Sociolinguistic Styles

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Figures

List of Tables

Series Editor’s Preface

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Part I: The Concept and Nature of Style

1 The Concept of Style

1.1. Style in Rhetoric

1.2. Style in Stylistics and Semiotics

1.3. Style in Sociolinguistics

2 The Nature of Style

2.1. The Linguistic Meaning of Style: Resources and Mechanisms

2.2. The Social Meaning of Style: Motivations

Part II: Sociolinguistic Models of Style-Shifting

3 Situation-centered Approach

3.1. Social Determinism and Positivism

3.2. The Formality Continuum

3.3. Audio-monitoring: The Universal Factor

3.4. Limitations

4 Audience-centered Approach

4.1. Behaviorism and Social Psychological Theories

4.2. Bakhtin and Dialogism

4.3. The Style Axiom: Audienceship and Responsiveness

4.4. Limitations

5 Context-centered Approach:

5.1. The Context of Situation and Contextualism

5.2. Systemic Functional Model of Language

5.3. Polylectal Grammar

5.4. The Register Axiom

5.5. Limitations

6 Speaker-centered Approach:Speaker Design

6.1. Social Constructionism

6.2. Social Constructionist Sociolinguistics: Persona Management

6.3. Limitations

7 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01

Table 1.1 The three genres of rhetoric.

Table 1.2 The five canons of rhetoric.

Table 1.3 A six-part composition plan from the anonymous Rhetorica Herennium (adapted from Burke 2014c: 23, Table 1.2).

Table 1.4 Typologies of functional styles: examples.

Table 1.5 Arnold’s (1981) functional styles and their communicative function (adapted from Znamenskaya 2004: 126).

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 Typology of variation within the architecture of language according to Coseriu (1969).

Table 2.2 Categories of dialectal variety differentiation (adapted from Gregory and Carroll 1978: 10; Table 1).

Table 2.3 Categories of diatypic variety differentiation (adapted from Gregory and Carroll 1978: 10; Table 2).

Table 2.4 Varieties of language according to Halliday (1978: 35).

Table 2.5 Defining characteristics of registers, genres, and styles.

Table 2.6 Labov’s model of natural narrative.

Table 2.7 Social and regional accent variation in British English: diagnostic sentence «very few cars made it up the long hill» (adapted from Trudgill 1990: 65).

Table 2.8 Labov’s results on attitudes towards and use of non-prevocalic /r/: Upper Middle Class speakers (UMC) in New York City.

Chapter 03

Table 3.1 Linguistic variables and social class in Norwich (Trudgill 1974). Usage of non-standard variants.

Table 3.2 (ng) index by class, style and gender in Norwich (Trudgill 1974). Usage of non-standard variants.

Table 3.3 Usage of copula Be according to race in the Mississippi delta (Wolfram 1971).

Table 3.4 Use of contraction and deletion rules for is by sub-divisions of the Jets and Lames.

Table 3.5 Text used by Labov (1966/2006: 418) for his Passage Reading Style.

Table 3.6 (ng) indexes by social class and style in Norwich (Trudgill 1974). Usage of non-standard variants.

Table 3.7 Variable production and report based on gender in Norwich.

Chapter 04

Table 4.1 Ethnic identifications of Muzel Bryant, Anglo-American Ocracoker, Anglo-American Mainlander, and African-American Mainlander (listening N=101).

Table 4.2 Characteristics of YA and ZB radio stations.

Table 4.3 Percentages of non-standard variants of five sociolinguistic variables in four contexts of Sue’s travel agency talk.

Table 4.4 Percentages of shift in travel assistant’s speech according to change of topic (work to non-work) and change of addressee (highest to lowest class).

Table 4.5 Hierarchy of attributes and audience roles according to their relationship with the speaker.

Chapter 05

Table 5.1 Example of implicational scale of four lects in relation to use of three hypothetical rules

Table 5.2 Implicational scale in Jamaican creole (adapted from DeCamp 1971: 355, Table 1).

