abnormal acoustic signals has significant differences in both the time and frequency domains. The proposed method is verified to identify defects effectively in the manufacturing process and advance the identification time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing in Intelligent and Unmanned Additive Manufacturing)

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18 pages, 16925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Modeling and Analysis of Flexible-Joint Robots with Clearance

by Jing Wang, Shisheng Zhou, Jimei Wu, Jiajuan Qing, Tuo Kang and Mingyue Shao

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4396; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134396 - 6 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1290

Abstract

The coupling effects of flexible joints and clearance on the dynamics of a robotic system were investigated. A numerical analysis was undertaken to reveal the coupling effects between flexible joints and clearance. The nonlinear spring-damping model and Coulomb model were applied to characterize [...] Read more.

The coupling effects of flexible joints and clearance on the dynamics of a robotic system were investigated. A numerical analysis was undertaken to reveal the coupling effects between flexible joints and clearance. The nonlinear spring-damping model and Coulomb model were applied to characterize the contact characteristics of the clearance, and a model for the flexible joint was formulated using the equivalent spring theory. An accurate robot model was established based on the clearance and joint flexibility characterization. The dynamic equation of a robot was obtained according to the Newton-Euler method. A comparative analysis was performed to assess the impacts of both the joint action of clearance and flexible joints and varying joint clearance values on the performance of the robot. The results showed that the coupling effects of flexible joints and clearance had a negative impact on the system dynamic performance. The amplitudes of the dynamic responses caused by the clearance are weakened by the flexible joint, but it leads to the lag of the system response. This study served as the theoretical foundation for exploring precise control techniques in robotics research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Robotics)

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