Table 5.3 Use of WAS-leveling (default singular) in Anniston, Alabama (adapted from Feagin 1979: 201).

Table 5.4 Implicational scale relationship in Murcia for variables (d) and (s). Source: Hernández-Campoy (2010: 7, Table 7).

Table 5.5 Overview of situation variation, per thousand words. Distribution of features obtained across registers

Table 5.6 Frequency of five economy features and seven elaboration features in the conversations of three socially ranked groups in Britain (per thousand words)

Chapter 06

Table 6.1 Taxonomies of indexical meaning in Labov (1972a), Silverstein (2003, 2004), and Johnstone, Andrus, and Danielson (2006)

Table 6.2 Non-standard postvocalic /s/ forms: percentage of usage in Murcia

Table 6.3 Percentages of usage of American and British features by British pop and rock groups.

Table 6.4 Phonetic variables employed in Hernández-Campoy and Cutillas-Espinosa (2010, 2012b).

Table 6.5 Phonetic variables generally distinguishing South Wales Valleys English and Received Pronunciation.

Table 6.6 Interethnic crossing practices of British-born multiracial teens in the English south midlands of England and London in Rampton (1995).

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle.

Figure 1.2 Jolliffe’s rhetorical framework diagram

Figure 1.3 The Saussurean communicative process according to Rigotti and Greco (2006: 663, Figure 3).

Figure 1.4 The linguistic sign as a two-sided psychological entity according to Saussure (1916/1983: 67).

Figure 1.5 Jakobson’s (1960) functions of language, based on Karl Bühler’s (1934) Organon model.

Figure 1.6 Hierarchy of influence in Jakobson’s (1960) functions of language.

Figure 1.7 Sociolinguistic interface relating stylistic (or intra-speaker) variation with linguistic variation and social (or inter-speaker) variation.

Figure 1.8 Linguistic variation in sociolinguistics.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Coseriu’s (1970); Rona (1970) Sociolinguistic Axes Theory: A↔B (diastratic axis: society; and diaphasic axis: style), C↔D (diatopic axis: geographical space), and E↔F (diachronic axis: time).

Figure 2.2 Hierarchy of institutional lects in a diasystem.

Figure 2.3 Origin and development of slang.

Figure 2.4 Percentages of usage of standard forms by style: Pastons.

Figure 2.5 Process of diffusion of the Chancery standard forms in the Pastons.

Figure 2.6 Diachronic progression of the process of standardization of Castilian Spanish by variable and informant (Group 1: male politicians). Percentages of usage of standard variants (Castilian Spanish forms), ranging from 100% standard to 0% non-standard.

Figure 2.7 Diachronic progression of the process of standardization of Castilian Spanish by variable and informant (Group 2: male non-politicians). Percentages of usage of standard variants (Castilian Spanish forms), ranging from 100% standard to 0% non-standard.

Figure 2.8 Sociolinguistic variation.

Figure 2.9 The social meaning of sociolinguistic behavior.

Figure 2.10 Map of the coast of Massachusetts and Martha’s Vineyard.

Figure 2.11 Percentage of use of standard forms by presenter and audience interlocutors in the four different variables under study

Figure 2.12 Frequency of use of standard forms by radio presenter in broadcasting and in the interview

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 Results for postvocalic /r/ in the New York department stores

Figure 3.2 Social stratification of (ng) in Norwich. Percentages for the non-standard variant [n] found by Trudgill (1974), as represented by

Figure 3.3 Use of postvocalic /r/ by UMC speakers in New York City

Figure 3.4 Results for variable (ng) Norwich correlating with age.

Figure 3.5 Use of negative concord among African American speakers in Detroit correlating with class and gender in Wolfram (1969);

Figure 3.6 The behavior of variable (æ) in the Belfasts areas of Ballymacarrett, The Hammer and Clonard (Milroy 1980), FS = formal speech; CS = Casual speech).

Figure 3.7 Labov’s Decision Tree for stylistic analysis of spontaneous speech in the sociolinguistic interview.

Figure 3.8 Network of modules.

Figure 3.9 Theoretical frameworks of linguistic analysis

Figure 3.10 Saussurean and Chomskyan paradigms with the Langue–Parole and Competence–Performance dichotomies.

Figure 3.11 Results for postvocalic /r/ in the New York City correlating with social class and styles (CS: casual style; FS: formal style; RPS: reading passage style; WLS: word list style; and MPS: minimal pairs style;

Figure 3.12 Results for variable (ng) Norwich correlating with social class and styles (CS: casual style; FS: formal style; RPS: reading passage style; and WLS: word list style; from Trudgill 1974: 92).

Figure 3.13 Usual pattern of indicators in graph representation, as in variable (ɑ:) in Norwich when being correlated with class and style by Trudgill (1974).

Figure 3.14 Hypercorrection observed by Labov in New York City.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 Giles’ model of the interactive processes and factors involved in speakers’ adjustments during face-to-face conversation.

Figure 4.2 Ocracoke in Outer Banks of North Carolina.

Figure 4.3 Centrifugal (from inside outwards) and centripetal (from outside inwards) motions.

Figure 4.4 Occupation profiles of audiences for YA and ZB radio stations; percentage of station’s audience.

Figure 4.5 Scores (in percentages) of T-voicing in intervocalic contexts by four newsreaders on two New Zealand radio stations: YA and ZB.

Figure 4.6 Sue’s convergence on (intervocalic t) voicing to five occupation classes of client; input level taken as Sue’s speech to her own class.

Figure 4.7 Percentages of determiner deletion in seven British daily newspapers: The Times, Guardian, Daily Telegraph, Daily Mail, Daily Express, Daily Mirror, and Sun.

Figure 4.8 The derivation of intra-speaker from inter-speaker variation by way of evaluation.

Figure 4.9 The strength of the effect of audience members. .

Figure 4.10 Inter-speaker and intra-speaker ranges of variation.

Figure 4.11 Preston’s funnel characterizing the strength of different factors influencing variation.

Figure 4.12 Style as response and initiative: complementarity of audience design and referee design.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 The text in context of situation (G: grammar, P: phonology, M: phonetics, L: lexicology and C: collocation)

Figure 5.2 Jamaican post-creole continuum

Figure 5.3 Biber and Finegan’s (1994) model according to Preston (2001a: 283, Figure 16.2).

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Quantitative patterns of relations between style and social variation.

Figure 6.2 The indexical cycle according to Bell (2014: 269, Figure 10.2): processes of creating social meaning in language, where Phases 2–3 constitute the process of enregisterment (Agha 2003, 2006), with Phases 2a and 2b co-occurring.

Figure 6.3 Indexical field of variable (ing) (based on Campbell-Kibler 2007). Black = meanings for the velar variant, gray = meanings for the apical variant.

Figure 6.4 (r) and (t) in The Beatles and The Rolling Stones.

Figure 6.5 Dylan’s vowel space, showing mean vowel positions for all spoken and sung vowels. Monophthongs are represented by points and diphthongs by arrows, with labels next to the tip of the arrow.

Figure 6.6 Andrew’s vowel space, showing mean vowel positions for all spoken and sung vowels. Monophthongs are represented by points and diphthongs by arrows, with labels next to the tip of the arrow.

Figure 6.7 John’s vowel space, showing mean vowel positions for all spoken and sung vowels. Monophthongs are represented by points and diphthongs by arrows, with labels next to the tip of the arrow.

Figure 6.8 Verbatim transcript of a continuous sequence from Frank Hennessy’s radio show reading out a letter from a listener. Sociolinguistic variables are underlined, with the variable itself given above the line. Their values (standard/ non-standard: 0/1) are indicated below the line: (C): a consonant cluster (0/1); (t): the pronunciation of /t/ between vowels (0/1); (r): the pronunciation of /r/ before vowels (0/1); (ou): the pronunciation of the first part of the diphthong in so (0/1); (ng): the pronunciation of the -ing ending as either -ing or -in (0/1); (h): the presence or absence of /h/ at the beginning of a word (0/1); (ai) the pronunciation of the first part of the diphthong in I and -ise (0–3); and (a:) the pronunciation of the vowel in are and ar (0–4); A = Americanized realization and R = phonemically too reduced feature to be scored.

Figure 6.9 Inter-speaker variation: total usage levels for Standard Castilian variants by speaker group (based on data from Hernández-Campoy and Cutillas-Espinosa 2010: 303, Table 3).

Figure 6.10 Intra-speaker variation: President’s scores for Standard Castilian variants in different situations of formality (based on data from Hernández-Campoy and Cutillas-Espinosa 2010: 304, Table 4).

Figure 6.11 Dialect contact situations: President’s scores for Standard Castilian variants in Murcia and Madrid (based on data from Hernández-Campoy and Cutillas-Espinosa 2010: 306, Table 6).

Figure 6.12 President’s scores for Standard Castilian variants in her public appearances (Murcia and Madrid) and in a private interview (based on data from Hernández-Campoy and Cutillas-Espinosa 2013: 87–88, Table 1 and Table 2).

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Representation of the shift from deterministic and system-oriented to social constructionist and speaker-oriented approaches to stylistic variation for linguistic performance, rhetorical stance, and identity projection

Language in Society

GENERAL EDITOR

Peter Trudgill, Chair of English Linguistics, University of Fribourg

ADVISORY EDITORS

J. K. Chambers, Professor of Linguistics, University of Toronto

Ralph Fasold, Professor of Linguistics, Georgetown University

William Labov, Professor of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania

Lesley Milroy, Professor of Linguistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Launched in 1980, Language in Society is now established as probably the premiere series in the broad field of sociolinguistics, dialectology and variation studies. The series includes both textbooks and monographs by Ralph Fasold, Suzanne Romaine, Peter Trudgill, Lesley Milroy, Michael Stubbs, and other leading researchers.

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Sociolinguistic Styles

Juan M. Hernández‐Campoy

This edition first published 2016

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data

Names: Hernández Campoy, Juan Manuel, author.

Title: Sociolinguistic styles / Juan Manuel Hernández-Campoy.

Description: Hoboken, N.J. : Wiley-Blackwell, [2016] | Series: Language in society | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2015043775 (print) | LCCN 2015051359 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118737644 (hardback) | ISBN 9781118737613 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118737736 (Adobe PDF)

Subjects: LCSH: Rhetoric–Social aspects. | Discourse analysis–Social aspects. | Language and logic. | Sociolinguistics. | BISAC: LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES / Linguistics / Sociolinguistics.

Classification: LCC P301.5.S63 H47 2016 (print) | LCC P301.5.S63 (ebook) | DDC 808–dc23

LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015043775

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Diana Ong, Communication Red, 1999 (detail). © 2010 SuperStock

To my parents,

Manuel Hernández-Carrillo

and

Juana Campoy-Gonzálvez,

with eternal gratitude

for having defined my personal style

List of Figures

List of Tables

Series Editor’s Preface

In his famous 1961 book, The Five Clocks, Martin Joos suggested that it was possible to isolate, in spoken English, five styles. These he labeled frozen or static, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate. His work was innovating and very influential; and from the early 1960s onwards there grew up a tradition in sociolinguistics of conceiving of styles as representing varieties of language which are associated with social context, and which differ from other styles in terms of their formality. This means that styles can be ranged on a continuum from very formal (including static, in Joos’s terms) to highly informal or colloquial (casual, intimate). It has been common, for example, to point out that, in English, stylistic differentiation is for the most part indicated